Alcohol

Alcohol is a depressant that affects your vision, coordination, reaction time, multitasking ability, judgment, and decision-making (Short and Long Term). Seventy-five percent of adults in America drink alcohol (Health). Because of the large impact that alcohol consumption has had on America, it has become a hot topic of debate. Specifically, on whether lowering the age at which a person can legally drink would decrease the amount of alcohol abuse by minors. To properly address the issue of underaged drinking in America, the legal drinking age should stay at twenty-one.

If lowered, the amount of alcohol being consumed by persons under twenty-one would increase, causing a rise in alcohol related accidents and death. Origins of Alcohol Ethanol, the alcohol we consume, is made by fermenting and distilling fruits and grains. Alcohol fermentation is a natural process which occurs when yeast converts carbohydrates, such as starch or sugar, into alcohol. An example would be wheat used to create beer, or grapes to produce wine. Most plant matter can be used to produce alcohol.

When an alcoholic beverage is consumed, 20 percent of the alcohol is absorbed in the stomach and 80 percent in the small intestine (Freudenrich). The speed of absorption depends upon the concentration of alcohol in the beverage, gender, weight, and whether your stomach is full or empty; food slows down the absorption of alcohol. Men generally have more muscle mass and less fat then women, so one drink will not affect a man as it would a woman.

A person doesn’t start feeling the effects of alcohol until it is carried through the bloodstream, to the body’s tissues. This process takes about twenty minutes, depending on the amount originally consumed. Once absorbed by the bloodstream, five percent of the alcohol is expelled through the kidneys as urine, five percent through exhalation of the lungs, and the rest is broken down into acetic acid by the liver (Freudenrich). A person becomes “drunk” when an excess of alcohol is consumed and cannot be absorbed by the liver. Throughout history, alcohol has provided a large variety of uses for the human race.

No one knows exactly when alcohol was first used, but intentionally fermented drinks existed as early as 10,000 B. C. (Patrick, 12-13). In ancient Egypt, brewing dates back to the beginning of civilization, where alcohol played an important roll in worship of the gods (Cherrington, vol. 1, 404). Alcoholic beverages were used for pleasure, nutrition, medicine and ritual. In China, alcohol was considered a spiritual food, playing an important role in religious life (Hucker, 28).

“In ancient times people always drank when holding a memorial ceremony, offering sacrifices to gods or their ancestors, pledging resolution before going into battle, celebrating victory, before feuding and official executions, for taking an oath of allegiance, while attending the ceremonies of birth, marriage, reunions, departures, death, and festival banquets” (Fei-Peng, 13). Greeks were the most restrained when it came to alcohol consumption in ancient history. This had to do with their rules stressing moderate drinking, diluting wine with water, and avoiding excess (Austin, 11).

However, intoxication at gatherings and festivals was not uncommon. By 1,700 B. C. , wine making was commonplace, and during the next thousand years wine drinking assumed the same function so commonly found around the world: It was incorporated into religious rituals, it became important in hospitality, it was used for medicinal purposes and it became an integral part of daily meals (Babor, 1986, pp. 2-3). Greek philosopher, Plato, thought wine, in moderation, was beneficial to one’s health and happiness.

With all of these ancient countries prospering, and consuming alcohol for the better, it is difficult to believe that alcohol consumption laws are being abused every day by underaged drinkers. Temperance Movement In the early days of America, alcohol was viewed positively, with the idea that it was to be received with thankfulness. Even toddlers drank alcohol; it was seen as healthful for everyone.

Ironically enough, for over thirty years, those who abstained from alcohol had to pay life insurance rates that were ten percent higher than that for drinkers. Those who held back from alcohol were seen as “thin and watery, and as mentally cranked, in that he repudiated the good creatures of God as found in alcoholic drinks” (Kobler, 26). There was an expectation that abusing alcohol was not acceptable. “Drunkenness was condemned and punished, but only as an abuse of a God-given gift. Drink itself was not looked upon as culpable, any more than food deserved blame for the sin of gluttony. Excess was a personal indiscretion” (Aaron and Musto, 132).

Violations did occur, but for the most part, alcohol abuse was not a major problem, until urbanization. With an increase in poverty and crime in colonial America, came an increase in alcohol abuse. “A sizeable number of Americans for the first time began to drink to excess by themselves. The solo binge was a new pattern of drinking in which periods of abstinence were interspersed every week, month, or season with one to three-day periods of solitary inebriation” (Rorabaugh, 144). This is when people began to search for solutions to drinking problems.

One suggestion came from one of the most influential physicians of the period, Dr. Benjamin Rush. In 1784, Dr. Rush argued that the excessive use of alcohol was injurious to a person’s physical and psychological health (Katcher, 275). Many thought that the only way to prevent drunkenness was to abstain from drinking alcohol completely. With the influence of Rush’s belief, the first temperance association was formed in Connecticut in 1789, and within the next few decades other temperance organizations were formed in eight states (Ashbury, 28-31).

The future of this movement to moderate alcohol seemed bright, but many of it’s leaders overestimated their strength; they expanded their activities and took positions on other moral issues. This just turned into political bickering, and by the early 1820s their movement was stalled. To get out of this standstill, most temperance organizations argued that the only way to prevent drunkenness was to eliminate alcohol consumption completely. While the Temperance Movement began by advocating the temperate, or moderate, use of alcohol, it now said that no one should be permitted to drink any amounts of alcohol (Royce, 40).

They became much more extreme, devoted advocates of their cause. They became prohibitionists. “For decades the American public was flooded with temperance pamphlets, temperance novels, temperance newspapers, temperance sermons, and temperance lectures-the longest sustained and perhaps the largest organized effort at mass communication about a social issue that the country has ever seen” (Room, 22). Interestingly enough, root beer, the carbonated soft drink, was developed by prohibitionists in the hopes that it would replace beer in popularity; that effort was obviously unsuccessful.

Many prohibitionists saw it as their religious duty to encourage temperance, even through politics. Children were even used in the movement to march, sing and exert pressure at polling places. One of the leading organizations for National Prohibition, the Anti-Saloon League, stressed it’s religious character, and anything it did was seen as moral or justified because it was working for God. Decades later, their strong organization and political tactics paid off in the passage of the Eighteenth Amendment to the U. S. Constitution, establishing national prohibition.

A leader of the Anti-Saloon League stated that before it’s passage in Congress, 13,000 business people who supported prohibition were given crucial instructions: We blocked the telegraph wires in Congress for three days. One of our friends sent seventy-five telegrams, each signed differently with the name of one his subordinates. The campaign was successful. Congress surrendered. The first to bear the white flag was Senator Warren Harding of Ohio. He told us frankly he was opposed to the amendment, but since it was apparent from the telegrams that the business world was demanding it he would submerge his own opinion and vote for submission. (Pollard, 107)

For decades prohibition had been advocated as the magical solution to the nation’s poverty, crime, and other indiscretions (Aaron and Musto, 157). However, almost immediately after the Eighteenth Amendment was imposed, alcohol was being made and consumed illegally. Grape juice began to sell as “bricks or blocks of Rhine Wine” along with a warning: “After dissolving the brick in a gallon of water, do not place the liquid in a jug away in the cupboard for twenty days, because then it would turn into wine” (Aaron and Musto, 159). Ironically, American alcohol production and consumption grew during the period of prohibition.

It encouraged high amounts of alcohol consumption in secretive, unregulated ways. “People did not take the trouble to go to a speakeasy, present the password, and pay high prices for very poor quality alcohol simply to have a beer. When people went to speakeasies, they went to get drunk. ” (Zinberg and Fraser, 468). “Removing the alcohol from the norms of everyday society increased drinking problems. Without well-known prescriptions for use and commonly held sanctions against abuse, prohibition drinkers were left almost as defenseless as were the South American Indians in the face of Spanish rum and brandy. ” (Zinberg and Fraser, 470).

Violence and corruption of public officials caused by prohibition only added to the list of problems. It became difficult to convict prohibition violators because public support for the law and its enforcement dramatically weakened. For example, of 7,000 arrests in New York between 1921 and 1923, only twenty-seven resulted in convictions (Lender and Martin, 154). Political views on the law began to shift as it’s ineffectiveness became evident. Even John D. Rockefeller, Jr. , a lifelong abstainer, announced his support for repeal of the eighteenth amendment, because of the widespread problems it caused (Prendergast, 44).

The popular vote for repeal of the eighteenth amendment was three to one, the American people rejected prohibition (Childs, 260-261). It is obvious that alcohol abuse was, and still is, an infinite problem faced by American adults and adolescents. Clearly permanently abstaining from alcohol is a mess as well. The solution, to find a healthy medium, is clear: allow Americans the consumption of alcohol, but restricting the age at which it can be consumed to twenty-one will support alcohol in moderation and promote lawfulness when consuming alcohol.

Underage Alcohol Abuse Alcohol use among teenagers is not uncommon. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine says, by the end of high school, about 75% of adolescents have tried alcohol, and more than half report having been drunk at least once in their life. “Alcohol is involved in more than one-third of the adolescent deaths associated with unintentional injury, homicide, and suicide” (Further and Fredrick). If the drinking age is lowered to 18, youth in this country will start drinking at younger and younger ages.

It will be much easier for 15 to 17 year olds to obtain alcohol via their 18 year old peers in high school (Fell). The abundance of alcohol will cause distractions to students studies as well as create dangers after hours. More accidents are bound to occur, and teens will be less likely to report medical need if they are under the influence, whether it be for fear of getting in trouble or just so drunk that they’re unaware of any sort of problem. A higher drinking age has proven to be beneficial to the health and safety of underaged women.

Adolescent drinking plays a significant role in risky sexual behavior, including unwanted, unintended, and unprotected sexual activity, and sex with multiple partners (Cooper and Orcutt). Such behavior increases the risk for unplanned pregnancy and for contracting sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), including infection with HIV, the virus that causes AIDS (Cooper et al. , 1994). If the drinking age is lowered below twenty-one, adolescents will feel more comfortable drinking more, inadvertently increasing the risk of physical and sexual assault among women (Staley, 1998).

Having alcohol in the body while you’re driving changes your distance and speed perception by making you see things farther or closer than they really are, or makes you feel like you’re driving the speed limit when you’re really speeding (Short and Long Term). Every day in America, another 27 people die as a result of drunk driving crashes (An Examination). Sixty percent of all teen deaths in car accidents are alcohol related, and, in a single year, 522 children under the age of 14 were arrested for driving while intoxicated (Teenage Drunk Driving).

“During the 1980s, the nation saw a reduction in alcohol-related fatal crashes, directly attributable to raising the legal minimum age for the sale and public possession of alcohol to age 21” (Statement) It is estimated that minimum drinking age laws have prevented nearly 25,000 fatalities since 1975: Fig. 1. Cumulative Estimated Number of Young Lives Saved by Minimum Drinking Age Laws, 1975-2007 (Traffic Safety Facts, Young Drivers, 2006). However, underaged drinking is still a problem.

High school teens drive after drinking about 2.4 million times a month (Teen Drinking and Driving). These numbers will only increase if the drinking age is lowered, because alcohol will be more readily available to adolescents, and misuse will be deadly. Blood alcohol content is the percentage of alcohol in the blood. All 50 states require that the legal blood alcohol content remain at . 08% or less when driving a motor vehicle. This means that . 08% of a person’s blood, by volume, is alcohol (The Code).

Teenage boys with a Blood Alcohol level of . 05%-.10% are 18 times more likely to suffer a single vehicle crash than a teenager with no alcohol in the bloodstream (Teenage Drunk Driving). That’s two beers in the course of one hour. Do you really want alcohol consumption to be legal for eighteen year olds? The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration Report of 1995 showed that raising the drinking age to twenty-one reduced teen traffic accidents significantly, and brought a thirteen percent decrease in fatal traffic accidents for all ages. Alcohol abuse has been a rising problem for the past three decades.

With continued exposure, the human body must adapt to increase the tolerance of alcohol. This involves an increase in the amount of the liver’s enzymes that are used to break down alcohol, and an increase in brain activity and nervous-system neurons (Freudenrich). These adaptations negatively change a person’s behavior. With long-term alcohol exposure, the body does become more efficient at eliminating alcohol in the blood, but this also means that the person must drink more alcohol to experience the same effects as before, which leads to more drinking and contributes to addiction.

Alcohol addiction, or alcoholism, is a chronic disease in which a person becomes physically dependent on alcohol (Watson). Not everyone who drinks alcohol heavily is considered an alcoholic. Those who drink enough to affect their family or job responsibilities, or drive while intoxicated, abuse alcohol, but they do not necessarily have a dependence on it. Alcoholics feel the need to drink, similarly to the way that most people feel the need to eat. There are many social factors that can cause one to develop alcoholism. Some include: peer pressure, advertising, and the environment.

Young people are extremely susceptible to peer pressure. Too many teenagers think it is acceptable to drink “because their friends are doing it. ” Adolescents who drink alcohol experience problems with brain development and learning. The National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism says that people who begin drinking before age fifteen are four times more likely to develop alcohol dependence at some time in their lives compared to those who have their first drink at age twenty or older. Lowering the drinking age would only create more alcohol addiction among adolescents.

Alcohol, in the long-term, disrupts normal brain development; causes permanent liver damage; kills brain cells, destroys organs; and causes heart problems such as heart attack, disease and stroke (Short and Long Term). The higher the legal drinking age is, the less likely alcohol will be a factor in a young adults death, and the more longevity of the average persons life. Reaffirming the Legal Drinking Age Believe it or not, there are exceptions to the law that makes it illegal for anyone under the age of twenty-one to consume alcohol.

In twenty-nine states, it’s legal for a minor to drink alcohol on private, non alcohol-selling premises, with parental consent, and eleven states allow for minors to have alcohol on alcohol-selling premises, with parental approval (ProCon. org). These exceptions to the law are extremely flawed. Alcohol affects minors in a way that is different to adults consuming alcohol. It’s legal for a minor to drink alcohol on private property with parental consent. What does that say if the parents are drunk themselves?

Parents under the influence would not give proper supervision to the minors drinking alcohol, and, therefore, greatly increase the risk of an accident. This exception needs to be abolished, because adolescents consuming alcohol has proven negative short-term and long-term consequences. Underage drinking is a leading contributor to death from injuries, which are the main cause of death for people under age twenty-one. “Annually, about 5,000 people under age 21 die from alcohol-related injuries involving underage drinking” (The Surgeon, 10).

About 1,600 deaths result from homicides and 300 from suicides (Teen Drinking and Driving). If adolescents are given permission by parents to drink alcohol, then they will assume that they can get away with alcohol consumption in their homes when their parents are not around. This can lead to dangerous parties with underaged alcohol consumption. Many rights have different ages of initiation. A person can obtain a hunting license at age twelve, driver’s license at age sixteen, vote and serve in the military at eighteen, serve in the U. S.

House of Representatives at age twenty-five and in the U. S. Senate at age thirty and run for President at age thirty-five (Wagenaar and Toomey). “The minimum age of initiation is based on the specific behavior involved and must take into account the dangers and benefits of that behavior at a given age” (Wagenaar and Toomey). The policy for alcohol consumption at age twenty-one takes into account the fact that underage drinking is related to numerous serious problems, including injuries and deaths resulting from car crashes, suicide, homicide, assault, drowning and recreational injuries.

One argument for lowering the legal drinking age is that nineteen and twenty year-olds are drinking anyway, so why not legalize it so they will drink in controlled settings? Research shows that about half of drivers arrested for driving while intoxicated (DWI) or killed as drinking drivers in traffic crashes, did their drinking at licensed establishments (An Examination). Most other foreign countries have a lower drinking age than America. It is argued that alcohol is a bigger part of the European family than it is part of the American family.

Many have argued that a high drinking age forces young people to drink without adult supervision, on the contrary making it legal for eighteen to twenty year-olds to drink alcohol causes worse problems because of the abundance of drinking that takes place. For example, in New Zealand, the drinking age was lowered from twenty to eighteen in 1999. After the drinking age was lowered to eighteen, there was a significant increase in traffic crashes among youth affected by the law change (Kypri et al., 126-131).

About half of the European countries have intoxication rates among young people that are higher than the intoxication rates in the United States (Comparison). This evidence proves that younger drinking ages are hazardous to the health of adolescents, which, is why the American minimum legal drinking age should stay at twenty-one. Research has proven that keeping the age at which one can legally consume alcohol at twenty-one is best for American’s and their well being.

In ancient times, alcohol in moderation was seen as a way of life, but modern day has consistently shown the need for regulation of alcoholic drinking. The problem with identifying the optimum minimum drinking age, to reduce alcohol abuse, involves many issues of freedom, responsibility, religion, politics and many other realms of life (Alcohol). America’s past has shown that making the consumption of alcohol illegal to everyone is a disaster. Keeping the legal drinking age at twenty-one is the best solution, because it promotes healthier drinking habits for everyone, especially the future’s adults.

Keeping the legal age at twenty-one reduces the amount of death and injury; sexually transmitted diseases and abuse; and addiction. The public should be informed on the risks and negative effects to one’s health when drinking too much alcohol. Keep in mind the harmful short- and long-term affects alcohol has on the body. The next time you decide to sit down and have a drink, or two, or three, remember the lasting harmful effects that will ensue, especially if your still growing and developing.

Tom has been arrested twice for Driving Under the Influence or DUI of alcohol, and in his most recent arrest, he has also been charged with assault of a law enforcement officer which is specifically a display of seemingly violent behavior since assault involves physical attack or onslaught.

Tom’s blood alcohol level or BAL taken when he was arrested was 0.18 which was identified as the blood level for illegal intoxication (Hamilton, 2007). Aside from Tom’s BAL as indicator of his intoxication, he also admitted to forgetting what had transpired, his pupils were dilated, his speech was mildly impaired, and he displayed lethargic behavior. Assessing Tom’s situation was taken under the context of his claim that the case only happens during social gatherings with family and friends, not motivated by problems and such.

Considering the circumstances presented, I would have to say that Tom is an alcohol abuser based on the guidelines set by The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders IV. An alcohol abuser is described as an individual who drinks alcohol in a manner that is harmful or hazardous to one’s health. (Buddy, 2008)

Since Tom’s memory, speech, and physical functioning was affected by his high levels of alcohol intake, he fits into the category of an alcohol abuser. Another characteristic established and attributed to alcohol abusers include the non-dependence on alcohol.

Alcohol abusers do not show strong cravings or dependence toward drinking. (“What is Alcohol Abuse?,” 2003) Basing it on Tom’s claim of having been drinking only after the holidays and during social gatherings, it clearly reveals that he does not exhibit strong cravings and dependence toward alcohol intoxication.

Other characteristics of alcohol abusers that might be exhibited during a year-round observation includes recurrent apprehension for being caught due to reasons pertaining to alcohol, and other offenses that are fueled by alcohol intoxication (ex. assault, etc.), and drinking without control or setting limitations despite having legal problems (ex. DUI arrests, etc.) in the past that were related to alcohol intoxication. (“What is Alcohol Abuse?,” 2003)

Aside from the standards or guidelines that determines between alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence, there are other standards established over the years that are used to categorize drinking patterns or problems – specifically, Type I and Type II alcoholism, and Type A and B alcoholism.

Type I alcoholism is attributed to alcoholism for both the male and female populations that occurs in the latter ages of life with noticeably less serious effects or implications, specifically with actions or behaviors that are related to anti-social behavior or misdemeanor. Type II alcoholism on the other hand, is isolated to the male population that starts at an early age with serious effects and implications, particularly when it comes to the display of anti-social behavior or misdemeanor. (Johnson, 1996)

Type A and Type B alcoholism are based on standards or guidelines that relate the magnitude or gravity of alcoholism to an individuals childhood background, time of use, dependence on alcohol, use of illegal drugs, and the efficiency of treatment.

Alcoholics under Type A are those who started drinking in the latter part of their lives, with no known or minor emotional or psychological problems in their childhood, lesser dependence on alcohol and problems or issues that are related to intoxication. On the other hand, alcoholics under Type B are those who have experienced emotional or psychological problems in their younger years, have family members who are also alcoholic, greatly dependent on alcohol, and more alcohol-related problems. (Babor, et. al., 1992)

Based on the above descriptions of Type I and Type II, and Type A and Type B alcoholism, Tom is more likely to be categorized as an alcohol abuser under Type II and Type B in progress.

This is supported by the fact that Tom is starting to follow a pattern of alcoholism that leads him to become publicly arrested for being illegally intoxicated. Moreover, Tom has already displayed violent behavior towards a law enforcement officer, which he claims he does not recall. Since he was already arrested in the past for a DUI, and he was arrested again for the same offense, he refuses to acknowledge his drinking problem and the harmful effects that it poses to his health and safety as well as the safety of other people.

2. Tom mentioned that he does not remember anything that happened while he was intoxicated, which obviously means that his being drunk is affecting his memory. Moreover, he displays mild speech impairment as well as lethargic behavior or demeanor.

The implications of such admissions and overt behavior lead to the conjecture that there is something wrong with Tom, particularly the functioning of his Central Nervous System or CNS. The CNS is composed of an individual’s brain, spinal column, and nerves or neurons. In general, drinking alcohol of any amount affects the CNS. However, it is the amount of alcohol which determines how strong or overpowering its effect would be to the physical and cognitive functioning of a human being.  (Dunlap, N.D.)

Naturally, when an individual drinks too much alcohol, its effects would also be greater on the functioning of his CNS. Since the CNS is capable of handling the senses and the impulses which governs an individual’s thoughts and actions. As an individual continues to drink alcohol, the CNS also continues to depreciate causing irreversible or irreparable damage to an individual’s CNS functioning.

Apparently, the content of alcohol which goes directly to an individual’s CNS, blocks out the circulation of oxygen to and from the brain which causes a temporary blackout blurring or blocking one’s memory. Once the alcohol dissipates from the body, the circulation of oxygen in the brain normalizes, as well as an individual’s memory. This means that once an individual becomes a habitual drinker, his memory as governed by the functioning of his brain, and his impulses or senses as managed by his nerves and neurons, become permanently damaged by alcohol. (Dunlap, N.D.)

The kind of behavior displayed by Tom is clear signs of CNS impairments or disabilities caused by his intake of alcohol. For instance, Cerebellar Atrophy is a condition associated to a part of the brain called the cerebellum, wherein an individual’s intake of alcohol causes an imbalance or disturbance in one’s muscle coordination. Cerebellar Atrophy will affect an individual’s balance as well as walking movements.

This particular CNS condition explains why Tom’s actions or movements are lethargic or sluggish since he had trouble balancing, walking, or moving at a normal pace. Another condition related to alcohol and the CNS is the Korsakoff’s Amnesic Syndrome. This particular syndrome has something to do with an individual’s memory. If an individual develops high dependency on alcohol and takes in alcohol that is more than the amount of normal intake, contracting Korsakoff’s Amnesic Syndrome will lead to losses in short-term memory. (“Alcohol Related Brain Impairment,” 2008)

One factor which affects the length of time by which alcohol lingers inside the body, therefore, shortening or prolonging the harmful and incapacitating effects of alcohol to an individuals CNS is his metabolism. Metabolism is a process that occurs within the body which converts substances and other chemical compounds that are readily excreted from the human body.

The process constitutes the contribution of the liver in the oxidization process which normalizes the amount of oxygen in the blood stream, including the brain. If the oxidization process is normal, then the rate of an individual’s return to consciousness is normal.

However, the rate of the oxidization process as well as the metabolizing enzymes found in the liver is greatly affected by alcohol. Large amounts of alcohol intake will lead to the damage of an individual’s liver which will consequently influence metabolism rate, making it difficult for the liver to dissipate alcohol from the human body prolonging the effects of alcohol to an individual’s brain functioning. (“Alcohol and The Human Body,” N.D.)

Since the effect of Tom’s alcohol intake was observable prior to his arrest which motivated a DUI charge until the time that he was apprehended, displaying bouts of memory loss, speech impairment, and lethargy, this means that the rate of his metabolism is not capable of flushing out alcohol from his system and normalizing his bodily functions through immediate oxidization.

From this, we learn that Tom is an alcoholic who have been drinking alcohol either for a long time or in large amounts which is enough to interfere with his metabolism.

Tom’s stated case or situation and gathered information pertaining to the simultaneous intake of certain drugs such as Marijuana, Valium and other types of downers, and alcohol will be used to identify whether he used downers along with alcohol or not. Again, observable behaviors that may be utilized to answer such inquiry include his sudden loss of short-term memory, the dilation of his pupils, mild speech impairment, and lethargic behavior or demeanor.

First, we need to understand the results or effects of drinking downers along with alcohol, differentiating it from the symptoms of alcoholism alone. Downers or depressants are intended for decreasing brain functioning or activity within the individual’s CNS in order to ease anxieties, worries, tensions, stresses, and such.

Downers or depressants are appropriately prescribed for individuals who need to calm down as a means of moderating psychological tension. Since the intake of alcohol seems to display similarities to the effects of downers, the intake of alcohol and downers or depressants at the same time magnifies the effects or results of each when taken separately.

The drinking age in the United States can be considered as a controversial issue because people possess a dubious attitude in legalities of drinking age. In 1980 the minimum age of drinking in the United States was raised from 18 to 21.

The intent was to reduce the consumption rates of alcohols and drunken driving among young adults. Age-21 law was implemented at that time and the sale of alcohol to the underage was strictly prohibited (Wiseto Social Issues).

These laws are strictly implemented but teenagers are continuing to buy alcohol and drink illegally with fake identification cards. The law is implemented in the United States but it hasn’t stopped underage individuals to stop drinking. Researches and many individuals have stressed on the fact that drinking age must be lowered to 18 in the United States. In this paper we will discuss the arguments that are in favor of lowering the age limit from 21 to 18.

Young adults should be allowed to drink in controlled environments like pubs, official functions, taverns etc. Their legal drinking age must be lowered to 19 or 18 and through controlled environment the phenomenon of responsible drinking can be taught. Role modeling and educational programs must be initiated and through these programs a sensible drinking behavior can be expected from young adults.

There are many factors like seat belt and air bag usage, education concerning drink oriented programs etc that are responsible for driving problems and accidents during driving. Purchase age is not always responsible for driving problems and accidents during driving.

An individual who is 18 years old in America possess the right to marry, the right to vote etc. That is the reason why drinking age must be lowered to 18 because an 18 year old individual is considered to be an adult in United States because 18 is the legal age of adulthood in United States. Dan Levine stresses on the point that an 18 year old individual can serve the military then why he or she cannot drink. Dan Levine states that “If you can toss a grenade, you should certainly be able to toss back a shot of tequila” (Wiseto Social Issues).

People who are 18 years old must be legally allowed to drink and buy alcohol because this would reduce the element of binge drinking (Wechsler and Wuethrich).

Through this approach teenagers would not break the law and this would indulge them in adult beverage. The legal age of drinking in every country except United States is 18 or younger. Every year millions of dollars are spent on twenty one year old drinking law and this law is promoted and enforced by the government (Kirk) that could be saved.

A Michigan research suggests that in the year 2006, 72.2% of the twelfth graders were reported to drink alcohol at some point in time in their lives. The National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse claimed that the 20% of the alcohol revenues come from underage drinking.  Similarly, they added that the amount of alcohol consumed individuals of 21 years and above have remained constant for about forty years (Aretha).

In the United States most of the teenagers consume alcohol for the sole purpose of getting drunk. It must be used as a compliment to a meal but teenagers don’t follow this attribute of alcohol. Binge drinking in the United States is getting famous and people are adopting this dangerous habit in which they have unsupervised environments which can be a deadly problem for these young adults.

The standards that are set for drinking in the United States have not stopped teenagers from drinking alcohol. Alcohol misuse in the country shows increasing trends and researchers suggest that out of four nearly one full time medical student nationwide met the medical threshold for substance abuse (Brown).

Many people in the United States believe that lowering the drinking age is not a viable option because it would actually result in drunken driving fatalities. This might be considered as a truth because a huge number of people are killed in United States because of drunk drivers but United States claims that it has the safest roads in the world. Moreover, 69% of the accidents are from individual who are 21 or above (Merino).

Three days ago, i attended the burial ceremony of my best friend. Not only do we do everything together, we have become family.

Our parents were mates in college so the legacy continued with the children. We went to the same preschool, high school and as we planned it, we went to the same university. Jack did not die of any sickness neither was he murdered – he, like many Americans, lost his life in a highway accident as a result of drunk driving.

In this essay, I will be making an exposition into alcohol abuse and the problems that come with it. I will also explain the extent to which this vice has eaten up into our lives as a nation.

Furthermore, I will examine the major alcohol laws in America and probing into if these laws have actually helped in curbing the problems associated with alcohol use. I will also be making a comparison of the DUI laws in each state and how this directly or indirectly tells on the extent in which people abuse alcohol in these states. Finally, I will be using Las Vegas as a point of reference for alcohol abuse – the DUI laws that exist in the state, the people’s disposition towards alcohol use and the effect that this lifestyle has on the people of the state.

For the purpose of clarity of this essay, it will suffice to make a conceptual definition of the major terms that will be used in this essay. Alcohol abuse can be defined as the act that involves the use of alcohol in an immoderate manner turning into an unhealthy habit. Alcohol abuse is not the intake of alcohol but the intake of alcohol everyday or excessively at a time.

Many people confuse alcohol abuse to alcoholism. Alcohol abuse as an act is less severe to alcoholism. Although both of them are alcohol disorders, alcoholism is an extreme form of alcohol intake that leads a person to alcohol dependence – a state where an individual develops unusual cravings for alcohol, uncontrollable consumption of alcohol, physical dependence on alcohol to feel alright and tolerance.

Alcohol abuse as an act is typified when an individual who is under the influence of alcohol is involved in some life threatening activities like driving and other activities that pose a threat on the life of the individual and people around him/her.

The term DUI simply put is an acronym for Driving Under the Influence of Alcohol. In States in America, DUI is an alcohol laws that is set as a way of reducing casualties of highway accidents.

This is determined by a test done on the blood of the person accused of the DUI offence. Although every state has a form of DUI laws that seek to keep alcohol consumers in check, the intensity of this law differ from one state to another. While some states have stricter and almost non-tolerant DUI laws, the DUI laws in other states are less strict and tolerant.

“The 2001 survey shows 25 million (one in ten) Americans surveyed reported driving under the influence of alcohol. This report is nearly three million more than the previous year. Among young adults age 18 to 25 years, almost 23% drove under the influence of alcohol” (Drugs-rehabs.org, 2002).

Alcohol abuse in America is not an individual problem but a national one. In America, alcohol remains the number 1 drug problem we face. According to statistics gotten from a study made in 2000, an average American consumes over 25 gallons of beer, 2 gallons of wine and 1.5 gallons of distilled spirits every year (Drugs-rehabs.org, 2002).

Apart from this, it was discovered that The American government spends over $100 million in healthcare on alcohol and alcohol related problems. Perhaps the most appalling of these statistics is the fact that over 15 million people are dependent on alcohol and of these number, 500 000 fall between the ages of 9 and 12.

Alcohol has made a nuisance of many families in America. As statistics have it that three out of four of cases of spouse violent victim incidents happened as a result of alcohol use/abuse by the offender.  Apart from this, it is reported that four in ten criminal offenders blame alcohol as reason for their violent behaviour. The younger generation are not excluded from this madness. In the same report, it is alleged that students in America spend over $5.5 billion on alcohol.

This accounts for double of what they spend on beverages books and milk combined.  In addition to this, it was reported in a survey done in 200 that about 7 million persons between the ages of 12 to 20 was an excessive drinker (drug-rehab.org, 2002). With the death toll statistics by alcohol abuse rising each year, we are faced with a problem that we ourselves caused with our very own hands. We have become a prisoner of our own decisions and every day, someone somewhere in America has to pay the price.

Alcohol has been woven into the fibres of our lives. Everyday, someone somewhere is being lured into the population of alcohol consumers. “Each year, a typical young person in the United States is inundated with more than 1,000 commercials for beer and wine coolers and several thousand fictional drinking incidents on television” (drug-rehab.org, 2002).

 With the society being infused with this unhealthy habit, the family is the first contact of a victim to alcohol usage. According to drug-rehab.org, about 43% of Americans have been exposed to alcoholism in their families while growing up so they grow up consuming alcohol.

Nowadays, it is very amusing that not only the adults are into drinking but surprisingly, teenagers or youngsters are already exposed to it and unfortunately become alcoholic in a very young age.

There are about 74% of youngsters who try alcohol drinking more often (see Facts about underage drinking and statistics on teen drinking). Drinking alcohol beverages with moderation is advisable but excessive drinking is not. When you say alcoholism, it is a compulsive habitual excessive use of alcohol drinks.

It is not the same as drunkenness, which may be habitual but is not compulsive (Leigh 2002). Alcoholism becomes a chronic condition; it should not be confused with acute alcoholic poisoning, which is the sudden poisoning of the body by alcohol.

Underage drinking is one of the major dilemmas which our society is presently facing. Drinking in an early age can possibly make the youngsters become alcoholic in the future and become addicted to drinking.

On the other hand, many crimes and accidents happen because of excessive alcohol drinking. However, not all crimes are the result of alcohol intake but most likely, crimes happened because of excessive drinking of alcohol. True or false? In large amounts, alcohol is a depressant; in small amounts, it is a stimulant.

False. Small doses of “spirits” may indeed, enliven a drinker, but they do so by slowing activity in brain centers that control judgment and inhibitions. Alcohol facilitates urges that the individual might otherwise resist by focusing attention on the immediate situation and away from future consequences (Steele & Josephs 2000).

If provoked, people under alcohol’s influence respond more aggressively than usual. If asked to help, people under alcohol’s influence respond more helpfully than usual. In everyday life, alcohol disinhibits both harmful tendencies, as when sexually coercive college men try to disinhibit their dates by getting them to drink (Mosher & Anderson 1999), and helpful tendencies, as when restaurant patrons tip more when tipsy (Lynn1999).

Thus, alcohol makes us more aggressive or helpful—or self-disclosing or sexually daring—when such tendencies are present. Whatever urges you feel when sober, you are more likely to act upon if intoxicated.

Low doses of alcohol relax the drinker by slowing sympathetic nervous system activity. With larger doses, alcohol can become a staggering problem: Reactions slow, speech slurs, and skilled performance deteriorates. These physical effects, combined with the lowering of inhibitions, contribute to alcohol’s worst consequences—in America, the more than 100, 000 lives claimed annually in alcohol-related car accidents and violent crime (Lord 2001).

Thesis Statement: This paper scrutinizes about alcohol drinking and who are involved to it; thus, be aware of the effects of alcohol to our health and into our society.

II. Discussion

Drinking alcoholic beverages moderately can stimulate our system however too much and excessive intake might incur deterioration of our memory. Alcohol has an intriguing effect on memory. It impairs neither short-term recall for what just happened nor existing long-term memories. Rather, it disrupts the processing of recent experiences into long-term memories.

Thus, the day after being intoxicated, heavy drinkers may not recall whom they met or what they said or did the night before. This memory blackout stems partly from an inability to transfer memories from the intoxicated to the sober state (Eich, 2000). Blackouts after drinking may also result from alcohol’s suppression of REM sleep.

Alcohol has another intriguing effect on consciousness: It reduces self-awareness. Compared with people who feel good about themselves, those who want to suppress their awareness of failures or shortcomings are more likely to drink. The Nazi doctors who selected “unfit” inmates for the gas chambers often did so while drunk, or got drunk afterwards (Lifton 1999).

As with other psychoactive drugs, alcohol’s behavioral effects stem not only from its alteration of brain chemistry but also from the user’s expectations. Many studies have found than when people believe that alcohol affects social behavior in certain ways, and believe, rightly or wrongly, that they have been drinking alcohol; they will behave accordingly (Leigh 2002).

For example, alcohol per se has some effect on sexual arousal, by decreasing cognitive inhibitions (Crow & George 1999). But people become even more responsive to sexual stimuli if they believe alcohol promotes arousal and believe they have been drinking. From their view of research, Jay Hull and Charles Bond concluded (2001) that for some people alcohol serves “as an excuse to become sexually aroused.”

Consider one such experiment by David Abrams and Terence Wilson. They gave Rutgers University men who volunteered for a study on “alcohol and sexual stimuli” either an alcoholic or a nonalcoholic drink. (Both drinks had a strong taste that masked any alcohol.) In each group, half the subjects thought they were drinking alcohol and half thought they were not.

Regardless of what they drank, after being shown an erotic movie clip, the men who thought they had consumed alcohol were morel likely to report having strong sexual fantasies and feeling guilt-free. Thus, being able to attribute their sexual responses to alcohol released their inhibitions—whether they actually had drunk alcohol or not. This illustrates an important principle: A drug’s psychological effects are powerfully influenced by the user’s psychological state.

A. Serves as depressant

The most widely used drug in the depressant class is alcohol. You may be surprised to see alcohol listed as a depressant because you probably have heard someone say that “a few beers loosen me up and make me have a good time.”

Depressants are drugs that have a general sedative effect on the central nervous system, and alcohol clearly has the effect. Initially, alcohol reduces a person’s inhibitions through action on the brain stem. Continued drinking, however, affects higher brain centers in the cortex and leads to reduced alertness. Impaired motor functioning, and slowed reaction times. Higher doses can produce unconsciousness and even death.

is a major problem for society, costing billions of dollars annually in medical care, insurance costs, job loss, tax loss, and welfare costs, as well as the loss of priceless human life and other human miseries it produces. For example, one half of fatal automobile accidents involve a driver who is intoxicated (World Health Organization 2001).

People drink alcohol for a variety of reasons, but principal goals are to achieve another state of consciousness, to relax, to forget one’s worries, to enjoy the high that alcohol initially provides. As tolerance develops, the individual must drink more to achieve the same effect. Thus, it is easy to progress from use to abuse. Dependency on the drug is known as alcoholism, a condition that affects an estimated 12 to 15 million Americans.

For many years, alcoholism has been viewed in the context of a disease model, emphasizing the effects of the drug on physiological processes. Recently, the pendulum has swung toward psychological theories that emphasize processes such as learning, motivation, and self-awareness to explain how drinking problems are initiated and how they are maintained.

Current research also recognizes that there is more than one kind of alcoholic, and studies are under way to differentiate these groups by cause (Conrad 2001). Obviously, such a differentiation would have an important impact on the development of more effective treatment.

B. My Analysis

Based on my understanding, experienced, and my personal research, alcoholism is a serious public health problem. It afflicts millions of people, including adults and teenagers from all types of social groups. Why people become alcoholics is not clearly understood; alcoholism can stem from emotional immaturity, insecurity, nervous tension, loneliness, or depression. Physiological causes of alcoholism, if any, have not been determined. Physicians generally consider alcoholism an addiction.

Personally, I occasionally take alcoholic beverages and it usually happens when I attend to parties or any special occasions but I drink moderately because I don’t want alcohol rule my life but I want to be the ruler of myself. The way I see it, too much drinking can affect many organs and systems of the body.

It irritates the lining of the stomach and pancreas, causing inflammation, tenderness, and ulcerlike lesions. I have read to some articles too that heavy consumption of alcohol inhibits the absorption of proteins, nutrients, and vitamins from the small intestine and this can cause chronic malnutrition. I do not want these things happen to me.

III. Conclusion

In conclusion, our government should pay attention to this increasing and alarming dilemma which the teenagers are facing. One result of continued, excessive drinking is the development of tolerance. The cells of the nervous system become more tolerant of alcohol, and larger quantities must be consumed to produce intoxication.

When consumption is discontinued, a severe physical reaction, called alcohol withdrawal syndrome, may occur. Twelve to 48 hours after the last drink, the person may experience nausea, vomiting, profuse sweating, tremors, insomnia, and hallucinations. Forty-eight to 96 hours later, the person may experience delirium tremens, a disorder of the nervous system.

Reference:

Conrad, Barnaby. Time is All We have: Four Weeks at the Betty Ford Center (Arbos House, 2001).

Eich, J.E. (The cue-dependent nature of state-dependent retrieval. Memory and Cognition, 8, 157-173, 2000

Leigh, B.C. In search of the seven dwarves: Issues of measurement and meaning of alcohol expectancy research. Psychological Bulletin, 105, 361-373, 2002.

Lifton, R.J. The Nazi doctors. New York: Basic Books. (p.168), 1999

Lord, L.J.  Coming to grips with alcoholism. U.S. News and World report, pp. 56-63, 2001

Lynn, M. The effects of alcohol consumption on restaurant tipping. Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 404-408, 1999

Mosher, D.L., & Anderson, R.D. Macho personality, sexual aggression, and reactions to guided imagery of realistic rape. Journal of research in Personality, 20, 77-94, 1999

Steele, C.M., & Josephs, R.A. Alcohol myopia: Its prized and dangerous effects. American Psychologist, 45, 921-933, 2000

World Health Organization. The influence of alcohol and drugs on driving. Albany, NY: WHO Publication Centre, 2001

Alcohol abuse in college students is an important public health concern, especially in today’s media-oriented era. Nearly every day we hear about new pharmaceuticals, drug clubs, HIV and aids, and the effects of alcohol abuse, and most of us have some personal experiences with this issue: through family, friends, or co-workers (Ksir et al., 2006).

College life is a period of achieving independence, experimentation, and taking risks. A crucial type of experimentation associated with college students is the alcohol use and abuse. One of the many challenges that college students face is the decision about whether to use alcohol or not. A lot of normal students experiment with alcohol; however, many college students progress past experimentation and become alcohol abusers. Alcohol abuse does develop problems and that substantially affect college students’ activities and their future adult lives.

This paper provides a deeper understanding of the issue of alcohol abuse particularly in college students and examines their collegiate drinking experiences in relation to family backgrounds.

Review of Related Literature

Most college students are exposed to substances such as alcohol and marijuana at some point in their young lives and subsequently, make decisions about their use of them. One important source of information on the prevalence of adolescents alcohol use comes from the Monitoring the Future National Results on Adolescent Drug Use: Overview of Findings, 2002 (MTF) study (Johnston et al, 2003).

MTF is a longitudinal research project that has consistently collected data on the reported use of substances in national samples of adolescents since 1975, and the data from the MTF provide a reasonable picture of the level of substance use for adolescents across the United States. According to this study, the most frequently reported drugs used by adolescents in each grade were alcohol. The data on lifetime use provide an estimate of the number of adolescents who have experimented with a particular substance. Alcohol drinking was reported as being the most used substance across all adolescents in the sample.

For example, more than 70% of college students reported having used alcohol in their lifetime, and almost 50% reported using alcohol in the past month. The above data clearly indicate that many college students report an experimental use (Johnston et al, 2003).

An emerging body of research on children of alcoholics documents persistent negative consequences of parental alcohol abuse on drinking. A majority of existing of these studies are limited by their focus on families who seek treatment or who come to the attention of the health and legal systems, thus neglecting other children of alcoholics who may not have behavioral, emotional, or substance abuse problems (Russell et. al, 1985).

The literature on children of alcoholics is further limited by the fact that there has been very little research on collegiate children of alcoholics, a group that has been academically successful despite any negative effects of family alcohol abuse. Yet there may be a tendency for children of alcoholics to begin problem drinking in late adolescence, the age at which most students begin college.

Indeed, Pandina and Johnson’s (1989) longitudinal research on the general population of New Jersey adolescents (ages 12-21) suggested that the negative effects of an alcoholic family on one’s own drinking may not emerge until late adolescence (18-21).

This tendency might be intensified on entering the college environment, where academic pressures can be severe, where adolescents are struggling with the development of adult identity, and where alcohol use is often a prominent feature of social occasions. Yet despite an extensive literature on alcohol use among college students in general, only few studies have attempted to examine the approximate size, drinking patterns, or alcohol-related problems of collegiate children of alcoholics.

The dangers of drinking and driving are now well known, so that it may be considered self-evident that drinking and flying are also incompatible. However, aviation is very unforgiving of mistakes and the complexity of powered flight far exceeds that of road transport.

Slight and subtle errors on the part of an intoxicated pilot are thus potentially far more serious than for the intoxicated driver, and can have devastating consequences. Because of this, and despite the relative rarity of aviation accidents, safeguards to prevent drinking and flying need to be much more stringent than those employed to prevent drinking and driving.

Statement of the Problem

Alcohol use may lead to accidents in aviation. Air pilots are not well-informed about the metabolism of alcohol and the effects that are produced by the consumption of alcohol on the performance. If the blood alcohol concentration becomes zero, the performance of the air pilots still can be impaired due to alcohol.

Hazard perception performance has been identified as one source of individual differences in accidents. Thus, if alcohol adversely affects pilots’ hazard perception performance, then such an effect may underlie, at least in part, the increased accident risk associated with drink-flying.

Research Question and Sub-Questions

Q. 1. What are the alcohol related problems amongst air pilots?

Q.2. what are the occupational and sub-cultural factors thought to encourage heavy drinking amongst air pilots?

Q.3. Do cockpit environmental influences upon alcohol induce impairment of air pilots’ performance?

Q. 4. What are the indirect indicators of alcohol consumption by air pilots?

Q. 5. What is the relationship between blood alcohol concentration and impairment of performance?

Significance of the Study

This study involves primary and secondary research methods for the collection of data. This paper seeks to review the published literature on alcohol and aviation. The main issues to be addressed will concern available evidence regarding the level of alcohol consumption by pilots and the problems that ensue as a result of such consumption. Some reference will also be made to alcohol consumption by passengers, ground staff and others, and to problems with other psychoactive drugs of misuse.

This study will examine alcohol’s effects on hazard perception; that is, the process of identifying hazardous objects and events in the traffic system and quantifying their dangerous potential. This research will be conducted to study air pilots across the spectrum of drink-flying practices, from non-drink-pilots to individuals convicted of flying while impaired (FWI), and to examine the effects of a moderate dose of alcohol on their HPPs. the present study will compare the HPPs of four groups of air pilots: FWI offenders, impaired pilots, non impaired drink-pilots and non drink-pilots.

Research Design

Secondary research method will be used for the collection of data for Q.1- Q. 7. The secondary sources will include scholarly journals, previously published academic material, articles, magazines etc. Primary research method will be used for the collection of data for Q. 8.

Methodology

Subjects

They will be recruited with the aim of attaining an equal number of participants in four drink-flying groups: FWI offenders, impaired pilots, moderate drink-pilots and non drink-pilots. To achieve this aim, approximately 50 individuals will be identified as potential subjects.

Design

A two-by-four, experimental condition by drink-flying category design will be used. Experimental condition (no alcohol and moderate alcohol (0.05% BAC)) will be a within-subjects factor and drink-flying category (FWI offenders, impaired pilots, moderate drink-pilots and non drink-pilots) will be a between-subjects factor.