Animals

Humboldt Squid Dosidicus gigas Domain: Eukarya Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Mollusca Class: Cephalopoda Order: Teuthida Suborder: Oegopsina Family: Ommastephidae Genus: Dosidicus Species: Dosidicus gigas Ecological Geographic range: Receives its name from its main location – the Humboldt Current This current is found in the East Pacific Ocean region The Humboldt squids are sometimes found along the coastal region of California, Oregon, Alaska and Washington Generally, found about 2,300 feet below surface

Enter shallow waters to lay eggs Trophic level: Sharks, dolphins, whales, tuna swordfish, many types of rays as well as an abundance of crustaceans, mollusks, fish of all  sizes, and other cephalopods such as octopus can be found in the food web of the Humboldt The Humboldt is occupies a relatively high trophic level It feeds on krill and small species of fish Predators:

Sperm whales, sharks, seals, swordfish, and marlin feed on Humboldt squids of all sizes, while gulls and large fish often capture juveniles Parasites include Chromidina elegans, a ciliate protozoan that lives inside the renal organs of the Humboldt Life Cycle: Average life p is 1 year; however, some can live up to 2 years Spend much of their short life in the ocean’s oxygen-minimum zone Come up at night to feed After 200 days, the squids reach sexual maturity They die shortly after mating Physiological Development Bilateral symmetry

Arms and tentacles – 8 arms and 2 retractable tentacles Mantle – hollow structure and so internal organs are all exposed directly to the ocean water Funnel – water is pumped from out of the mantle to the funnel, which allows squids to move Fins – are used for both maintaining position and generating thrust Chromatophores – tiny elastic sacs of pigment. The Humboldt squid can turn their entire bodies from red to white to red again in less than one second Digestive system: Complete and ciliated Mouth, anus and complex stomach

Use of a duck like beak to break up food A radula or ribbon horn found on the tongue directs the food down the esophagus Food is taken up by cells lining the digestive glands arising from the stomach and then passed into the blood Excretory System Undigested materials are compressed and packaged and discharged through the anus into the mantle cavity and carried away by ocean currents Excretory functions are carried out by a pair of nephridia (tubular structures that collect fluids from the coelom and exchange salts) Respiratory system:

Contains three hearts to support the constantly moving lifestyle of the squid Hemocyanin is the copper-rich respiratory protein that transports oxygen throughout the body Circulatory system: complex, closed circulatory system (reason why they can move fast) contains two branchial hearts at the base of the gills which send unoxygenated blood through the gills A third ventricular heart then pumps oxygenated blood throughout the body (blood turns blue when oxygenated, colorless before) Nervous system: Highly developed and sensitive

Brain consists of two fused nerve centers that are linked down the length of the body by two giant nerve axons The giant axons transmit nerve signals quickly Interesting fact – the squid’s nervous system is connected to structures called statocysts. These vesicles let the animal to orient itself to a gravitational field, allowing the squid to remain aware of its orientation and movement in a three-dimensional manner Reproductive strategies Highest fecundity of any cephalopod Reach sexually maturity after 200 days of life Timing and location of eggs is still guesswork for most scientists Sexual reproduction

Semelparous reproduction (reproduce once in their lifetimes and die shortly after) Female Humboldt squids can have about 10 million eggs; however, the most to have been found has been between half a million and a million eggs After the eggs are laid, there is no further parental investment Kurth, J. and M. Garzio 2009. “Dosidicus gigas” (On-line), Animal Diversity Web. Accessed March 18, 2013 at http://animaldiversity. ummz. umich. edu/accounts/Dosidicus_gigas/ “Squid. ” The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed.. 2012. Encyclopedia. com. 18 Mar. 2013<http://www. encyclopedia. com>. Humboldt or Jumbo Squid Fact Sheet – National Zoo| FONZ. ” Smithsonian: National Zoological Park. N. p. , n. d. Web. 18 Mar. 2013. “Humboldt Squid. ” BioWeb. N. p. , n. d. Web. 18 Mar. 2013. “A Humboldt Squid Dissection Guide for Educators. ” The Gilly Lab. N. p. , n. d. Web. 18 Mar. 2013. “Humboldt Squids: Systems. ” Shorecrest Preparatory School. N. p. , n. d. Web. 18 Mar. 2013. “Humboldt Squid. ” Squid-World. N. p. , n. d. Web. 18 Mar. 2013. “Squid Sex and Babies. ” Squid Sex and Babies. N. p. , n. d. Web. 18 Mar. 2013. http://theseasproject. weebly. com/uploads/5/3/8/4/5384258/5500235_orig. png? 243

Feral hogs have recently become a problem in middle Tennessee. Although these animals are not native to this area, it is believed that the hogs were brought in illegally for sport hunting. Although this move was ill advised, the wild hogs were trapped and brought into North Carolina and Eastern Tennessee. If not controlled, the overpopulation of these animals will continue to cause extensive damage for residents. Wild hogs have continued to overpopulate areas and in an effort to find new land and areas of food sources, have continued to move west.

These hogs are becoming a nuisance as far west as Wilson County in Tennessee. Feral hogs are hunted for sport in east Tennessee, as they have been for many years. With the illegal transportation to Tennessee, and migration east, the animals have become a nuisance quickly. A female pig can reproduce twice a year with a litter of up to eight piglets each time. This can add up quickly since there are not many predators of wild hogs. Pigs are highly adaptable to most areas and can tolerate a wide range of climates.

Wild hogs also eat mostly plants but will also eat insects, worms, bird eggs, small birds, and reptiles. Feral hogs reproduce rapidly, increasing their population dramatically and very quickly. The hogs not only cause damage to farms, they can also transmit diseases to livestock. Jason Garrett of the Overton County Cattleman’s Association says, “This is a serious threat to all of agriculture” (Garrett). If the wild hog population is not controlled, these animals can take a toll on farmland and also on revenues from crop and livestock production.

Wild hogs can be an extreme nuisance to farmers. A total of $1. 5 billion lost annually because of wild hog damage plus the potential crippling effects that disease transmission could have on the livestock industry. They can damage cropland in various ways: eating crops, trampling crops, rooting in the farmland and damaging the plants roots. “They just tear up everything that they come to, and make trails across all the fields… And just wander out in the corn stalks and maul down what they don’t eat… just mow them down. said Overton County farmer, Freddie Paul (Paul). While making these trails, they also create ruts that can damage farm equipment and endanger the operator of the equipment. This can be not only dangerous but also costly to repair. The way the economy is presently, most farmers cannot afford to deal with costly or unexpected repairs. Wild hogs will also prey on livestock. This is another hit on a farmer’s checkbook. Cattle are the main income for most livestock farmers in middle Tennessee. The diseases spread by theses hogs pose a serious threat to farmers income as well.

As of July 31, 2011, the Tennessee Wildlife Resource Agency (TWRA) put an end to sport hunting of wild hogs and placed into effect some new hunting regulations to assist in population control of wild hogs. The TWRA has removed wild hogs from big game status and place them in a nuisance category. This implementation technically takes the sport out of wild hog hunting and turns it into eradication efforts. This will allow landowners to use more methods to trap and kill the hogs, methods such as using rifles during daylight hours and live traps with bait.

Landowners are also allowed to shoot hogs at night, using bait all year, with no weapon restrictions. During an interview with TWRA Officer, Pete Geesling, he explained some of the new changes: Landowners, family members legally allowed to hunt the property without a license and up to 10 designees may assist in the control effort provided by the methods exemption. No more than 10 individuals may be used as designees annually. The exemption will allow shooting at night with the aid of artificial light, shooting over bait during big game season, or any other methods, approved by TWRA.

Dogs may be used as part of the experimental management program in Overton, Fentress, Cumberland and Pickett counties, but no dogs may be used during November or December (Geesling). The TWRA has previously and continues to adjust hunting regulations to aid in eradication efforts. However, research has shown that until these eradication hunts become more evenly spread across the affected area, they may only multiply the problem. Overpopulation will exacerbate in regions, causing more damage, and the efforts to find new food sources will lead these hogs to new areas.

The citizens and farmers of Tennessee, along with TWRA, must work to spread awareness to areas that are beginning to see this problem and try to eliminate it early. The heavily affected areas must continue an eradication effort until the wild hog population is reduced drastically, allowing farmers to reclaim their land. Works Cited “Controlling Wild Hogs. ” Tennessee Wildlife Resources Agency. Web. April 02, 2012. ;http://tn. gov/twra/feralhog. html;. Garrett, Jason. Personal Interview. 1 April 2012. Geesling, Pete. Personal Interview. 1 April 2012. Paul, Freddie. Person Interview. 31 March 2012.

Chemical and Environmental Effects on the Heart Introduction The heart is the centerpiece of the circulatory system, its muscular contractions allow for the timely delivery of essential gases and nutrients to virtually all cells of the body. The pressure created by the heart also plays a vital role in eliminating wastes through organs such as the kidney, thus the heart delivers and helps maintain nutrient and waste composition throughout the body. The heart, like all muscle cells, releases ionic calcium when stimulated which binds to troponin which in turn causes tropomyosin to uncover the myosin-actin binding sites on the muscle.

Temperature has effects on the metabolism and activity of all cells. Warmer temperatures increase the kinetic energy of molecules in cells, providing more energy which allows metabolic processes to proceed more quickly. Cooler temperatures, on the other hand, decrease molecular kinetic energy and cause slower metabolic rates in cells and tissues, hence when a bear hibernates, its body temperature is some degree lower than it is during the bear’s active periods.

The heart is also susceptible to certain molecules for which are able to bind to its receptors or diffuse across its membrane and affect intracellular activity and consequently have effects on the overall homeostatic condition of the organism. The Sinoatrial Node (SA Node) acts as the pacemaker of the heart by providing a small, autorhythmic electrical pulses that travel to the atrioventriclar node (AV node) and through the Bundle of His and Purkinje Fibers through gap junctions at the intercalated disks which stimulate the cells of the heart to contract via calcium release.

This contraction is similar to a neuron in the sense that a threshold stimulus is needed to cause a contraction, a refractory period follows contraction at which time a new contraction cannot occur. Drugs that have an effect on the tissues of the heart, especially those where the SA Node resides can have an effect on the frequency and strength of muscular contraction via causing a stimulus to occur and lowering the threshold needed to cause a contraction. The heart is under both nervous and hormonal control.

The brain is constantly receiving information from the body such as pH, CO2 levels, and many others that the hypothalamus and medulla play a role in translating and reacting to via the release of hormones such as epinephrine which affects the SA node, either by stimulating or inhibiting contraction rate. Removal of the heart from the body would result in eventual cessation of beating as these sources are depleted from the immediate environment, not to mention the absence of the appropriate ion levels needed to maintain resting cellular electrochemical gradients.

All of the aforementioned aspects of heart control coordinate with Starling’s Law of the Heart, which relates to stroke volume, contractions strength, and frequency of heart contraction. This paper is interested in investigating what the effects of the alteration of temperature, chemical environments, and physical obtrusion have upon the strength and frequency of cardiac muscle contractions. Decreasing the temperature of the heart’s environment should hypothetically result in a decrease in both frequency and strength of contractions due to the decreased ability of calcium ion channels to open and cause contraction.

Various chemicals such as epinephrine and calcium ion solutions should correlate to both and increase in frequency and strength of the resultant contractions due to direct effects on the hearts mode of activation (SA node stimulus) and increasing the levels of available calcium needed to cause a contraction. Other chemicals such as Atropine should indirectly increase heart rate via the blocking of the effects of the parasympathetic system resulting in a predomination of sympathetic activity.

Acetylcholine, which acts on the muscarinic receptors of the heart, should display inhibitory effects on the heart by decreasing available cAMP levels, which results in fewer phosphorylated Protein Kinases which are needed to open the calcium channels which result in contractions of all muscles of the body. Additionally, chemicals such as nicotine should have little to no effect on the effects of muscle contraction due to lack of receptors on the heart for such substrates as well as lack of nicotinic receptors on any body tissues that indirectly affect heart rate such as the brain.

Methods Procedure 1: The Heart Rate The dissected frog, whose heart was left attached and embedded in the frog, was connected to a string at the most basal aspect of the heart, and wrapped around an electrical stress sensor located 15cm above the heart to detect changes in pressure on the apparatus caused by heart contractions. Unless otherwise stated, all subsequent procedures will have the same setup to minimize variability in the results obtained. The resting heartbeat was then recorded via the described instrumentation. Procedure 2: Effects of Cold Temperature

Initially, 10mL of room temperature Ringer’s solution was applied directly to the heart and allowed to contract freely for 15 seconds. The data obtained from the contractions was recorded. The heart was allowed 1 minute to recover from exposure to the solution. Next, 10mL of chilled Ringer’s solution was applied directly to the heart and allowed to contract freely for 15 seconds. This data was recorded. Procedure 3: Effects of Drugs Thirty seconds of normal heart contractions were recorded at which time 2mL of epinephrine was dropped onto the heart itself.

Contractions were allowed to proceed for 60 seconds during which time data was recorded. Following exposure to epinephrine, the heart was allowed to return to its resting state determined in procedure 1. This same procedure was repeated with the following chemicals: 1) Acetylcholine, 2) Atropine, 3) Calcium solution, 4) Nicotine solution, and 5) Caffeine solution. Procedure 4: The Refractory Period of the Heart Resting heart contractions were recorded for thirty seconds until the heart rate was less than 60 beats per minute. A stimulator electrode to be used was set to the following states: Amplitude of 4. 0 Volts, a stimulus delay of 50ms, stimulus duration of 10ms, a frequency of 1. 0Hz, and a pulse number of 30. The electrode was then placed in direct contact with the heart for 30 seconds at which time the data was observed and recorded. Procedure 5: Effects of a Ligature on the Heart A 30cm piece of thread was placed around the heart at the Atrioventricular groove (AV groove) and tied in a knot but left loose so as to not interrupt the normal function of the heart. The heart was allowed to beat for about 15 seconds with no pressure.

After 15 seconds the knot was slowly tightened while taking care to stay on the AV groove while tightening. Data was observed and recorded. Results Procedure 1: The Heart Rate This experiment was carried out as noted about in Procedure 1. The resting heart rate was established and used as a baseline value from which to compare all future deviations. While data could not be exported from the computer to be definitively known, the relative rate and strength of the contractions were noted on a visual basis from which to compare the following experiments.

Procedure 2: Effects of Cold Temperature As noted above in Procedure 1, technical data could not be obtained from this experiment and visual analysis had to suffice for data. Upon addition of room temperature Ringer’s solution, no notable change in contraction strength or frequency could be noted. Time was allowed for the heart to recover from the effects of the initial exposure. The application of cold Ringer’s solution resulted in a clear and observable slowing of the heart rate, though no change in strength of the contractions could be detected.

Procedure 3: Effects of Drugs Upon addition of epinephrine directly to the heart, the contraction rate showed a considerable increase in frequency. The strength or magnitude of each contraction also significantly increased as the heart actually was lifting itself off of its resting place. Exposure of the heart to acetylcholine had clear effect on the heart as well. A substantial decrease in heart rate was noticed upon exposure; however the magnitude of contraction seemed to remain somewhat constant.

Addition of Atropine to the heart resulted in an increase in heart rate. The magnitude of each contraction showed a minor, but noticeable, increase in strength. A calcium solution was applied to the heart and showed a mild increase in contraction rate with the magnitude of each contraction seemingly remaining constant. The addition of both nicotine and caffeine had negligible effects on the rate or strength of heart contraction. Table [ 1 ]. Applied Chemical and Its Effect on Heart Contraction Rate and Strength Chemical| Heart Rate| Contraction Strength|

Normal Ringers| Control Rate| Control Magnitude| Cold Ringers| Decrease| No change| Epinephrine| Increase| Increase| Acetylcholine| Decrease| Slight Decrease| Atropine| Increase| Increase| Calcium solution| Increase| No change| Caffeine| No change| No change| Nicotine| No change| No change| Procedure 4: The Refractory Period of the Heart Upon exposure to a mild electric current, the heart rate was altered from the normal resting heart rate. While it definitely slowed, the contractions were sporadic at best.

The heart lost its regularity and showed random contraction intervals, some ranging shorter than normal while others had greater time gaps between contractions. Procedure 5: Effects of a Ligature on the Heart After the knot had been tied around the AV groove, no noticeable alterations were noticed to heart contraction. Upon tightening of the thread however, the heart appeared in clear distress. Beat irregularities ensued with an increase in magnitude of each pulse. The heart ceased functioning before the allotted time period had elapsed.

Discussion Procedure 1: The Heart Rate The resting heart rate of the frog was perfectly normal. Steady, rhythmic contractions around 60 beats per minute were observed and used as a baseline for other experiments. The frog appeared healthy, showing no signs of beat irregularities or any other defects that may have impacted the experiment’s validity. Procedure 2: Effects of Cold Temperature The slowing of the heart in the presence of chilled Ringer’s solution was to be expected.

All metabolic processes decrease in all cells upon exposure to cold due to the nature of chemical interactions. In the case of the frog heart, the cold solution probably decreased the rate at which calcium channels were able to open and thus, decrease the rate at which contractions were likely to occur since calcium entry to the cytosol initiates the cascade of reactions that leads to muscle contraction. Thus, the experimental hypothesis was correct given that the rate at which the heart contracted decreased and the magnitude of each contraction also lowered.

Procedure 3: Effects of Drugs Exposure to epinephrine increased both the rate and strength of each muscular contraction as was expected. The heart contains many adrenergic receptors which are responsive to epinephrine, especially near the SA node, which initiates the contractions of the heart. Epinephrine acts to increase the release time of calcium from the sarcoplasmic reticulum via a cascade of reactions. The fact that epinephrine had a positive impact on the heart indicates that the heart was healthy and responsive to normal physiological chemicals and pathways.

Addition of acetylcholine predictably lowered the heart rate of the frog. Acetylcholine blocks the cAMP cascade pathway that ultimately leads to calcium release, thus the frequency at which calcium is released is lowered and as a result, the contraction rate follows suit and lowers as well which is what you would expect from a fully functional heart. This part of the experiment was a success. The presence of Atropine, a parasympathetic system inhibitor, acted appropriately and increased the heart rate of the frog.

The parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous system act antagonistically to one another and as a result, decreased activity in one serves to act as if an increase in the other had occurred. Addition of Atropine, in effect, should have had similar effects as the addition of epinephrine which it did. Exposure resulted in an increase in the rate of contraction and a mild but noticeable increase in the strength of contraction compared to the resting heart rate and magnitude which was what the response was predicted to have been.

Neither caffeine nor nicotine had any visual effect on the hearts rate or strength of contraction. This was expected as both of these chemicals exert their effects by activating the release of neurotransmitters and hormones in the hypothalamus, specifically epinephrine, which then affects the heart. Because these tested chemicals were applied directly to the heart and not placed in the bloodstream where they could produce an indirect effect, it is reasonable that no effect was noticed from the heart upon exposure to these chemicals. Procedure 4: The Refractory Period of the Heart The SA node is the pacemaker of heart.

It is produces electrical currents that travel to the AV node and through the Bundles of His and the Purkinje fibers and stimulates the cells of the atrium and ventricles to contract. This is electrical conduction that is carried through gap junction of the intercalated disks separating heart cells and thus it is reasonable to infer that applying an electric current directly to the heart would interfere with the steady, rhythmic contractions normally observed in a healthy, undisturbed heart. Accordingly, as we applied a current to the heart, the cyclic contractions of the heart became erratic and unpredictable.

No steady pattern was detectable in the muscular contractions. Some had longer periods between contractions while others had shorter time gaps between beats. This was expected as the heart would be receiving constant signals to contract along with the rhythmic electrical signals from the SA node itself and would result in interference and overlap of contraction signals which is exactly what was observed. This leads us to believe that both the electrical apparatus and the heart were working exactly as designed. Procedure 5: Effects of a Ligature on the Heart

After placing the thread around the AV groove and tightening, the heart was clearly under a great deal of strength. Both the anterior and posterior segments of the heart swelled considerably, no doubt as a result of restriction of blood flow and buildup of pressure within the atriums and ventricles themselves. The AV node is a particularly sensitive portion of the heart to constriction as blood flow through the heart itself occurs at this junction. The heart contraction magnitude increased considerably while the contraction rate decreased substantially.

Over the course of time when the thread was tightened, the heart appeared to get weaker and weaker until it finally gave out itself. Using the electrical apparatus, we tried to revive the frog and succeeded, however, a steady and consistent heartbeat was never again established and was much weaker and slower than before the thread was utilized. This indicated that heart damage had occurred and it was unlikely that any more significant and reliable data could be obtained from the frog’s heart and the experiment was finished as a result.

Overall, the experiment can be considered a success as the appropriate responses to all the varying conditions were observed. While the experiment can be considered a success, the conditions with which the experiments were carried out were far from ideal. The experimental apparatus used was sufficient but hardly the equipment of choice. Far from accurate and precision, as well as the lack of ability to export numbered data from the labs computers, it is difficult to really analyze the data and produce concrete results that reflect the true magnitudes of effect each experimental variable had on the heart.

First of all, plant and animal cells are eukaryotic cells. They have complex structures but they both have major differences, as well some similarities. Plant cell are usually larger than animal cell. Both types of cells have many organelles. The plant cell has a few more organelles than the animal cell but for the most part they have the same organelles. Animal and plant cells both have a nucleus, ribosomes, Golgi apparatus, and endoplasmic reticulum. Only plant cells have a cell wall, vacuole, chloroplast, and plastids.

Both cells are controlled by a nucleus and otherwise they wouldn’t be able to function without it. As well, the ribosomes go through a process called synthesis of proteins, these proteins are necessary for life in the cells. The Golgi apparatus packs the proteins to stay in the cell. The endoplasmic reticulum is categorized into two parts, Rough endoplasmic reticulum and smooth endoplasmic reticulum. The rough endoplasmic reticulum has ribosomes attached to it; it packs the proteins made by the ribosomes.

The smooth endoplasmic reticulum does not have ribosomes but it detoxifies poisonous material in the cell. Furthermore, animal cells are rounded and irregular in shape, while plant cells have fixed rectangular shapes. Plant cell have cell wall which makes a rectangular structure, these structure are composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, and a variety of other materials, but animal cells don’t have this cell wall causing it to have dynamic shapes (spherical shape).

Plant cells have chloroplasts for the utilization of sunlight and this is what contributes for a plant to look green. Plant cell do photosynthesis while animal cells can’t. The chloroplast is only present in plant cell because they make their own food. Also plant cells contains a large central vacuole that is enclosed by a membrane that makes up 90% of the cell volume, while as compared to the animal cell, it has one or more vacuole but smaller that the plant cell. Also plant cell have plastids and animal cell don’t have.

Plastids are small organs in the cytoplasm that stores colored pigment and food. Plant cells use linking pores in their cell wall to connect to each other and pass information while anima cells depend on an analogous system of gap-junctions that allows communication between cells. Animal cells have centrioles, cilia and lysosomes but plant cells have no need for centrioles because their spindle fibers are connected to the cell wall. Below are two pictures, one of an animal cell and the other from a plant cell.

Reference

1. 30 Sep. 2012 http://wiki. answers. com/Q/How_do_plant_cells_differ_from_animal_cells 30 Sep. 2012
2. http://wiki. answers. com/Q/How_do_plant_cells_differ_from_animal_cells 30 Sep. 2012
3. http://scienceray. com/biology/animal-and-plant-cell-similarities-and-differences/ 30 Sep. 2012
4. http://www. preservearticles. com/201101032391/main-differences-between-plant-and-animal-cell. html 30 Sep. 2012
5. http://www. diffen. com/difference/Animal_Cell_vs_Plant_Cell

The human circulatory system includes the heart, blood vessels, and the blood. The circulatory system in humans is also known as the cardiovascular system. The main parts of the plant circulatory system are xylem and phloem. Humans and plants rely on their circulatory system a great deal. Plants and humans rely on their circulatory system to supply the body or plant with nutrients, humans to transport oxygen throughout the body, and plants to carry carbon dioxide throughout the body.

The circulatory system in both humans and plants also help the body eliminate waste from the body of plants and humans. The xylems in plants are vessels, starting with the root of the plant where water and minerals are absorbed and efficiently carry the water throughout the body of the plant. The xylem also provides support to the plant. Nutrients or sugars produced through photosynthesis need to be sent to every cell in the plant, phloem makes this possible.

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Phloem lives as long as the plant while xylems function for one year. The xylems of a plant can be seen when a tree is cut the rings of the xylem can be seen also telling the age of the tree, each ring represents one year. The heart in humans pumps the nutrient rich blood throughout the human circulatory system via blood vessels. The blood vessels pump the blood throughout the body allowing oxygen, nutrients, and hormones to be picked up in the lungs, intestines, and endocrine system.

The various blood vessels in the human body then make a delivery to each cell in the body. The blood vessels then head back to the heart, on the way back carbon dioxide and waste is picked up to be exerted. Plant and animal circulatory systems are high functioning. Plants rely on gravity and water surface tension to transport nutrients throughout the body of the plant, humans need a pumping heart to continuously pump blood throughout the body.

Plants and humans both have tube shaped vessels to carry the nutrients, water, blood throughout the body of the plant or human, they both also have two sets of vessels that travel in opposite directions, both circulatory systems are designed to bring nutrients throughout the body. Plant vessels have only water solutions going through the vessels while humans have red and white blood cells flowing through the vessels as well. Plant and human circulatory systems have a great deal in common and differ greatly. The two distinct system provide the best function for the human and plant.

Humans are highly active and need the quickly action of the human circulatory system to reproduce and keep a continuous cycle of nutrients throughout the body. The circulatory system of plants are more constant and depends on the nutrients available in the environment in which the plant lives. . Rutishauser, S. (2011). “Transport in Plants” UntamedScience. Accessed Nov 21, 2012 at http://www. untamedscience. com/biology/plant-biology/transport-plants Carter, J. (2006) “The Circulatory System. ” Retrieved November 20, 2012 from http://biology. clc. uc. edu/courses/bio105/circulat. htm

Animal Rights Final Research Paper Franco Pacheco ENGL-135 Prof. Gurin DeVry University December 13, 2012 Animal rights The idea of animal rights is not new. Through the 18th and 19th Century philosophers like Rousseau, Kant, Bentham, and Schopenhauer have produced different arguments in favor of the treatment of animals.

Animal rights is the idea that nonhuman animals are entitled to the possession of their own lives and that they should be afforded the same consideration as the similar interests of human beings. All animals are equal in the sense that they all can sense pain and suffering however as far as treating them like humans, I do not think so. Humans have been eating meat for as long as we have been on this earth and there is nothing wrong with that. That does not mean people enjoy killing them for pleasure, their lives are taking for our survival.

Eating meat is not wrong as long as we are conscious of their contribution to humankind over the years, providing us with transportation, food, clothing, and companionship. Torturing and killing animals for pleasure is wrong, however, eating their meat moderately for survival is not. By the beginning of the 18th century, writers began to discuss animal feelings of pain and suffering, vivisection, and the cruel treatment of animals raised and slaughtered for food.

All animals have the same capacity for suffering, but how we see them differs and that determines what we will tolerate happening to them. Most people are not capable of killing what they eat with their own hands but if is cooked and served; there are no thoughts of how or where it came from. Over 9 billion chickens, pigs, cattle, turkeys, sheep, goats, ducks, and geese are bred, raised, and killed for food annually in America.

Today, the breeding of farm animals is dominated by industrialized facilities that maximize profits by treating them as production units and forgetting that they can also feel pain as human do. The abuse of farm animals in factory farms, for example, did not see an influx until the early 19th century, when small family farms and traditional ranching of livestock started to cave under the pressure of larger institutional farming practices. As factory farms became the norm, so, unfortunately did the systematic and prolonged abuse of animals raised for human consumption.

Most animals in these facilities are forced to endure physical and psychological abuse for months if not years on end, deprived of the ability to perform behaviors inherent to their species, and housed in overcrowded facilities with insufficient food, water, and natural light. Most are given steroids to enhance growth, and antibiotics to fend off illnesses that are likely to occur in such unsanitary conditions. Their eventual slaughter is often performed in a manner as inhumane as the condition in which they are forced to exist until that day.

There are many people working for the improvement of the ways in which animals that are raised for food are handled and slaughtered; most notable is . She is one of the leading authorities on the design of animal handling facilities, specializing in the humane handling of animals at the point of slaughter in the meat industry. She is credited with having “done more to improve welfare for animals at the point of slaughter than any human alive. ” According to data extrapolated from U. S. Department of Agriculture reports that nearly 10. billion land animals were raised and killed for food in the United States in 2010. This is a 1. 7% rise from the 2009 totals, larger than the 0. 9% increase in US population, meaning that animals killed per-capita increased slightly. Based on January-August 2011 USDA slaughter numbers, it is projected that the number of land animals killed in 2011 will increase an additional 1% from 2010 numbers, rising to approximately 10,266 million animals. Fortunately, due to increased feed prices and sinking domestic demand, Bloomberg. om is speculating that there may be a 5% drop in animals raised for food in 2012! While the number of aquatic animals killed each year is not reported, meticulous calculations by researcher Noam Mohr estimate the number of finfishes killed each year for US consumption to be 13,027 million, and the number of shellfishes to be 40,455 million, resulting in a combined 53,481 million (over 53 billion) aquatic animals who died for American consumption in 2010. Becoming a vegetarian overnight will not stop the purposeful harm done to animals at the hands of human beings.

Consequently, I agree that there is a lot that has gone very wrong with most of our meat production, but we are omnivores, and arguing that we are not is not going to get us anywhere. It may be possible to live without meat, but considering that all animals will eventually die, will be a sin not to eat them before other animals do. We feel bad of the killing of the animals we eat, but not bad enough to stop eating them completely. People have their own reasons for becoming vegan and not everyone is concern about the animal’s welfare.

Becoming vegan will not stop animal abuse; people are still going to do what they want to do, especially if it involves animal cruelty. People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) can do all they can, but you cannot right all the wrongs in the world. The most prominent of the abolitionists is Gary Francione, professor of law and philosophy at Rutgers School of Law-Newark. He argues that focusing on animal welfare may actually worsen the position of animals, because it entrenches the view of them as property, and makes the public more comfortable about using them.

I actually hate the way animals are treated and could not find a better way of killing them without making it go through torture. However, I am not switching to become vegan, just because a group of people considers it cruelty. I still love meat, but I treat animals with respect and morality because they are providing the protein my body needs for survival. It is not admissible to cause animal’s unnecessary pain and suffering. I do not believe in the unethical treatment of animals, however I do believe in the ethical use of them.

Confinement production of livestock and poultry has generated a major conflict between the meats, dairy, poultry industries, and reformist welfare and abolitionists animal rights group. They condemn and oppose factory farming because they view intensive production as inhumane, being carried out under unnatural conditions and causing suffering for the animal and poultry. Over the past 50 years, animal agriculture has increased from small family farms to large corporate factory farming systems.

In these factory-farming systems, their main concern is increasing the profits margins at all costs and the process has devastating consequences for the animals. Farmed animals lead a life of misery from the moment they are born to when they are slaughtered. Every day, everywhere across the globe, millions of these animals are mishandled, kept in confinement, mutilated as part of routine husbandry practices, and deprived of their basic physical and behavioral needs. In September of 1994, The Humane Society of the United States (HSUS) designated the National Farm Animals Awareness Week (Guither, pg. 1). They criticized the cruelty of the confinement housing of such animals and they asked consumers to “shop with compassion. ” Bernard E. Rollin an American philosopher and currently a professor of philosophy, animal sciences, and biomedical sciences at Colorado State University urges the food animal producers and animal industry “not to resist and combat the new ethic for animals , for they will not win, but rather to appropriate it into their production systems with the help of research that acknowledges and respects the patent truth that animals can both suffer and be happy”(Guither, pg. 9). In the last two decades hundreds of thousands Americans have fight animal rights as part of a new, powerful and controversial social movement. All animal liberationists believe that the individual interests of non-human animals deserve recognition and protection, but the movement can be split into two broad camps. Animal rights advocates, or rights liberationists, believe that these basic interests confer moral rights of some kind on the animals, and/or ought to confer legal rights on them; for example, the work of Philosophers Tom Regan and Peter Singer.

They do not believe that animals possess moral rights, but argue, on utilitarian grounds (Utilitarianism in its simplest form advocating that we base moral decisions on the greatest happiness of the greatest number) that, because animals have the ability to suffer, their suffering must be taken into account in any moral philosophy (Isacat, 2008). Dr. David Nibert is a Professor of Sociology at the Wittenberg University in Springfield, Ohio. He teaches Animals & Society, Global Change, Social Stratification, Minority Groups, and Law and Society.

He is the author of Animal Rights/Human Rights: Entanglements of Oppression and Liberation (Rowman/Littlefield). He conducted a survey among residents of Clark County, Ohio and found that support for animal rights is significantly related to seven of the eleven variables, suggesting the existence of an important link between one’s disposition toward human and nonhuman animals. Five hundred and one residents of Clark County, Ohio, aged eighteen and older, responded to a telephone survey conducted April 16-18, 1993. This survey was designed to examine respondent’s opinions on several social issues.

One of the questions was, “Some people say that animals have rights that people should respect. Would you agree or disagree? ” They were also asked eleven questions adapted from the General Social Survey (Wood, 1990). Here are the results of the Nibert’s survey: “Of the 501 respondents, 246 (49. 1 %) were male and 255 (50. 9%) were female. 81 1 (20. 8%) were less than 30 years of age, 208 (41. 6%) were between 30 and 49 years old, and 184 (36. 8%) were over 50. 76 (15. 2%) had not graduated from high school, 277 (55. 3%) were high school graduates and 143 (29. %) were college graduates. The sample was predominantly white (461 or 92%) and married (334 or 66. 7%). In response to the animal rights question, 373 respondents (74. 5%) agreed, 84 (16. 8%) disagreed, 37 (7. 4%) were undecided and 7 (1. 4%) refused. For purposes of convenience, the respondents who agreed that animals have rights will be referred to as “animal rights supporters. ” Examination of demographic variables reveals that age, sex, place of residence and religion were significantly related to support for animal rights.

Younger people were more likely to support animal rights than older people, women more than men, and city residents more than those living in more rural areas of the county (Nibert 1994). ” To summarize, Animal rights are a matter of personal choice. Every individual has a right to decide how he or she wants to treat others, including other species. Animals have been around on the earth for as long as humans have, if not longer. They play an important role in today’s society whether or not we choose to admit it. To say that animals have rights is only to end the discussion before it starts.

Animals will be animals and they will eat one another for the need of survival: that is a natural phenomenon. We can reduce some suffering by eliminating certain practices in certain areas, but this will not solve the problem. As explained above, we cannot humanely raise nine billion animals. Going vegan is the only solution. Also, keep in mind that some meat, eggs and dairy products are misleadingly marketed as “humane” but offer only marginal improvements over traditional factory farming. These animals are not raised humanely if they are in larger cages, or are taken out of cages only to live in overcrowded barns.

And “humane slaughter” is an oxymoron. References Cavalieri, Paola. (2001) the animal question, why nonhuman animals deserve human rights. New York, NY: Oxford University Press Grillo, Alexander, (August 15, 2012), Five Reasons Why Meat-Eating Cannot Be Considered a ‘Personal Choice’ Free from Harm, Food and Psychology http://freefromharm. org/food-and-psychology/five-reasons-why-meat-eating-cannot-be-considered-a-personal-choice/ Guither, Harold D. (1998) Animal rights, History and scope of a radical social movement. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press

Issitt, Micah & Newton, Heather (2011), p2-2, 1p – Animals Deserve the Same Rights as Humans. http://search. ebscohost. com. proxy. devry. edu/login. aspx? direct=true&db=pwh&AN=26608510&site=pov-live Rich, Alex & Wagner Geraldine (2011), p1-1, 1p Points of View: Animal Rights: An Overview. http://search. ebscohost. com. proxy. devry. edu/login. aspx? direct=true&db=pwh&AN=22827052&site=pov-live Thompson, Michael (2012) Why We Have Ethical Obligations to Animals: Animal Welfare and the Common Good more http://wpunj. academia. du/MichaelThompson/Papers/392701/Why_We_Have_Ethical_Obligations_to_Animals_Animal_Welfare_and_the_Common_Good April 12, 2011. American Humane Association hails ‘yes’ vote on humane standards for poultry in Washington http://www. americanhumane. org/animals/animal-welfare-news/american-humane-association-hails-yes-vote. html Report: Number of Animals Killed In US Increases in 2010 http://farmusa. org/statistics11. html Animal Rights and Human Social Issues David A. Nibert, Wittenberg University (1994) http://www. animalsandsociety. org/assets/library/283_s222. pdf

Invertebrate Questions True/False Indicate whether the statement is true or false. ____1. The acute senses of arthropods are the result of organs such as compound eyes and antennae. ____2. Arthropods have a well-developed excretory system consisting of nephridia. ____3. The well-developed arthropod nervous system consists of a double ventral nerve cord, an anterior brain, and several ganglia. ____4. Efficient gas exchange in arthropods is accomplished by tracheal tubes, book lungs, or gills. ____5. The exoskeleton is a protective adaptation that enables arthropods to move freely. ____6.

Jointed appendages are advantageous because they are limited in their strength and functions. ____7. In arthropods, appendages are adapted for a variety of purposes including sensing, walking, feeding, and mating. ____8. The exoskeleton of arthropods is harder and provides more protection than the cuticle of annelids. Modified True/False Indicate whether the statement is true or false. If false, change the identified word or phrase to make the statement true. ____9. Roundworms are have one body opening. _________________________ ____10. All roundworms are parasites. _________________________ ____11.

Trichinella can be ingested in raw or undercooked pork. _________________________ ____12. Pinworms are the most common parasites in children living in the United States. _________________________ ____13. Hookworms can be contracted by eating improperly cooked infected pork. _________________________ ____14. The most complex and most recently evolved mollusks are gastropods. _________________________ ____15. Earthworms are hermaphrodites because each worm produces both eggs and sperm. _________________________ ____16. The respiratory organs in aquatic gastropods are primitive lungs. _________________________ ____17.

Gastropods have two shells. _________________________ ____18. The excretory structures in mollusks are called nephridia. _________________________ ____19. Bivalves obtain food by predation. _________________________ ____20. In shelled mollusks, the radula secretes the shell. _________________________ Multiple Choice Identify the choice that best completes the statement or answers the question. ____21. Animals with bilateral symmetry find food and mates and avoid predators more efficiently because they have _____. a. |body cavities|c. |tails| b. |more muscular control|d. |the ability to see in all directions| ____22.

Which of these animals has bilateral symmetry? a. |sponge|c. |jellyfish| b. |hydra|d. |flatworm| ____23. What type of symmetry does a penny have? a. |bilateral symmetry|c. |no symmetry| b. |radial symmetry|d. |biaxial symmetry| ____24. Which of the following applies to a sponge? a. |intracellular digestion|c. |bilateral symmetry| b. |has a gastrula stage|d. |develops three embryonic layers| ____25. The animal’s digestive tract forms from the _____. a. |endoderm|c. |ectoderm| b. |mesoderm|d. |protostome| ____26. The embryo layer that forms the skin and nervous tissue is the _____. a. |endoderm|c. |ectoderm| b. |mesoderm|d. |protostome|

Figure 25-2 ____27. In Figure 25-2, where is the ectoderm? a. |A|c. |C| b. |B|d. |D| ____28. In Figure 25-2, where is the endoderm? a. |A|c. |C| b. |B|d. |D| ____29. In Figure 25-2, where is the mesoderm? a. |A|c. |C| b. |B|d. |D| ____30. In Figure 25-2, where is the gastrula? a. |A|c. |C| b. |B|d. |D| ____31. In Figure 25-2, if part A develops into a mouth, this organism will be a _____. a. |protosome|c. |autosome| b. |deuterosome|d. |autotroph| Figure 25-3 ____32. Which of the organisms in Figure 25-3 is asymmetrical? a. |A|c. |C| b. |B|d. |D| ____33. Which of the organisms in Figure 25-3 probably has the most muscular control? . |A|c. |C| b. |B|d. |D| ____34. Which of the organisms in Figure 25-3 has the most complex systems developed from coelom? a. |A|c. |C| b. |B|d. |D| ____35. Which of the organisms in Figure 25-3 has bilateral symmetry but no endoskeleton? a. |A|c. |C| b. |B|d. |D| ____36. Nematocysts discharge when _____. a. |salt concentration in the ocean drops|c. |a cnidarian regenerates| b. |tentacles touch a source of food|d. |cnidarians reproduce| ____37. A Portuguese man-of-war is an example of _____. a. |an anthozoan|c. |a hydrozoan colony| b. |a large scyphozoan|d. |a sea anemone| ____38. Uncooked or undercooked pork may contain _____. . |trichina worms|c. |pinworms| b. |hookworms|d. |free-living roundworms| ____39. In a cnidarian, digestion occurs in the _____. a. |proglottids|c. |digestive tract| b. |gastrovascular cavity|d. |tentacles| ____40. A _____ has a muscular tube called the pharynx, which can be extended outside its body to suck in food. a. |jellyfish|c. |planarian| b. |sponge|d. |tapeworm| ____41. A group of cnidarians that provide food and shelter for many kinds of animals are the _____. a. |jellyfishes|c. |sea anemones| b. |hydras|d. |corals| ____42. Because sponges are sessile, they get their food through _____. a. |scavenging the seafloor|c. the spicules| b. |filter feeding|d. |tentacles| ____43. The collar cells of sponges are similar to _____. a. |flagellated protists|c. |ciliated paramecia| b. |amoebas|d. |sessile sporozoans| Figure 26-2 ____44. Which structure shown in Figure 26-2 analogous to an anus? a. |A|c. |C| b. |B|d. |D| ____45. In Figure 26-2, how did the structure labeled A develop? a. |fertilization by sperm|c. |asexually by budding| b. |fragmentation|d. |formation of gametes| Figure 26-3 ____46. How are the two organisms shown in Figure 26-3 different? a. |A is a cnidarian and B is not|c. |only B is poisonous| b. |A moves but B doesn’t|d. A is a medusa and B is a polyp colony| ____47. Which of the two organisms shown in Figure 26-3 releases gametes? a. |A|c. |both| b. |B|d. |neither| Figure 26-4 ____48. Which organism shown in Figure 26-4 does not have hooks and suckers on its mouth? a. |A|c. |C| b. |B|d. |D| ____49. Which organism shown in Figure 26-4 is a parasite that requires two hosts? a. |A|c. |C| b. |B|d. |D| ____50. Which organism shown in Figure 26-4 is of a phylum that can infect plants? a. |A|c. |C| b. |B|d. |D| ____51. What can be inferred from Figure 26-5? Roundworm Infections| Number of Cases|Low Temperature|Day| 300|60|1| 295|58|5| 290|55|10| 20|51|15| 303|55|20| 295|45|25| 15|25|30| Figure 26-5 a. |this species of roundworm cannot survive outside hosts at 25 degrees| b. |this species of roundworm is widespread| c. |this species of roundworm does not flourish in warm weather| d. |this species of roundworm becomes dormant in warm weather| Figure 27-2 ____52. Which shell shown in Figure 27-2 is from the most recently evolved organism? a. |A|c. |C| b. |B|d. |none of them| ____53. Which shell shown in Figure 27-2 is from a bivalve? a. |A|c. |C| b. |B|d. |none of them| ____54. Which shell shown in Figure 27-2 came from a stomach-footed mollusk? a. |A|c. |C| b. B|d. |none of them| ____55. Which shell shown in Figure 27-2 came from a mollusk that uses jellyfish nematocysts for protection? a. |A|c. |C| b. |B|d. |none of them| Figure 27-3 ____56. Which part of the squid shown in Figure 27-3 is analogous to a snail’s shell? a. |A|c. |C| b. |B|d. |D| ____57. Which part of the squid shown in Figure 27-3 is the foot? a. |A|c. |C| b. |B|d. |D| . Figure 27-4 ____58. In the earthworm shown in Figure 27-4, what part is analogous to the stomach in humans? a. |A|c. |C| b. |B|d. |D| ____59. In the earthworm shown in Figure 27-4, what part is analagous to the central nervous system in humans? . |A|c. |C| b. |B|d. |D| ____60. In the earthworm shown in Figure 27-4, what part is analagous to the throat in humans? a. |A|c. |C| b. |B|d. |D| ____61. In the earthworm shown in Figure 27-4, what part is analogous to the kidneys in humans? a. |A|c. |C| b. |B|d. |D| Figure 27-5 ____62. According to Figure 27-5, which phylum evolved first? a. |annelids|c. |nematodes| b. |bivalves|d. |planaria| ____63. According to Figure 27-5, which phylum are annelids closest to on an evolutionary scale? a. |bivalves|c. |nematodes| b. |gastropods|d. |cestodes| ____64. Grasshoppers have _____. a. |two compound eyes and three simple eyes| . |three compound eyes and two simple eyes| c. |two compound eyes and two simple eyes| d. |none of these| ____65. The stages of incomplete metamorphosis are _____. a. |egg, larva, pupa, adult|c. |egg, larva, adult| b. |larva, pupa, adult|d. |egg, nymph, adult| ____66. Crabs, lobsters, shrimps, and pill bugs are members of the class _____. a. |Insecta|c. |Crustacea| b. |Chilopoda|d. |Arachnida| ____67. The typical tick body consists of _____ segment(s). a. |one|c. |three| b. |two|d. |four| ____68. Most insects have one pair of _____ that are used to sense vibrations, food, and pheromones in the environment. a. pedipalps|c. |antennae| b. |wings|d. |eyes| ____69. In spiders, the exchange of gases takes place in _____. a. |book lungs|c. |gills| b. |lungs|d. |spiracles| ____70. When a spider bites, it uses its _____. a. |chelicerae|c. |pedipalps| b. |mandibles|d. |silk glands| ____71. How many pairs of jointed appendages do arachnids have? a. |two|c. |three| b. |four|d. |six| ____72. Aquatic arthropods exchange gases through _____. a. |tracheal tubes|c. |their exoskeleton| b. |gills|d. |book lungs| ____73. Before an arthropod molts, a new exoskeleton _____. a. |grows on top of its old one|c. |cannot grow| b. |must be found|d. grows beneath its old one| ____74. The characteristic that most distinguishes arthropods from other invertebrates is _____. a. |the coelom|c. |jointed appendages| b. |the endoskeleton|d. |bilateral symmetry| ____75. What clue tells you immediately that the organism shown in Figure 28-2 is not an arthropod? Figure 28-2 a. |it has no jointed appendages|c. |it has no open circulation system| b. |it has no exoskeleton|d. |it is warm blooded| ____76. What clue tells you immediately that the organism shown in Figure 28-3 is not an arthropod? Figure 28-3 a. |it has no jointed appendages|c. |it doesn’t molt| b. |it has more than 6 legs|d. it cannot fly| ____77. What clue tells you immediately that the organism shown in Figure 28-4 is not an arthropod? Figure 28-4 a. |its gas exchange is inefficient|c. |it has no endoskeleton| b. |there are too many segments|d. |it has no jointed appendages| ____78. No one has ever seen a living trilobite. From this fossil picture in Figure 28-5, how can you tell it was an arthropod? Figure 28-5 a. |it molted|c. |it had segments| b. |it produced asexually|d. |it had Malpighian tubules| Figure 28-6 ____79. What type of metamorphosis is shown in Figure 28-6? a. |partial|c. |incomplete| b. |complete|d. |nymph| ____80.

What stages of metamorphosis shown in Figure 28-6 have no exoskeleton? a. |A and B|c. |C and D| b. |B and C|d. |A and C| ____81. What stage of metamorphosis shown in Figure 28-6 does the most eating take place? a. |A|c. |C| b. |B|d. |D| ____82. What stage of metamorphosis shown in Figure 28-6 contains the youngest organism? a. |A|c. |C| b. |B|d. |D| ____83. In what stage of metamorphosis shown in Figure 28-6 does the organism have recognizable insect characteristics like three segments and jointed appendages? a. |A|c. |C| b. |B|d. |D| ____84. What stage of metamorphosis shown in Figure 28-6 has characteristics of chilopoda and diplopoda? . |A|c. |C| b. |B|d. |D| ____85. The type of symmetry found in all adult echinoderms is _____. a. |horizontal|c. |bilateral| b. |radial|d. |regional| ____86. An animal that retains its chordate features throughout life is the _____. a. |seastar|c. |sea squirt| b. |sand dollar|d. |lancelet| ____87. A seastar can hold tightly to the surface it is touching because of the _____. a. |sieve in the madreporite|c. |suction in the tube feet| b. |endoskeleton|d. |eyespots| Figure 29-3 ____88. Identify the notochord in Figure 29-3. a. |A|c. |C| b. |B|d. |D| ____89. The notochord shown in Figure 29-3 is surrounded on two sides by what? a. endoderm|c. |exoderm| b. |ectoderm|d. |mesoderm| ____90. Which structure in Figure 29-4 is a characteristic only chordates have? Figure 29-4 a. |A|c. |C| b. |B|d. |D| Figure 29-5 ____91. Where is the dorsal nerve cord in Figure 29-5? a. |within the tunic|c. |along the heart and circulatory system| b. |surrounding the pharynx|d. |it disappeared after the larval stage| ____92. What structure shown in the adult sea squirt in Figure 29-5 indicates it’s a chordate? a. |gill slits|c. |heart| b. |anus|d. |ciliated grooves| Completion Complete each statement. 93. A tapeworm has its reproductive organs in segments called ____________________. 4. A(n) ____________________ is the sexual form of a cnidarian that has a body form like an umbrella with tentacles hanging down. 95. A(n) ____________________ is the tube-shaped body form with a mouth surrounded by tentacles, which serves as the asexual stage in some cnidarians. 96. Sponges are considered ____________________ because an individual sponge can produce both eggs and sperm. 97. In ____________________, eggs remain inside the animal’s body and sperm are carried to the eggs. 98. In ____________________, fertilization occurs outside the animal’s body after eggs and sperm are released. 99.

A parasitic tapeworm has a knob-shaped head, called a(n) ____________________, by which the worm attaches itself to the host’s intestinal wall. 100. During feeding, planarians extend a tubelike, muscular organ, called the ____________________, out of their mouths. 101. Digestion in cnidarians takes place in the _________________________. 102. Cnidarians capture prey by means of ____________________, which are coiled, threadlike tubes that are sticky or barbed or that contain toxins. 103. Sponges get their food by ____________________, in which small particles of food are removed from the water during passage through a part of their body. 04. An animal whose blood moves throughout its body within blood vessels has a(n) _________________________. 105. The ____________________ is a tongue-like organ with rows of teeth that is used by gastropods to scrape, grate, or cut food. 106. You dissect an animal and observe pools of blood surrounding its internal organs. This animal has a(n) _________________________. 107. The excretory structures that remove metabolic wastes from the bodies of animals such as mollusks and annelids are called ____________________. 108.

In bivalves, the ____________________ expels large particles, sediment, and anything esle rejected through the excurrent siphon. 109. Annelids have a digestive organ called a(n) ____________________ that grinds organic matter, or food, into small pieces so that it can be absorbed as it passes through the animal’s intestine. 110. Jawlike appendages called ____________________ are modified spines found on seastars. 111. In chordates, the _________________________ is a bundle of nerves housed in a fluid-filled canal that lies above the notochord. 112.

The ____________________ is a semirigid, rodlike structure in chordates that becomes a backbone in vertebrates. 113. The _________________________ regulates locomotion, gas exchange, food capture, and excretion for an echinoderm. 114. The long, spine-covered, tapered arms of seastars are called ____________________. 115. The ____________________ is a round, muscular structure that is located on the opposite end from the suction cup on the tube feet. 116. The ____________________, paired openings located in the pharynx behind the mouth, are present only during embryonic development in some chordates. 117.

The sievelike, disc-shaped opening in an echinoderm’s body through which water enters and leaves is called the ____________________. 118. Echinoderms have ____________________, which are hollow, thin-walled structures that each have a suction cup on the end. 119. The heart of the sea squirt is unusual because it pumps blood in one direction for several minutes and then ____________________. 120. Adult sea squirts retain only their ____________________ as indicators of their chordate relationship. 121. ____________________ are small, baglike filter feeders that are covered with a tough layer of tissue called a tunic. 22. ____________________ can swim freely in the water, but these filter feeders spend most of their time buried in the sand with only their heads sticking out. 123. The paired openings located in the throat behind the mouth in chordates are known as ____________________. 124. The earliest echinoderms in the fossil record had ____________________ symmetry. 125. Some chordate adults are sessile, while all the larvae are ____________________. 126. Larval forms of tunicates have ____________________ symmetry. Matching Match each item with the correct statement below. a. |deuterostome|h. |protostome| . |coelom|i. |acoelomate| c. |ectoderm|j. |endoderm| d. |mesoderm|k. |blastula| e. |sessile|l. |pseudocoelom| f. |gastrula|m. |bilateral symmetry| g. |radial symmetry| ____127. animal with a mouth that develops from the opening in the gastrula ____128. embryonic structure of an animal that consists of two cell layers ____129. describes organisms that don’t move from place to place ____130. body cavity partly lined with mesoderm, such as found in roundworms ____131. layer of cells lining the inner surface of the gastrula ____132. a fluid-filled body cavity completely surrounded by mesoderm ____133. ody plan of an organism that can be divided down its length into right and left halves that form mirror images ____134. layer of cells on the outer surface of the gastrula ____135. animal in which the mouth does not develop from the gastrula’s opening ____136. single layer of cells surrounding a fluid-filled space that forms during early development ____137. animal that has three cell layers, with a digestive tract but no body cavities ____138. body plan of an organism that can be divided along any plane, through a central axis, into roughly equal halves ____139. third cell layer formed in the developing embryo

Match each item with the correct statement below. a. |bilateral symmetry| b. |radial symmetry| c. |one opening in digestive tract| d. |openings at either end of digestive tract| e. |filtering| f. |tentacles| g. |swimming| ____140. used for obtaining food in fishes ____141. used to obtain food in sponges ____142. used for obtaining food in corals ____143. digestive tract of flatworms ____144. digestive tract of earthworms ____145. body plan of starfishes ____146. body plan of a fish Match each item with the correct statement(s) below. a. |leech|c. |mollusk| b. |fan worm|d. |earthworm| ____147. gizzard grinds organic matter ___148. may eat only once every few months ____149. traps food in the mucus on its “fans” ____150. burrows through soil providing aeration and fertilizer ____151. external parasite ____152. disturbances in water causes organism to withdraw inside tube ____153. muscular foot ____154. mantle Match each item with the correct statement below. a. |mandible|g. |parthenogenesis| b. |appendage|h. |spiracles| c. |spinneret|i. |book lung| d. |pheromone|j. |cephalothorax| e. |tracheal tubes|k. |molting| f. |Malpighian tubule| ____155. movable structure used by a spider to turn silk into thread ____156. jaw of an arthropod ___157. shedding of the old exoskeleton ____158. chamber that contains leaflike plates that serve for gas exchange ____159. excretory organ of terrestrial arthropods ____160. fused head and thorax region in some arthropods ____161. any structure, such as a leg, that grows out of the body of an animal ____162. openings through which air enters and leaves the tracheal tubes ____163. form of asexual reproduction in which an organism develops from an unfertilized egg ____164. chemical odor signal given off by an animal ____165. branching networks of hollow passages that carry air throughout the body

Short Answer 166. Identify each location on the drawing of the flatworm in Figure 25-1. Figure 25-1 167. What types of body plans do flatworms, roundworms, and earthworms have? Compare the efficiency of locomotion of the three groups of worms and describe how their movement is dependent on their body plans. 168. How is a pseudocoelom different from a coelom? 169. Why are acoelomate animals so small? 170. Animals with coeloms have more complex organ systems and behavior than animals without coeloms. Explain how a coelom enables more complex organ systems and behavior to develop. 171.

Briefly identify the three cell layers formed during embryonic development, and give examples of the body organs and tissues that each layer gives rise to. 172. What are the early stages of development from zygote to gastrula? 173. How do the structures of the digestive tracts of a flatworm and an earthworm differ? 174. In what way does a sponge qualify as a heterotroph? 175. What are the main characteristics of an animal? Animal|Body Mass Moved|mL O2 Required per1 g of Body Mass| Mouse|10 g|4. 00 mL| Kangaroo rat|45 g|2. 00 mL| Ground squirrel|140 g|0. 80 mL| Dog|13 kg|0. 40 mL| Horse|500 kg|0. 04 mL| Table 25-1 176.

Where in Table 25-1 do you think a 90-kg human adult would fall? Estimate about how many mL of O2 the human would require per 1 g of body mass. 177. After studying Table 25-1, what generalization can you make about the amount of oxygen used by animals of different body mass? 178. How many mL of O2 would a mouse require in all? Refer to Table 25-1. 179. How many mL of O2 does a kangaroo rat require per 1 g of body mass? Refer to Table 25-1. The scientific team you are working with wishes to demonstrate that animals become more efficient in interacting with their external environment when the body plan that evolved included bilateral symmetry.

You have chosen to work with mealworms, the larvae of grain beetles (Tenebrio molitor). 180. Hypothesize what would happen if you were to provide the mealworm with a vertical pane or wall on both its left and right sides. 181. How could you prove that mealworms are equally sensitive on both the right and left sides of their body? 182. Plan an experiment to prove your hypothesis. 183. You watch the mealworms moving along the sides of the box in which they are housed. State which factors other than the body plan of the mealworms might affect their behavior. 184.

Put the following terms in order to show the structures through which water enters and passes through a sponge: collar cells, osculum, pore cells. 185. What tapeworm adaptations enable them to live in intestines? 186. Imagine that you are presented with a cnidarian. The animal is small, lives in freshwater, and appears to have tentacles around a columnar body. As you watch, the animal catches a daphnia. Into which cnidarian class would you place this animal? 187. If you were to go snorkeling, would you be able to find all the classes of cnidarians in one place?

Why or why not? 188. Make a list of simple things people could do to prevent infection by parasitic worms. 189. How do parasitic roundworms keep from being digested by their host organisms? 190. The body of the planarian is an advance over the cnidarian body. Explain. 191. How is the jellyfish’s reproductive cycle an example of alternation of generations? 192. How is a sponge’s food-gathering technique adapted to its sessile lifestyle? 193. Hypothesize why medusae that live in the midwaters where bioluminescent prey are abundant have dark pigmentation. 194.

What advantage is there to the extracellular digestion of cnidarians over the intracellular digestion of sponges? 195. When you see a sponge passed through a sieve and separated into cells, you may think a sponge is simply a colony of individual cells. What makes you realize that it is more than this? 196. A biologist places a single, live sponge in a saltwater tank. After several weeks, the biologist observes other, smaller sponges living in the tank. Because the biologist is certain that no other sponge was introduced into the tank, what other explanation could you provide to explain the observation?

In an experiment about possible factors that cause the differentiation and growth of cells in hydra larvae, a proportion-altering factor (PAF) was discovered and isolated in a specific colonial cnidarian known as Eudendrium sp. In the experiment, hydra larvae were placed in solutions: one with 10 drops of PAF/mL of water, one with 15 drops, one with 20 drops, one with 30 drops, and a control solution. The experiment showed that PAF factor caused parts of the hydra to grow out of normal proportions. Table 26-2 and Figure 26-1 show the differences in tentacle development that result from varying concentrations of PAF.

Study the illustration and the table and answer the questions that follow. Amount of PAF|Number of Hydras| (drops/10 mLof water)|tentaclesnear mouth|tentaclesnear base|no tentaclesformed| 0|197|0|0| 10|90|119|0| 15|74|130|5| 20|30|145|26| 30|0|160|44| Table 26-2 Figure 26-1 197. What conclusions can you draw from the results shown in Table 26-2? 198. Refer to Figure 26-1. After 48 hours, most of the hydras treated with 30 drops of PAF/10 mL of water looked like polyp B, but some looked like polyp C. Describe the hydras that looked like polyp C. 199.

After 48 hours, hydras from the control group in Figure 26-1 looked like polyp A in the figure; most hydras from the 15-drop solution looked like polyp B. How does polyp A differ from polyp B? 200. What was the control in the experiment? Refer to Figure 26-1. 201. Identify each numbered part of the earthworm shown in the diagram in Figure 27-1, using the letter of each appropriate term: A. ventral nerve cord, B. setae, C. simple brain, D. hearts, E. blood vessels, F. gizzard. Figure 27-1 202. Explain how the various segmented worms obtain food. 203. Describe the body of a leech.

In what way do the leech’s adaptations make it suited for its niche? 204. List and give examples of the three major classes of segmented worms. 205. How do sea slugs improve their survival opportunities by feeding on jellyfishes? 206. What is the role of the radula? 207. What are some of the functions of the mantle in mollusks? 208. What adaptations help the octopus and the squid escape their predators? 209. Suppose you are given an unknown mollusk to identify. The specimen does not have a shell. How could you decide whether the mollusk is an unshelled gastropod or a cephalopod? 10. The Greek philosopher Aristotle called worms “the intestines of the soil. ” What did he mean? 211. An oyster produces a natural pearl when a parasite or a bit of sand lodges between the shell and the mantle. The oyster then grows layers of pearl around the foreign body. What is the advantage of pearl making to the oyster? 212. Most cephalopods have eyes that are remarkably like vertebrate eyes and fully capable of forming a good image. However, the cephalopod eye develops wholly from the surface ectoderm, whereas the vertebrate eye develops from the neural tube.

What does this information indicate about whether or not the vertebrate eye evolved from the cephalopod eye? Alvin, a submersible vehicle used by oceanographers to study the ocean floor, has also proved invaluable in studying populations of deep-sea mollusks and segmented tube worms. The invertebrates in question live where hot seawater circulates through cracks in the ocean floor called deep-sea vents. Suppose that you are an invertebrate biologist studying these animals. Your studies show that clams that live near the vents may grow as much as 3. 8 cm per year—far more rapidly than other deep-water clams. 213.

Some researchers have hypothesized that life may have begun at deep-sea vents. Why might this be? 214. Segmented tube worms that live near the vents grow to lengths of 1. 5 m in contrast to the growth of related tube worms living in other environments, whose growth is measured only in centimeters at most. You hypothesize that the food that the worms eat is more abundant at the vents. When you collect samples of the worms, you discover that they have no mouth or other means of taking in food. Hypothesize how the tube worms are obtaining nutrients. 215. Suppose your data show that the temperature is the same in samples aken close to the vents and some distance away from the vents. However, the size of the clams is smaller the farther they are from the vents. What would this indicate? 216. Plan an experiment to prove your hypothesis. 217. Compare and contrast chelicerae and pedipalps. 218. Compare and contrast simple eye and compound eye. 219. When natural disasters strike natural areas, often the only animals to survive are the insects. Explain why this might happen. 220. How does living in colonies contribute to the survival of bees? 221. Describe an insect that has adapted to a windy, dry climate.

Explain its adaptations. 222. It is believed that arthropods evolved from the annelids. What differences, present in the arthropod structure, make arthropods better adapted to their environment? 223. How do web-spinning spiders create their webs? 224. How do compound eyes aid arthropods? 225. What are four uses of the jointed appendages of arthropods? Give examples. 226. How are insects adapted to living on land? 227. Suppose a new species of insect is introduced into an area as a natural control to rid the area of other insect pests. What are some possible advantages and disadvantages of doing this? 228.

Many barnacles live on rocks in the ocean and strain plankton from the water. Other barnacles that also feed on plankton live on the backs of gray whales. Which group do you think has better feeding opportunities, those on rocks or those on whales? 229. Why do arthropods lack muscle strength after molting? 230. How are their different modes of feeding reflected in the mouthparts of insects? 231. Fossils reveal that the horseshoe crab has remained almost unchanged for 500 million years. Why would an arthropod such as the horseshoe crab fail to evolve? What can you infer about the rate of change of its seaside environment?

Many invertebrates, from hydrozoans to mollusks and arthropods, have specialized sense organs for monitoring gravity. This sensitivity is related to their sense of equilibrium. Arthropods can sense when they are upright and when they are turned over. The organ that senses changes with respect to gravity is the statocyst, located at the base of each antennule of the crayfish. A statocyst is a chamber that contains sensory neurons with hairlike fibers and a solid mass of sand grains or hardened calcium salts, shown in Figure 28-1. These grains push against the hair cells, which then trigger signals in associated sensory neurons.

Figure 28-1 232. Hypothesize how the statocyst functions to keep a crayfish upright. Refer to Figure 28-1. 233. What could scientists do if their hypothesis were not supported by the data? Refer to Figure 28-1. 234. Referring to Figure 28-1, what would be the control in the experiment? 235. Write the names of the structures that make up the water vascular system in the order in which water passes through them. 236. Figure 29-1 shows the labeled parts of the water vascular system of a seastar. Match each of the following terms with the labels: tube foot, ring canal, radial canal, madreporite, ampulla.

Figure 29-1 237. If you found a small animal on the beach and noted that it had gill slits, muscle blocks, and a dorsal nerve cord, what else would you need to know to distinguish whether it was an invertebrate chordate or a vertebrate? 238. The larval stage of echinoderms is bilateral, even though the adult is radial. How do scientists know that adult echinoderms were once bilaterally symmetrical? How is this important? 239. Describe the process whereby a seastar feeds on a clam. 240. Why are echinoderms thought to be related to chordates? 241. Describe the nervous system of echinoderms. 242.

What are the functions of the water vascular system? 243. Describe two characteristics that set echinoderms apart from other organisms in the animal kingdom. Problem 244. Complete Table 26-1. |Coelom|Body Shape|Movement|# Body Openings| Flatworm||||| Roundworm||||| Table 26-1 Sand dollars have a system of food grooves on their ventral surface. When a thin veneer of food-containing sediment passes over their dorsal surface, fine particles of food in the sediment drop between the spines on the surface and are carried to the ventral surface. Once on the ventral surface, the fine matter passes to the food grooves.

There, choice bits of detritus are captured by the tube feet, which border the grooves, and are helped along to the mouth. Suppose that you are a taxonomist confronted with the task of determining the relationship among several families of the order Clypeasteroida, to which the sand dollars belong. You have many fossil sand dollars and are studying the differences in the arrangement of their food grooves. Refer to the diagrams in Figure 29-2. Figure 29-2 245. Which characteristic of the food grooves seems to have survived variations in the sand dollars’ environment?

Refer to Figure 29-2. 246. Why would taxonomists use food grooves to trace the evolution of sand dollars? See Figure 29-2. 247. Hypothesize about the advantage of food grooves on the ventral side of sand dollars. Refer to Figure 29-2. 248. Using Figure 29-2, explain which families were easiest to place in side branches that did not further evolve. 249. What characteristic did you use to establish where to place the Mellitidae? Use Figure 29-2. 250. Which families in Figure 29-2 were most difficult to place? Explain.