Economic Anthropology

This paper will briefly describe the meaning of anthropology and its scope. And closer examine principles that govern production, distribution and consumption in horticultural and peasant communities. Anthropology is the study of man. But economic anthropology corresponds to one of fields of anthropology which is known as ‘cultural anthropology – the study of human culture and behavior across cultures. It describes and explains human condition across all cultures and times. Economic anthropology is the study of the economic aspects of cultures.

This subfield of cultural anthropology examines the relationships between systems of production, striation and the socio-cultural matrix in which economic life is embedded. Thus placing economic structures such as markets, commodities, money and others within a cultural context by paying particular attention to the ways in which various factors, for example, relations of power, kinship, gender, ecological factors and others, affect the structure and organization of economic institutions, decisions and behavior.

To study this, economic anthropologists usually observe the people they study or their artifacts for extended periods of time through fieldwork. Moreover usually it is participant observation”, which means that anthropologists live in the local community and are involved in activities. Most of information is generated by conversations, interviews and observations. Economic anthropology proves that economic sphere of behavior is not separate from social, religious and political spheres. In fact, it has wider scope than most industrialized societies.

Economic anthropologists emphasize that economic behavior and institutions shouldn’t be analyzed only in terms of economic parameters, otherwise it merely ignores the relevant non-economic parameters. They focus on economic activities at the micro- level, like microeconomics, because it looks at the smaller picture and focuses more on basic theories and individuals. Economic anthropologists study processes of production and consumption of different sorts of objects in social settings. By ‘objects’ here it is meant different material things, as well as what people do for each other, for example, providing of labor and services.

Economic anthropologist differs from economists in ways of studying economic processes. Latter restricts themselves to monetary transactions, whereas anthropologists are concerned with all forms of reduction and circulation, be it monetary or not. Also they are trying to describe and understand economic actions in social and cultural context. An important concept in economic anthropology is modes of production. Anthropologists usually study the domestic mode of production – economic system where the bulk of productive tasks are performed by members of the domestic group who live together.

Main modes of production are foraging, horticulturalist, nomadic pastoralist and peasant farming. Horticulture is plant cultivation which is not intensive; it is based on the use of impel tools and cyclical, non-continuous use crop lands. This subsistence pattern involves at least part time planting and tending of domesticated food plants. Some of horticulturalists produce a small surplus to sell or exchange for things that they can’t produce themselves. Slash-and-burn cultivation, ‘Sweden’ agriculture and shifting cultivation are alternative labels for horticulture. Sweden’ is an agricultural strategy that necessitates the slashing, cutting, telling, and burning to tottered areas tort the planting of impermanent garden plots or agricultural fields, and that has been the mainstay of horticulturalists and peasant farmers in the tropics and primeval. This method of agricultural intensification, more widely known as “slash-burn” agriculture. It is often associated with patterns of shifting cultivation or extensive agriculture via which soil exhaustion or weed intrusion necessitates plot rotation and fallow cycles.

To assure sustainable fertility the farm plot is abandoned when labor input rises to an unreasonable level and when there is decline in productivity. This allows reverting to the original natural vegetation again. This is ‘shifting pattern’ of field use. Religion plays significant role in governing processes in this culture. They have term ‘use rights’ but not as something that an individual can own and sell. Peasants usually produce primarily for their own consumption, using simple labor- intensive technology. Secants as well are small-scale, but they are intensive agriculturalists. Their production is usually defined as being organized by domestic units such as households. Despite the fact that peasants are self-sufficient, they also produce foodstuffs and other goods that flow into urban centers, thus tying them into cities and markets. Peasants can be incorporated within different modes of production, with differing access to the means of production, and subject to different forms or appropriation of surplus.

Peasants can be owners of the land they cultivate, with their surpluses appropriated by the state or other outside power holders. Land can be owned by a feudal lord, who owns everything what is produced, in such case peasants are bounded as serfs to this land. Or peasants can be renters who contractually divide their crops with a landowner or must sell a portion to pay their rent. The allocation of factors of production by a peasant household results from overall factors.

It varies according to characteristics of the domestic mode of production, the division of labor, attributions, and responsibilities within the household; it is influenced by mechanisms existing at the community level; it will be constrained or favored by endowments of the natural environment; last but not least – aspects of the broader society, and the political economy resulting from state policies and market intervention play an essential role in peasant decision making. The family is the basic unit of production, and gender and age are important in organizing work.

Productive work is usually performed by men while women are assigned to work at home, processing food, maintaining the household, and caring for children. Basically men are more involved with the outside, but women – in the domestic domain. Male labor and decisions are predominating. Peasant agriculture can be intensive. It is usually in high population areas. In general main principles are the same, except that intensive peasants are more connected with economics and involved in markets. Due to substantial investment in land, peasants have concept of property right.

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George Reid Andrews Afro Latin America

GEORGE REID ANDREWS: AFRO-LATIN AMERICA In this paper, I would arguer that the history of USA is intertwined with the issue of Blacks – their enslavement and freedom but it has not as yet been focused that this subject has far greater impact in Central and Latin America, thus the greater impact of blacks in Central and Latin America would be the main theme or argument of this paper. This book, Afro-Latin America by George Reid, is the first attempt to focus on this side of the African Diaspora. With remarkable skill George Reid Andrews has woven the history of people who came from Africa to South America – broadly speaking.

He traces their path from slavery to freedom and how this in turn left its stamp on the politics, economics and culture of this region. As individuals and as groups they pursued the path towards freedom, equality and acquirement of citizenship by being part of the military, political movements, civic bodies, unions, religious activities and in various cultural streams. The book travels through two centuries and should be of interest in all interested in the past, present and future of Latin America. It is one of the best anthropological accounts of this region.

The style is gripping with detailed statement of experiences, of the people of African origin in the former colonies of Spain and Portugal and the stamp of their influence on these parts on all walks of life – society, economics and culture. While the history of the Blacks is well researched and ably presented in USA, it is not so with Latin America where there is still an air of mystery and vacuum. It is ironical that it should be so considering the fact that it has the highest number of Africans residing here outside the African continent (Fagundes 68-78).

The book starts with the stunning statement – “New Census Shows Hipics now Even with Blacks, the headline proclaimed. Documenting a profound shift in the racial and ethnic composition of American Society, the 2000 census of the United States showed that, as a result of the continuing immigration from Latin America during the 1990s the national Hipic population had grown by more than 60%. For the first time ever the country’s 35. 3 million Hipic residents slightly exceeded the black population of 34. million” (Andrews 3). The Blacks and Hipics are not always distinct groups as is generally thought of. In Latin America blacks comprise a quarter of the population. The “heart of the New World African Diaspora” (Andrews 3) lies not in the north of the border in USA but in South America. During the slave period ten times more Africans came to Spanish and Portuguese America than to USA. By the close of 1900 the former outnumbered the latter by 3:1 – 22% of the population in Latin America while it was 12% in USA.

With immigration, commerce and tourism ties are getting stronger and hence it is necessary to sketch a history of the Latin American African Diaspora as distinct from USA African Diaspora. In this book such an attempt has been made. The term Afro-Latin-American made its debut sometime during the 70s. Hitherto it was Afro-Venezuelans, Afro-Cubans etc. Latin America is the cluster of American countries under the rule of Spain or Portugal from 1500 to 1800 (Madrigal 99-108). There are many other people living in this region – not only those who have come from Africa; there are Indians, Whites, Asians etc.

But whether as a minority or majority the Black presence is strong in the field of agriculture and slavery. Blackness has become synonymous with a lower social status leading to a popular mass culture. The proportion of Blacks fell because of neglect disease and death. Also there was more mobility and mixing in the south unlike the rigidity of the north. Black tended to become whiter with material success; the Black became the Pardo or Mulatto. The idea was to bar them from European ancestry privileges (Aguiar 299-308). The book is not about the race as defined scientifically but as used socially.

It looks at the issue from two angles – it delves on the multi racial society of Afro-Latin-America and also as the single largest group of Africans who had been uprooted from their original homeland. Whatever the shade of black the author uses the term to refer to that group whose African ancestry is known and recognized. The previous plantation regions of Latin America were shaped irrevocably “by the presence of Africans and their descendants” (Andrews 284). Hence to understand what it is like today one has to know about the people who carved it to be what it is now.

In reacting to the constraints of slavery on the one hand there were the obvious violent actions like running away, revolt, theft and attack while on the other there was a slower but more lasting response like negotiating with the masters, taking into hand speed of work, appealing to courts, forming families and keeping alive African practices (Aguiar 299). Runaway slaves formed communities, black militias and mutual aid societies were formed and the people expressed their feeling through formation of athletic, social and cultural clubs.

Soon civic organizations, political parties and newspapers made their debut. It all rolled into the formation of civil rights movement. By the end of 1800 slavery had been abolished in Latin America (Halperin 489-495). Chapter one covers the first years of slavery while in chapters four and five the author tries to explain how the colored communities tried to whiten and blacken themselves in trying to find their identity that would be acceptable to their own community as well as to the Whites against the background of a growing mixed population. Here, there arose a problem.

In USA there was a clear cut line dividing the Blacks and Whites. But in Latin America the Afro-Latin people penetrated different layers of society and economy with politics having an influence. Many of the Blacks were free and could not be bracketed with the salves. Europeans, Native Americans and people from the Asia added to the cocktail to make a mixing of blood rarely seen elsewhere. Thus the concept of race no longer remained a scientific issue but related to socio-economic factors (Bizumic 871-899). The biggest influence was felt in the sphere of culture – in dancing, music and religion.

Andrew goes into detail saying how initially they were termed as barbaric by the Europeans and then in the 20th century there began a change of attitude when the idea of nationhood took roots. Capoeira, Cndomble and Carnaval are three of the significant cultural expressions that have their roots in the tradition of Africa. There is an underlying belief that Africa is very much throbbing and alive in these modern cultural renditions. Ironically the Europeans have also taken these on and absorbed them in their psyche. The book focuses on these aspects and at the end the reader is left with a feeling that more could have been said.

Instead of devoting separate chapters on these themes he has scattered these all through the book. He has focused more on economics and politics. After reading the book there is the feeling that the problems of race are going to be more complex in Latin America than what is going on in USA (Shrestha 113-139). In this sense this book is a good introduction to understand the present to gauge the future. The book however would be rather heavy for the casual reader but it is great for serious thinkers and scholars. The author details the relationship and effect of the coming of the people of Africa to Latin America.

There are detailed notes and bibliography to guide the students. It is ideal for all interested in the race factor and the trans-Atlantic slave trade that happened in this part of the world as distinct from USA. Slavery is stressed in USA but the fact is that it existed much earlier in places like Brazil. The book reveals new facts that have so far remained unknown. It will enlighten the reader about the birth of the countries of the western world and the large part the people of African descent had played for it to become what we see today.

This book introduces the reader to the history of the Blacks connected with Brazil, Colombia, Cuba, Venezuela, Puerto Rica etc. and supports the thesis that the influence of blacks in the South America is far more greater than that of mainland United States. Works cited Aguiar, Gilberto. Effects of demographic and ethnohistorical factors on average heterozygosities of South Amerindians. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 88. 3, (2000): 299-308. Andrews, George Reid. Afro-Latin America, 1800-2000. NY: Oxford University PressUS, 2004. Bizumic, Boris. A cross-cultural investigation into a reconceptualization of ethnocentrism.

European Journal of Social Psychology 39. 6, (2009): 871-899. Fagundes, Nelson. Genetic, geographic, and linguistic variation among South American Indians. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 117. 1, (2002): 68-78. Halperin, Edward. The poor, the Black, and the marginalized as the source of cadavers. Clinical Anatomy, 20. 5, (2007): 489-495. Madrigal, Leo. Ethnicity, gene flow, and population subdivision in Limon, Costa Rica. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 114. 2, (2001): 99-108. Shrestha, Nanda. Black migration at the margin of freedom. International Journal of Population Geography, 9. 2, (2003): 113-139.

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Society Methods Of Sustainability

Energy captured, production, population, and exchange are all evident in various cultures and societies throughout time. Because these factors affect all humans and societies equally, they must all equally be accounted for within that particular culture/society methods of sustainability. The first example I will use to Illustrate this point will be Britain’s empire during the 16th-18th centuries. Britain at the time had Its scope of influence include over 15th of the world’s entire population. This expansive effort to colonize or commercialism by sea led to Britain’s global dominance during the era.

By establishing colonies and trade routes throughout the world, Brutal was able to use human labor In various colonies to grow cash crops and food to serve Britain’s empire (economy). This was especially Important considering Britain’s geography and land made for a poor agrarian society. Using wind and human labor, the British were able to build ships and a powerful navy to traverse the 7 oceans for profit, production, and exchange. My second example will be the pilgrims and settlers of the 13 original colonies before the American Revolution.

The original pilgrims and settlers of the 13 original colonies ere largely unsuccessful in their attempts to establish colonies in North America. It took a few tries before the colonies became fully established and functioning; illness, starvation, and a lack of sustainable resources lead to death for many in these starter colonies. Because these initial immigrants lacked the resources or knowledge to cultivate the land effectively, they experienced hardships until they learned how to collaborate with others.

Luckily for them, the pilgrims and settlers began bartering and learning to hunt and cultivate crops with the French and Native-American peoples of North America at the time. While we are all aware that the Native Americans and settlers did not always get along due to conflicts over land and power, they did however, stand to learn and gain from each other’s technology for the self- preservation of their own societies/cultures when they were not at odds with one another.

My third and last example will be the Egyptians that built the Ancient Egyptian empire/the Pyramids thousands of years before Christ. Geographically speaking, Egypt was poised to be one of the ancient world’s superpowers due to Its location next to the Nile River. Without the Nile, Egypt simply could not have come to existence due to its arid desert climate. Production, population, and Egyptian society flourished because sustainability was possible due to the Nile River allowing agriculture, trade, and expansion to exist.

The Importance of the Nile River to Ancient Egypt culture and way of life was evident In their polytheistic religion – they prayed/ made tributes to their gods whom they believed controlled the Sun, the Nile, etc. Anthropology essay By annoyances culture/society methods of sustainability. The first example I will use to illustrate had its scope of influence include over 15th of the world’s entire population. This Britain was able to use human labor in various colonies to grow cash crops and food to serve Britain’s empire (economy).

This was especially important considering Britain’s geography and land made for a poor agrarian society. Using wind and human labor, the British were able to build ships and a powerful Ana to traverse the Egypt was poised to be one of the ancient world’s superpowers due to its location agriculture, trade, and expansion to exist. The importance of the Nile River to Ancient Egypt culture and way of life was evident in their polytheistic religion – they prayed/

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What is Anthropology

Cultural anthropologists investigate the culture and social organization of a particular group of people, colonization, traditions, and gender relations.

Linguistic Anthropology-Linguistic is a science of language. Linguistic anthropology studies the process of human communication. It examines the relationship between language and other aspects of culture like ethnicity, social status and colonization.

Archeology-field of anthropology that examines the distribution and form of artifacts, and the cultural patterns or movement of ancient life.

It aims to reconstruct man’s past behavior by studying sills and artifacts. Franz Boas-Father of American Anthropology. Early Beginnings of Culture and Society The present modern human being had evolved through natural mutation, normal variation, and natural selection. The evolution Is characterized by developments which occurred six million years or more ago, during the successive divisions of tertiary period. The period has five epochs:

  1. Pliocene-also known as “early recent” lasted around 65 million years ago. Marked by demise of dinosaurs, as well as existence of pre-primates like femur.
  2. Eocene-lasted 30-45 million years ago. It is marked by warm tropical climates, along with the appearance of the order of mammals and provision-Like primates. Anthropoids appeared during this period.
  3. Occurred like the appearance of elephants with trunks and early horses.
  4. Miocene- lasted around 23 million years ago. Its landscape is marked by the development of two major ecosystems: kelp forest and grasslands.
  5. Pliocene-lasted 5 million years ago.

Characterized by cooling and drying of the global environment. These changes led to the further spread of grasslands and growth of savannas.

  1. Social Solidarity-members live and work together for mutual benefit.
  2. National or Cultural Identity-members of society share a common culture which enables them to follow patterns of action for harmonious existence with others.
  3. Language-members use common language to communicate with one another.
  4. Hierarchical Resynchronization is an economic, social and industrial organization.
  5. Large membership-it’s the largest social unit.

Types of Society

  1. Hunting, fishing and gathering-earliest form of human society. People survived by researching gathering food and by small game of hunting wild animals. The division of labor was based on sex. The males were the hunters and the females participated in the shore fishing and gathering and preserving food. Woman likewise, were tasked with child care.
  2. Horticultural Society-existed years ago. During these times, people began to plant and cultivate crops rather than Just harvest whatever nature provided them.
  3. Pastoral Society-Depends on herding and domestication of animals for food and clothing. Animals provide milk, fuel, sheared fur and even blood.
  4. Agricultural Society-existed about 5,000-6,000 years ago. The agricultural society is characterized by the use of plow and irrigation in production. Because of this, men became capable of producing huge surpluses.
  5. Industrial Society-substitution from human and animal labor to mechanical, electrical, and fossil-fuel energy.
  6. Post-industrial Society-depends on special knowledge to bring about continuing progress in technology. The spread of computer industries is one of the characteristics of this society. Colombo, Millers P. Leans, Teresa C. Mere, Alicia T. Villain

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Ethnography Paper

This is my first time that I come to New York, so I am curious about many things in this new place, such as the famous resorts, and the people here. As we know, the Times Square is very famous in New York. When I was in China, I hope I can visit Times Square, because I saw Times Square was very great in some of the opening of American series. Now, I am in New York, and I have enough chances to visit Times Square whenever I want. In there, it gives me a new horizon to understand the culture that is different from China. I have been to Times Square for two times, and I have a very deep impression on it.

It locates in the interchange of Manhattan 42 west street and Broadway avenue. It is interesting that Times Square is not a square area, but a triangular square. I must say it is really the most prosperous place in the world, although it is not very huge as other squares in our mind. There are many theaters, clothing stores, as well as some famous companies. The buildings there are very high, which reflects the boom of this popular city. In Times Square, there is a huge advertising board that presenting various kinds of advertisements, also including Chinese advertisements.

On August 28th, the first time I went to Times Square, I saw my friends and I were on this advertising board, which was very exciting for us. I heard from a local friend that Times Square is a crazy area in New York, because you can find museums, hotels, and whatever you want, and all of these things are full of popular elements. It only takes people about ten minutes get to another famous place, the Fifth Avenue, where people can see many luxury brands. Moreover, Times Square is also near to the Central Park, appearing in many renowned movies.

It is the symbol of New York City, and it also presents the luxuriousness of the Upper East Side of Manhattan. Besides the magnificent buildings, people in there are also worth to consider. People must be amazing that there are various kinds of people there. They are white, yellow, black, coming from everywhere in the world. Some of them are the local people, and they come here to go shopping or watching a movie. Some of them are tourists, and they come here to go sightseeing, feeling the culture of American. It is a fashionable place, but if you think that only young people come here, and then you are wrong.

People from all ages prefer to come to Times Square. Young people can enjoy themselves, as well as elderly. Young people can find the fashionable elements that suit their tastes, while old people prefer to come here to watch a refined opera. Even the children would like to come here, though they are too young to feel the fashion or the culture, but they like the toy stores here. There are different kinds of toy stores and candy shops that are for children, so that children can be adjusted to their wonderful world. What’s more, it is a great place that attracts both men and women.

There are a lot of make-up stores and clothing that like a heaven to women. And for men, there are many sports stores that appeal to them. At night, Times Square is also a popular place, due to the various pubs. Many beautiful young ladies and handsome gentlemen go in and out these pubs, which is also a wonderful scenery in this prosperous city. There are diverse kinds of people come here for different reasons, and everyone enjoys himself very much. Every time I came here, I would encounter some interesting activities. The first time I came to Times Square, I saw a naked man, singing at the roadside, with his guitar.

I was astonished, as this was the first time for me to see a man with an underwear singing in the busy square. Many people took pictures with him, and everyone was friendly to each other. On the other side of the street, a band, consisting of four children, sang a song with their instruments. This band attracted many tourists, because they were so young, but they played very well. After they sang a song, all the people gave their applause. What’s more, people could see the staffs that wore costumes wandering everywhere. Every tourist could take pictures with them, if they wanted to.

The staffs were very kind, and sometimes they would tell you some interesting things that happened in Times Square. When I came to Times Square on the second time, I saw a group of people having a parade there. They promoted that Taiwan should become free from the mainland of China. They gave me their leaflets, but I didn’t take, as I am the member of the mainland of China. It was also worth to state that people communicated with each other friendly, though they were from different countries. They shared their experiences and cultures with each other, which could really broaden the horizon.

It is an amazing place that people will have passion here, and prefer to talk with others just like old friends. In Times Square, everyday likes a festival, because it is always a lively square where all the people can enjoy themselves. After I saw the place, the people, and their interaction, I got the deep understanding of the United States. I have to admit that America is the busiest city in the world. In Beijing, which is the best city in China, I have never seen so many grand buildings in one area as in Times Square. As Times Square is the symbol of New York, I can see the fashion of this city.

And I also find that people here prefer to watch opera, because there is a long line in front of every theater. From the restaurant, I can obtain the American’s taste that they prefer the fast-food, which is convenient and cheap. Furthermore, from the clothing stores, I can get their clothing style that the casual style of the clothes will suit them. In addition, I find that the United States is a diverse society. It welcomes all the people that come from every corner of the world, ignoring the races and ages. In Times Square, you can find there are different kinds of people with different races and colors, and they all have a good time.

In this nowadays’ United States, everyone is equal, and there is no discrimination, so all the people can play together and have a happy time in their life. Most people in the world prefer to have a chance to come to the United States, because not only it is a prosperous country, but also it is equal to everyone. As a result, all the people feel comfortable here. Through observing the people in Times Square, I find that even the old people have the passion toward the life. In other countries, like in China, elderly do not prefer to join activities in a busy area.

In the contrast, the old people in America still have the energy to join the activities and live a life that they want. In New York, everyone is very happy, and I can feel their happiness in their heart, from their expressions and actions. It is obvious that America is a good country that welcomes everyone in different countries. From the interaction of the people in Times Square, I find that Americans are very friendly to all the people, even though they do not recognize. The staffs there are very kind to provide the help, when the tourists meet some difficulties.

The local people are very nice, and they often share the local cultures with the newcomers. When I was there, I don’t feel lonely, because I can see the smile on everyone’s face, which makes me feel comfortable. Americans are a group of people that are full of passion and energy. They would like to pass this happiness to every other people, so whenever you come to Times Square, you will find that this place is filled with happiness. From the activities there, I would like to say that it is a country that is full of openness and freedom. In China, you may never have a chance to see a naked man singing a song in a square.

China is a traditional country, so sometimes it cannot accept the open thought. However, the United States is a country, full of its traditions, as well as its openness. In addition, I think America is a freedom country. Times Square is one of the busiest places in New York. Everyone can tell their inner voices here, not banned by the government. On the second time I went to Times Square, I saw a group people stating that Taiwan should be free from China. Although I don’t agree with this idea, I believe that everyone has the right to say what they want.

In China, this kind of parade must be forbidden, not to mention that holding an activity like this in a famous square, such as Tiananmen Square. Therefore, the United States is a country that people can have a freedom of speech. Here, people can say whatever they want, even though their saying may be not the same as the government’s. In China, if people say that Taiwan should be free from China, they must be banned. Although I do not agree with this idea, I think people have the right to say out their opinion, and no one can bother them.

I think that is the reason that why most of people prefer to come to the United States. People will be treated equally, and they can feel free in this country. The most outstanding advantage of this country is that every people will get freedom that is valuable to everyone. Under the visiting Times Square for two times, I can draw a conclusion of the American culture. Trough seeing, hearing and feeling of the busiest square in New York, I know that Manhattan is one of the luxuriant places in the world, with numerous great buildings.

In addition, I also learned American custom, like their clothes style and their food style. Moreover, I liked the people here, because they are friendly and kind to everyone, ignoring your countries, races and colors. From observing a symbol place of America, I admire this country’s openness and its freedom. It shows that every citizen is the host of this country, and every of them can say the opposite ideas. In fact, because of these opposite voices, the country can make more progress than before, so that people can live a happy life.

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Techniques Used In Estimating The Age Architecture Essay

Table of contents

Forensic anthropologists are experienced in the designation of human remains. One of the first inquiries to be asked upon the find of skeletal remains is are they of a human or animate being? Once the beginning of the castanetss has been established it so has to be determined as to whether the remains are of forensic or archeological birthplace. The customary clip he lapsed since decease should be less than 70 old ages if it is to be classed as a forensic instance. This is due to the fact that if the remains are discovered after 70 old ages it will be harder to convey an person to justness or a dependable informant being found. ( Scheuer 2002 )

The usage of Osteological stuff in a forensic instance is peculiarly utile during the designation procedure of disconnected or disarticulated remains. Age is merely one of the four chief biological properties used in the designation of skeletal remains. ( Zioupos et al 2004 ) . All must be considered independently ab initio before uniting or properties in order of obtaining possible designation. The four chief properties of biological individuality that most forensic anthropologists paper to find are age, sex, stature and cultural background. The truth of these depend chiefly on which a peculiar elements of the organic structure are present and besides the province of saving of the remains. The truth of designation besides varies harmonizing to whether the person is an grownup or a juvenile.

The appraisal of age at decease of grownup skeletal remains is one of the more hard undertakings undertaken by physical anthropologists. ( Buckberry and Chamberlain 2002 )

Determining age at decease

Age related alterations in the skeleton may reflect three different stages of the lifetime ; growing and development, stableness and aging. The first stage is represented by kids and immature grownups, who undergo alterations that proceed at a moderately predictable rate in a good documented form. Once growing has ceased at alterations in grownup forms even within a individual skeletons vary greatly and are more single and population particular. They are besides affected by factors such as wellness position business and nutrition. In add-on most of the methods used in grownup aging rely on methods developed from big archeological samples of all known sex and age.

Aging in grownups can be carried out utilizing dentitions, sutura closing and the otic surface of the Ilium. Morphological alterations of the otic surfaces of the illium provide first-class age indexs for grownup remains. This surface undergoes regular progressive alterations from age 18 onwards. Using the criterion aging stage set out by Todd ( 1920 ) it is possible to determine an age scope of +- 10 old ages. Using the suturas of the skull it is besides possible to gauge age in grownups. This is done utilizing a marking system set out by Meindl and Lovejoy ( 1985 ) . These suturas fuse together at different times during life. Another method is utilizing the wear on dentitions ; chiefly it is easier to utilize the grinders. This is because one time the lasting dentitions have erupted they start to have on. These wear forms are caused when masticating and diet. Besides wear can be contributed to by crunching dentitions. These criterions are set out by Lovejoy ( 1985 ) besides give a scope of +- 10 old ages. There is besides another method for aging utilizing dentitions which is utilizing root transparence set out by Lamendin et Al ( 1992 ) .

Yet once more because of the atomization of the castanetss it is non ever possible to age them. Aging juveniles is a little easier as juvenile castanetss fuse together at the epiphysis at different phases in growing and development. Besides in juveniles it is possible to age so utilizing the eruption of dentitions.

The Auricular surface of the Troy

Buckberry and Chamberlain ( 2002 ) based their methods of aging utilizing the Auricular surface of the Ilium on a method that was foremost set out by Lovejoy Et Al ( 1985 ) . This method was used to enter age related phases for different characteristics of the Auricular surface. Which are so combined to supply a composite mark from which an appraisal of age at decease is obtained. Lovejoy described eight modal age phases into which the Auricular surface could be placed utilizing these primary ripening characteristics. However the separate characteristics of the Auricular surface described by Lovejoy Et Al ( 1985 ) such as porousness, surface texture, and fringy alterations appear to develop independently of each other. The age of oncoming for each phase of the different characteristics of the Auricular surface appear to change, and as a effect the five twelvemonth age classs of Lovejoy Et Al ( 1985 ) tend to overlap. Early appearance characteristics still present on the Auricular surface of older persons were described by Lovejoy Et Al ( 1985 ) as “ residuary ” . The fact that this fluctuation that can happen within a individual regular surface indicates that this method oversimplifies the alterations seen, and that the five twelvemonth interval in assorted strategies of age appraisal may be optimistically to contract. This job and contributes to the trouble found when using this method as it leads to uncertainness and in some instances confusion in delegating single Auricular surfaces two a peculiar age phase.

In position of these jobs Buckberry and Chamberlain ( 2002 ) revised the method set out by Lovejoy Et Al ( 1985 ) . Each characteristic of the Auricular surface was examined separately. This system will do it easier to use and suit the convergence are frequently seen between different phases. It utilised all the alterations seen in the Otic surface as used by Lovejoy Et Al ( 1985 ) . The method used by Buckberry and Chamberlain ( 2002 ) instead than being grouped together with all the characteristics into five twelvemonth modal age phases. The revised Auricular surface method of age appraisal allows for a more realistic reading of the alterations. Although the age estimations produced by this method are wider, this method is easier to use and may be more dependable than that of Lovejoy Et Al ( 1985 ) .

The pubic symphysis

The pubic symphyses have importance in the field of forensic anthropology, as they can be used to gauge the age of grownup skeletons. Throughout life, the surfaces of the pubic symphysis are worn at a more or less predictable rate. By analyzing the wear of the pubic symphysis, it is possible to gauge the age of the individual at decease.

Up to the age of 40 old ages the morphology of the ventral Demiface of the pubic symphysis undergoes a drawn-out period of age related alteration, and can hence be used in age appraisal utilizing component stage analysis ( Suchey 1979 ; Brooks and Suchey 1990 ) .

The morphological characteristics on the symphyseal surface used in finding age of an person are ridges and furrows, dorsal border, ventral bevelling, lower appendage, ossific nodule, ventral bulwark, dorsal tableland and symphyseal rim ( Sinha and Gupta 1995 )

Juveniles

Estimating the age in juveniles is a comparatively hard thing to make. Juvenile age is reliant on the epiphysial merger of the articulations ; the finding of the figure of erupted dentitions might lend to the appraisal of age at decease every bit good as to the designation process of unknown skeletons.

During the development and growing the skeleton undergoes a sequence of alterations get downing with the formation and eruption of deciduous dentitions and their replacing with lasting teething this procedure is normally completed excepting the 3rd grinders by about the age of 12. Although the timing of this can change a small depending on sex, race, and wellness factors. Age at decease in juveniles can normally be estimated to within 1year if the appropriate criterions are used.

Several methods of dental age appraisal in non-adults have been used: the Atlass method of Schour and Massler ( 1940 ) , the diagram of Gustafson and Koch ( 1974 ) . For the intent of this work the specific set by Ubelaker ( 1989 ) will be used. A new method for aging juveniles utilizing tooth eruption is a comprehensive grounds based Atlass which can be used to gauge age utilizing both tooth development and alveolar eruption for persons between 28 hebdomadsin utero up to 23 old ages ; the chief difference between this method and the method set out by Ubelaker ( 1989 ) is that it shows developmental ages without spreads or convergences AlQahtani et Al ( 2009 ) .

Bibliography

Demirjian A, Goldstein H. Tanner JM. ( 1973 ) A new system of dental age appraisal. Hum. Biol. 45 211-227

Lamendin H, Baccino E, Humbert JF, Tavernier JC, Nossintchouk RM, Zerilli A ( 1992 ) . A simple technique for age appraisal in grownup cadavers: The two standards dental method. Journal of forensic scientific disciplines 37:1973-1379

AlQahtani S J, H M Liversidge, M P Hector ( 2009 ) . Atlas of human toothdevelopment and eruption. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. ( In print ) .

Sinha A, Gupta V. ( 1995 ) A survey on appraisal of age from pubic symphysis. Forensic Science International. 75:73-78

Buckberry J, Chamberlain A. ( 2002 ) . Age appraisal from the otic surface of the illium: A revised method. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 119:231-239

Todd TW. ( 1920 ) . Age alterations in the pubic bone I. The male white pubic bone. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 3:285-334

Lovejoy C, Meindl R, Pryzbeck T, Mensforth R. ( 1985 ) . Chronological metabolism of the otic surface of the illium: a new method for the finding of grownup skeletal age at decease. American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 68:15-28

Scheuer L. ( 2002 ) . Application of Osteology to forensic medical specialty. Clinical Anatomy. 15:297-312

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Anthropology Essays – The Origin of Medicine

The Origin of Medicine

Ancient Egyptian Medicine

CAIRO, APRIL 2008: Ancient Egyptian civilisation has contributed important developments to all sorts of human cognition, and medical specialty is non an exclusion. Ancient Egyptians used to name a physician a “physician” mentioning to an active, a professional and a wise individual. A doctor was able to cover with what might go on during day-to-day pattern every bit aptly as a countryside general practician would make today. The physician’s occupation was non merely to go to ill people and to urge a intervention but besides a doctor would fix and distribute medicine. The doctor was normally a priest and possibly with good cognition of other humanistic disciplines.

Ancient Egyptians were the first known people to hold had a elaborate survey of medical specialty and to go forth written records to depict the healing patterns. The oldest Egyptian medical texts day of the month back about to 2000 B.C. These texts were moderately free of the magician attack to handle unwellness.

The earliest known doctor in history was Hesyre, who was the “Chief tooth doctor and Physician” of King Djoser in the twenty-seventh Century BC. The earliest known female doctor was besides an Egyptian. Peseshet practiced medical specialty during the period of the 4th dynasty ( 2600 B.C ) . Her rubric was “Lady Overseer of the Lady Physicians” . Equally good as practising medical specialty, Peseshet had a supervisory place and graduated many accoucheuses at the ancient medical school in Sais ( Sa el-Hagar today ) .

Concept of the human organic structure:

Ancient Egyptians tried to apologize and understand the physiology of the human organic structure. Given how of import River Nile was for life, Ancient Egyptians would say similitude to the flow of the mighty river and to how it irrigated the Fieldss. They assumed the human organic structure, by analogy, had channels that flowed with blood, breathed air and H2O. Peoples would fall ill if a obstruction to these channels happened. For illustration, they believed that bad nutrient would bring forth gases, which in bend would barricade these channels. They, hence, assumed that most of the diseases were because of improperly digested nutrient.

Impressions of physiology and disease focused on the bosom as the centre of the homo. The bosom was one’s spouse ; it spoke to a individual in his or her purdah. It was at the same clip the engine of all the bodily work, non merely circulation. From the bosom, continued channels ( Metu ) linked all parts of the organic structure together. Metu did non mention merely to blood vass, but besides to the respiratory tubing, canals of assorted secretory organs, spermous canal, the musculuss, sinews and ligaments.

The Goddess of medical specialty ( Sekhmet ) :

Sekhmet was originally the warrior Goddess of Upper Egypt. Ancient Egyptians figured her as a lioness, the fiercest huntsman known to them. They believed that her pant created the waterless part beyond the Nile Bankss, and considered Sekhmet the defender of all Pharaohs.

The name Sekhmet became synonymous to the Goddess of Medicine during the Middle Kingdom. Therefore, doctors, tooth doctors and veterinary practicians were the “Priests of Sekhmet” . The caput of lioness symbolized power and the supreme divinity of mending. The priests of Sekhmet were the specializers in medical specialty and surgery.

Medical preparation:

Students learned the medical profession at schools called the “Houses of Life” . The coachs had given them some applied experience, but chiefly the pupils had to larn from the written papyri full of cognition and experience. The medical texts were non merely a font of professional cognition but besides a precaution against possible failure.

Classs of Ancient Egyptian Physicians:

The societal category of Egyptian Physicians existed since the yearss of the Old Kingdom. Medical specialisation besides existed. Writing of travels to Egypt, Herodotus ( 484-425 BC ) noted, “The pattern of medical specialty based on a program of separation. Each specializer doctor treated a individual upset and non more. Therefore, Egypt was full of medical practicians, some project to bring around diseases of the oculus, others of the caput and others of the bowels. Specialist doctors did non needfully settle in the small towns and towns they practiced the art of healing” ( Herodotus: The Iranian Wars. P. 155 ) .

Many doctors were priests and some were Scribes as shown in rubrics like “Chief doctor and Scribe of the word of God” . Physician ranks were an ordinary doctor ( like a general practician of today ) , a senior doctor, an inspector, an superintendent and a “Master” of medical specialty. The Chief Physicians of the South and North were like curates of wellness. Royal and castle doctors had particular ranks and rubrics.

A practicing doctor had to larn the scientific discipline of drug readying and medicative workss. Ancient Egyptians held handling doctors in so much high esteem that they raised Imhotep ( the great doctor, 2700 BC ) after decease to a sacred position of the God of Medicine.

Ancient Egyptian remedies:

Because of old impressions of physiology and disease, laxatives had a important topographic point in Egyptian remedies. Ingredients included fresh algarroba bean, Castor oil and colocynth. Bulk laxatives of bran, figs and fresh fruits were besides in usage.

Doctors used Ca carbonate and figs as alkalizers. They besides used soured milk and honey to assist digestion. They mixed aggressive cathartics with “anticholinergics” such as Hyoscyamus ( atropine ) or carminatives as Cuminum cyminum, Chinese parsley and batch. Carob ( pulverization tasted like cocoa made from cods of a certain tree ) and gypsum ( calcium sulphate pulverization ) were effectual antidiarrheal remedies.

Egyptian doctors treated bosom conditions non as efficient, because the Egyptian doctors had trouble separating bosom and tummy symptoms. They recommended aloe, mustard, willow, Hyoscyamus and Punica granatum ( incorporating glycosides or utile vasodilatives ) . Diuretic drugs included Apium graveolens dulce, beer, algarroba bean and powdery day of the months.

Analgesics were few and restricted to carminatives or spasmolytics. Ancient doctors used effectual febrifuges as salt, alum and willow. However, no grounds exists to the usage of narcotics or other depressants until the Roman period ( 30 BC ) .

Treatment of musculoskeletal upset was topical with warm patchs, cataplasms or rubefacients ( medical specialties to blush and warm the tegument, known today as counter- thorns ) like mustard, gum terpentine, retem and olibanum. The Egyptians used Apium graveolens dulce for painful articulations ( it is still in usage today as antirheumatic drug ) . They used Crocus sativus to handle backache.

Doctors and accoucheuses used gynaecological medicines to excite labour, command construct or infection. They used common wormwood ( a bitter gustatory sensation works ) for catamenial upsets and diaphragms of crocodile droppings to function as preventive ( the sourness is spermicidal ) . They recommended interpolation of juniper oil to excite labour ( now known to increase uterine contraction and launch labour ) .

Ancient Egyptians have known parasitic infestations ; nevertheless, they did non acknowledge that bilharzia ( Bilharzias ) caused the haematuria ( blood in piss ) they described. Antihelminthic dugs based on Punica granatum, common wormwood, thyme and Sb, followed by a cathartic, controlled unit of ammunition worms and cestodes infestations.

Antiseptics and disinfectants were effectual. Egyptian doctors used phenols as thyme ( basil ) and bitumen ; intoxicants were beer and fermented grapes juice. They besides used minerals as Zn, Sb and Cu as styptics assorted in a medium for even distribution.

For cough, they recommended mixtures of honey, acacia and Sb with aromatic inspiration. Egyptian doctors used ammi visnaga ( incorporating a bronchodilator khellin ) to handle asthma.

Egyptian doctors treated oculus infections with antiseptic of Cu and honey, placed on the palpebras or in the oculus. They used acacia, algarroba bean and milk as demulcents for ophthalmic remedies.

Skin demulcents as acacia gum and works mucilage were popular. Doctors used Balanites oil, Castor oil and goose fat to command skin infections. They mixed these ingredients with salt, malachite or ochre and used the mixture for patchs. Ladanum treated dandruff. For phalacrosis, they used fats, oils and, symbolically, porcupine quills. For Burnss, they applied an antibacterial mixture of gum terpentine, Cu, oils and honey. To advance healing, they used Aloe vera.

Pharmacy in Ancient Egypt:

Pharmacy did non be as an independent profession in Ancient Egypt, but a compelling grounds exists of the Egyptians had professional protocols and criterions. The based the interventions conceptually, restricted by limited cognition of physiology. The footing of most medical specialties was herbs and veggies. Doctors used drugs in the signifier of pills, unctions and beads. They besides used dressings and deodorant readyings.

Ancient Egyptian doctors did non hold a formulary ( book of standard drugs ) . Alternatively, the medical papyri fulfilled the undertaking of a formulary. Medicines were proper and effectual that BPC ( British Pharmacopeia ) 1911 included 25 per centum of the available drug substances stemmed from Ancient Egyptian medicines.

Recommendation of a remedy, readying and dose pointed to awareness of possible benefits and dangers, without grounds of available formal respect to toxicity or contraindication to the medicines used. An Egyptian doctor could merely divert from a given intervention after four yearss, proposing singular protocol criterions.

The statement that placebo of Ancient Egyptian medicine was greater than the curative value appears untrue. What we grasp from Ancient Egyptian history marks a society aware of the demand for health care and intervention. Doctors used a diverse scope of works, animate being and mineral ingredients to this terminal. It is true that faith influenced Ancient Egyptians day-to-day life and so had to be intrinsic to medical pattern, yet as written in the medical papyri, documented rational intervention predominated that supported by supplications.

Some remedies from celebrated veggies and herbs:

  • Garlic: Believed to give verve, sooth flatulency and aid digestion. Egyptian doctors used garlic as a mild laxative and shrivel haemorrhoids ( hemorrhoids ) . During constructing the pyramids, supervisors delivered garlic daily to workers to give them verve and strength needed to transport on and execute good.
  • Onion: Doctors used onions to forestall colds, conveying about sweat, sooth sciatica and as a diuretic. Priests did non hold onions as neither nutrient nor medical specialty.
  • Cumin: It is widely available in Egypt ; doctors used it to increase the enteric gesture and to handle flatulency. Doctors who were handling joint achings assorted Cuminum cyminum with wheat flour, Chinese parsley and H2O to use as a cataplasm on the hurting articulation.
  • Parsley and benne: Doctors used any as a good water pill.
  • Mustard: The utilizations of mustard were to arouse purging and to alleviate thorax achings.
  • Coriander: The utilizations of Chinese parsley were many. It helped with loss of appetency, absent menses ( non because of gestation ) , a laxative and aphrodisiac. Ancient Egyptians believed that Chinese parsley has antifungal belongingss and deters insects. This is the cause of happening in Tutankhamen’s Tomb.

The oldest medical text editions:

The Ancient Egyptians recorded the medical information we are cognizant of in 12 papyri written in priestly book. They show the comparative edification of medical specialty in Ancient Egypt, consistence of pattern and length of service of remedies. The most of import papyri from the point of view of the elaborate description of unwellnesss and intervention are:

The Ebers Medical Papyrus:

This papyrus is 23 pages long and is largely an internal medical specialty mention. It includes anatomical and physiological mentions every bit good. It describes 876 formulas and 400 different drugs. The Ebers Papyrus consists of a list of recommendations for nutriments such as lesions, tummy ailments, gynaecological jobs and skin annoyances.

The Scribe calculated the sums of ingredients for a medical specialty harmonizing to fractions based on parts of Horus oculus. Until today, the RX symbol on each prescription refers to the Eye of Horus. For some unknown ground the Scribe who wrote it did non complete the papyrus, and ended in midsentence.

The Edwin Smith Medical Papyrus:

This papyrus is, possibly, the work of a physician associated with a pyramid-building work force. This five metres papyrus trades chiefly with jobs such as broken castanetss, disruptions and oppressing. The doctor divided the 48 instances documented into classs: “ An complaint which I will handle ” , “ An complaint with which I will postulate ” and “ An complaint non to handle ” .

It described symptoms of each of the documented instances, urging possible remedies. The Physician who wrote the papyrus was cognizant of blood circulation throughout the organic structure. The Scribe clearly recognized that patient’s pulsation reflects the status of the bosom. This papyrus includes a huge experience in bone hurts that can happen merely during edifice of the pyramids.

Similar to Edwin Smith papyrus, few paragraphs had rubrics. However, all paragraphs included the phrase: “ If you examine a patient with a… , ” a feature, which marks how close it is to the Edwin Smith Papyrus. This suggests that antediluvian Egyptian doctors recognized that scrutiny is indispensable to place the unwellness. Yet, the Scribe in both papyri did non advert the chances of the diseases.

The Kahun medical papyrus1900 BC

The oldest yet discovered, dating from the epoch of Amenemhat II. The Kahun Medical Papyrus describes methods of naming gestation and the sex of the unborn. It besides describes odontalgia during gestation, diseases and assorted complaints of females, and concerned with the uterus and finding of birthrate. The gynaecological text lies in 34 paragraphs, of which the first 17 have a common format. They start with a rubric followed by a brief description of the symptoms, normally, of a job of the generative variety meats. The 2nd subdivision begins on the 3rd page, and includes eight paragraphs, which, because of both the province of the bing transcript and the linguistic communication, are about unintelligible. The 3rd subdivision ( paragraphs 26-32 ) dealt with the proving for gestation. The 4th and concluding subdivision contains two paragraphs, which do non fall into any of the old classs. The first describes intervention for odontalgias during gestation. The 2nd describes what sounds like a fistulous withers of the vesica to the vagina with incontinency of urine ” .

It besides described methods of contraceptive method. It described prescriptions for urinary, venters and kidney jobs, hurting limbs and achings in the sockets of the eyes.

Did Ancient Egyptians recognize forensic medical specialty?

Ancient Egyptians used to analyze organic structures of the dead to understand the cause of decease. This should non look unusual for such people traditionally familiar, as they were, to careful chase of cognition. Harmonizing to the American historiographer James H. Breasted ( an authorization on ancient Egyptian history-University of Chicago, 1930 ) , portion of the accomplishment of the ancient Egyptian sawboness was because of what they learned from analyzing the dead organic structures. Surgeons treated clean lesions were by sewing and adhesive patchs. They treated other lesions by acquiring the borders near on the first twenty-four hours, and afterwards handling them with honey and acerb herbs. Egyptian sawbones performed amputations and even more made prosthetic device.

The influence of Ancient Egyptian Medicine on the remainder of the universe:

The Ancient Egyptians were the first people in the universe to hold based cognition on careful and sharp observations, every bit good as test and mistake. By careful observation, early doctors began mending patterns that they have taught to many. They had a medical pattern that developed over three thousand old ages and gave much toward progressing medical scientific discipline worldwide. Egyptian doctors were celebrated in the Ancient World. Ramses II had sent doctors to the male monarch of Hatti and the Iranian male monarch Achaemenids.

Greeks gained medical traditions and footing of cognition from the medical schools of Egypt ( Hamilton: The History of Medicine, Surgery and Anatomy. P. 35 ) . Therefore, Egyptian theories and patterns influenced the Greeks, who educated many of the doctors in the Roman Empire, who in bend influenced Arab and European medical thought for centuries to come. One can clearly detect the bequest of Egyptian medical specialty in few basicss of the Grecian strategy ( Breasted 1930 ) . Grecian medical specialty developed during the 6th to seventh centuries B.C. The first Grecian doctor learned the art at Alexandria during the Ptolemaic period ( 305-330 B.C. ) . The Egyptian thought of decay [wekhedu] may hold resurfaced in the [perittoma] ( infective digestive residues ) of the Alexandrine Greeks. Other characteristics adopted by the Greeks from the Egyptians included several medicative workss, how to compose drug prescriptions, the pattern of prenatal and gynaecological fumigations, and the mending value of temple slumber.

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