Beginning Of The Early Renaissance

The early Renaissance began about the time Barbarian painted the Adoration of the Magi. His purpose was to use a gorgeous surface using a rainbow of colors and adding a display of gold for the aristocrats of the time. This was to separate his works from the Gothic style of the past. Soon an artist named Mosaic began his career and changed nearly everything about painting. The frescos that he painted used episodes all In the same painting, not Just one subject. The figures were highlighted with light at an angle against a dark background, giving the illusion of a cultural relief and adding the visual effect of 3 dimensions.

He used light to give human figures and fabric a form which enhanced the visual realism. The figures were arranged in a circular group, shown in a landscape with a foreground and a background with blurring lines to give distance and depth making it more realistic in nature. Mosaic also began using mathematical proportions for buildings, and figures in his compositions. This became Realism based on observation and based also on mathematics to lad the pictorial organization. Evolving from this came more 3 emotional forms, perspective which had little to do with math, and the arrangement of solid forms In space.

Linear perspective began during this time as a new technique, this Is when there Is a vanishing point with receding lines. Advance used this technique In his “The Last Supper” to create a measurable realistic space which enhanced the realism of the Renaissance style. Donate was one of the finest sculptors of this period and thought methodically in a new way, the body provides the framework on which fabric drapes, therefore it must be considered first. This pioneered the “realism” in sculpture.

Early Renaissance Architecture was known by the characteristics of a sculptor Fillip Brucellosis. After a trips to Rome this Artist/turned Architect began developing the system of geometric linear perspective. He also solved the architectural problem of construction of a dome for the unfinished Cathedral of Florence. This was 140 feet wide and coot not be bullet with buttresses as the smaller domes had been. He was the first person In history to accomplish building a raised dome, designed googol section, the also using a double shell to the dome with a skeleton of 24 ribs.

For visual stability he added a lantern on top. This man had to invent machines to help him accomplish this feat. His style deviated from the usual series of round arches supported by flat columns with pilasters that hold a flat untreatable. The style stressed horizontals, symmetry, classical elements of the time such as Corinthian capitals, pilasters and windows topped by pediments. This man began “logic” in design and used the same clarity in the San Lorenz (Basilicas Church) and Santos Spirits (another Basilicas Church.

He began changing the proportions of buildings consistently using 1:2. This meant that the nave was twice as high as it was wide and the arcade and clerestory were of equal height. In summation the height of the arcade was equal to the width of the nave. He was the first to use a Renaissance split placing faith In reason rather than emotions. Using shapes such as squares or round domes to cover space, he began a new style. The interiors of his churches used dark pilasters on light walls which

Architects use proportion to create harmonium masses and special volumes. Rhythm was used in the Renaissance by Leon Battista Alberta used it to articulate the fade of the Church of Santa Andrea. The repeating vertical rhythm of pilasters marks off one quarter intervals across the front which also includes the logic as mentioned before. Surrealism was not exactly a style but a way of life. The surrealists appreciated the logic of dreams the mystery of the unconscious, and the lure of the bizarre, the irrational and the marvelous.

This era began in the early sass’s and basically began with the use of real objects and transforming them into an unreal state. One example is Oppenheim Object (Luncheon in Fur), a teacup covered in fur, along with the saucer and spoon realistic but not for use. Salvador Dali was probably the most famous as one of his paintings (The Persistence of Memory) sometimes described as melted watches, the forms are precise but could not be real. It seems to portray that time stopped but is also melting away.

This tends to be fantasy, which would be the opposite of the Renaissance Period which would be considered realism. Another example would be Joan Mirror’s Carnival of the Harlequin which can offer a Surrealist view off Spanish painting. This Mirror fantasy world is filled with little creatures including animals and fish, with insects and a snake or two as well as abstract forms that appear to be attending a party. The imagery here is cheerful. It is in contrast to the utter stillness of the Dali work that was mentioned before. The movement and lively dreams in this work is lighthearted and bright in color.

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Gothic Art and Architecture

Gothic art and architecture played a very important role in the appearance of medieval times. The approximate time frame of the Gothic stage began in 1125, preceding the Romanesque period. Gothic art was first considered very ugly and was believed that barbarians were only capable of making such pieces. So, the name gothic meaning ghost was given to this time period. Now in the 20th century people think Gothic art is beautiful and admire it greatly. The First Methodist church in Notate by Red Barrel is a Gothic church.

While looking at the church you take note of the pointed arches. This is a feature that began in the Gothic time period, and replaced rounded arches of the Romanesque period. Pointed arches are on every window and on the frame of the door. Inside you can see a simple barrel vaulting system. Another feature of Gothic art that The First Methodist Church has is the wonderful stain glass windows. They were very long and told a religious story. The stain glass allows the walls to be thinner and let a nice color filled light in.

This light fills the church, and back then would be one of the only systems of light. The most dominant feature of Gothic architecture is the size, or height of the church. They believed that the higher the church the better, because they were closer to heaven. Some even contained towers so they could be closer to heaven. The one in Notate is very tall and has a very high ceiling. The ground plan for the church is in a cross, Just like medieval times. Inside the church is very complex along with the high ceilings.

There are no painting, but the columns are highly decorated and complex. The First Methodist Church in Notate has many Gothic features, but is missing some characteristics. It does not have flying buttresses, or a rose window, which were strong Gothic traits. Also there were no windows on the east end where the sun rises. Alters were mainly put on the eat end, so when the sun rose it would fill the alter with light. Gothic architecture is very beautiful, and the town of Notate is very lucky to have such a marvelous Gothic church in its town.

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The temple architecture of ancient Greece and Rome

Brought down from Mount Pinstripes, it was then transported ten miles on oxen-drawn carts to Athens. 5 The Parthenon was regarded in its prime as the finest example of a Doric temple, due mainly to the refinement of already well establish deed aspects of appeal. 6 Typically, only one order was used in the construction of temples in certain areas; Doric in western and mainland Greece, and Ionic on the coast of Asia Minor and in the Aegean islands. The Parthenon is an exception to this, however, as it contains certain Ionic elements throughout its structure also, making it unique. The home to an Ionic frieze, the Parthenon had two rooms, most likely in accordance with the sun – one west- facing that acted as a treasury, and a second separate room with its door facing east, used to contain the “cult image, the gold and ivory Athena Parthenon”, the Greek goddess of reason, intelligent activity, arts and literature. 8 Horizontal aspects such as the architrave and the astrolabe are corrected by meaner of entities, so that they do not “sag” in the middle.

Also, the corner columns stand closer and thicker than their neighbors, so that they do not appear frail against the sky. It is clear that the Greeks at the time were highly skilled in both construction and aesthetic design. 3. Henry Sterile, Greece; From Mycenae to the Parthenon, Teaches Press, First Edition, 2001. P. 189 4. Robin Francis Rhodes, Architecture and Meaning on the Athenian Acropolis, Cambridge University Press, First Edition, 1998. P. 1 5. Bernard Assemble, Architect and Sculptor in Classical Greece; The Wrights Lectures: Volume 6, Phaeton Press, First Edition, 1972. . 94 6. Http://en. Wisped. Org/wick/ Temple_of_Hyphenates 7. A. W. Lawrence, Greek Architecture, Yale University Press, Fifth Edition, 1996. . 77 8. Http://www. Geochronology. Com/Olympian/Athena/Athena. HTML 9. Patrick Mutagens, The Story of Architecture, Phaeton Press, Second Edition, 2004. P. 97 Doric architecture, further contributing to its aesthetic AAA?¬@lllustration 5: The Parthenon, Acropolis, Athens. Built from 427 – 424 BCC, the Temple of Athena Nikkei is the first fully Ionic structure to be built atop the Athenian Acropolis.

As a result, certain differences exist between itself and the previous Parthenon. Measuring a mere 11 feet in heighten, it has been described as “barely more than a treasury. 11 Of considerable elegance, the temple’s four- columned inappropriately facades acted to frame a small square “NAS” measuring mm by 5, the entrance to which was preceded by two slender marble pillars. 12 The bastion face looking outwards and the end of the temple tilt towards the north wing, resulting in an altered view of the distance between the wings when viewed from the west.

This also forces the corner of the facade in the north-west into line with the south wing facade. This in turn makes the temple sides point towards the Parthenon. 13 Although different techniques were used, it is clear that visual manipulation was Just as prominent in the Temple of Athena Nikkei as it was in the Parthenon. As on red and black pottery, the ancient Greeks favored contrasts, especially those found in nature, and this was readily apparent through their use of marble on the frieze below the temple. 14 The temple itself, similar to the Parthenon and other Doric temples, was built using white phonetic marble.

It was, however, built in stages, as war was present during the construction, and from time to time funds were cut short. The sculptural works found on the parapet consist of multiple Nines leading bulls to be sacrificed to Athena ND organizing trophies of victory. It is clear that such ideals were valued by the people of the time, and is the reason why such a great deal of effort was made when constructing temples, and their decorative features. This differs from the Parthenon in that no specific story is told. 15 Little interaction between figures exists and few narrative techniques are used.

This is specific to the temple, and not ionic buildings as a whole. 10. Http://www. Ancient-Greece. Org/architecture/Athena-Nikkei. HTML 1 1 . Robin Francis Rhodes, Architecture and Meaning on the Athenian Acropolis, Cambridge University Press, First Edition, 1998. P. 113 12. Henry Sterile, Greece; From Mycenae to the Parthenon, Teaches Press, First Edition, 2001. P. 204 13. A. W. Lawrence, Greek Architecture, Yale University Press, Fifth Edition, 1996. P. 118 14. Joseph Rockery, The Dancing Column; On Order in Architecture, The MIT Press, First Edition, 1999. P. 230 15.

Robin Francis Rhodes, Architecture and Meaning on the Athenian Acropolis, Cambridge University Press, First Edition, 1998. P. 120 ?¬@lllustration 6: Athens, Temple of Athena Nikkei. ?¬?¬@Although originally based on Greek architecture, Roman temples developed so hat the Romans maintained their own distinct style. Roman temples’ orientations were, and still are, dominated by an axis, and the position of the temple in relation to the forum and the way that it is approached is an important stylistic feature. Roman temples were placed at the end of a clearly defined space.

Set high on a podium, it could only be approached from the front. Greek temples differed, however, in that they were set down in an open area and approached from all sides. 16 The Romans favored the Corinthian order when building columns, as the ornamentation was an important factor in Roman architecture. As their style developed, so did the Roman arch, a very prominent aspect of many Roman buildings, including temples. 16. Leland M. Roth, Understanding Architecture; Its Elements, History, and Meaning, Western Press, Second Edition, 2007. P. 50 ?¬The Manson Carr©e, found in Ames in southern France, is constructed according to the Corinthian Order 17, as is seen by the presence of the Corinthian pillars, and is among the most well-preserved Roman temples of the Roman Empire. 18 The English translation is “square-house”, and is so-called because of its rectangular shape. 19 Built by Grippe in 16 BCC, the civic Roman temple was dedicated to his two sons who both died young, in an effort to show the loyalty and allegiance of the Roman colony to the imperial dynasty at the time. 0 The temple was the dominant structure in the forum of the Roman city at the time, serving as a reminder of the values that it represented to the city’s inhabitants. Although including elements consistent with an Etruscan style, very prominent Greek elements were present, showing the strong influence of Greek architecture, as opposed to Roman architecture which tended towards rounded arches and domes. 1 Twenty engaged columns can be found embedded along the walls of the calla, and delicate ornamental relief carvings of acanthus leaves and rosettes, found Just beneath a row of considerably fine dentists, adorn the frieze. 2 The reason that the temple is so well-preserved today is owed to the fact that it was rededicated as a Christian church during the fourth century, saving it from the destruction inflicted on other temples after Christianity was adopted as the official state religion of Rome,23 leading us to believe that religion was a particularly prominent aspect of Roman ultra and, by extension, of the lives of the Romans themselves. ?¬17. Http://www. Britannica. Com/Upchucked/topic/358799/Manson-Career 18. Http:// www. Sacred-destinations. Com/France/mimes-Manson-career 19. Http:// www. Formers. Mom/destinations/mimes/A30228. HTML 20. Http://www. Groundbreaking. Com/buildings/Manson_Career. HTML 21 . Http:// www. Reconstruction’s. Org/Manson-career-mimes 22. Http://en. Wisped. Org/wick/Manson_CarrÃCA#Awehitecture 23. httpHttpshelshelledm/ComaIsMansonrcarryeCAaAweeon in Rome, Italy, is a sthrong exstrongf an ancient Roman temple. It is worth noting that it was built as a temple to all gods, around 118 CE. 24 Semicircular arches, each of which compose two rings of brick pning about 5 m, are found on the building’s exterior between the ends of both horizontal ranges of great conical vaults.

The architect most likely thought of niches before piers, based on the Roman habit of expanding centralisecentralizedth both diagonal and cardinal recesses. 25 The largest and, arguably, most impressive element of the Pantheon is its dome. Domes were often used by the ancient Romans as space was maximised maximizedme acted moma symbol for the overarching heavens. 26 The clear p of the dome is 43. 3 m. 27 The Romans were aware of the large weights of the materials they were using and because of this they gradually decreased the thickness of the dome as it increased in height.

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Greek and Etruscan Architecture

Greek & Etruscan Architecture Greek and Etruscan architecture began to take shape during the Archaic and Early Classical periods. There were similarities between the early Greek and Etruscan architectural styles, but there were far more differences. One of the most obvious similarities between the Greek and Etruscan styles was the use of a gabled roof. A gabled roof resembles a triangle in that it has a peak in the middle, and then has two straight slopes from the peak to each side wall.

These roofs were often supported by the use of pillars or columns and is evident in both Greek and Etruscan architecture. Like Greek temples, Etruscan temples also featured an “inner chamber” known as a cella. A cella is typically an enclosed prayer room located in the center of a temple. Many of the structures made during this time period were comprised of wood or a mud-brick mixture, which is why there are few structures that remain today.

Beginning with the Classical period, Greek architects began to set themselves apart from Etruscan builders by using more durable materials like limestone and marble to construct their temples and buildings. Greek temples were mostly built in the Doric or Ionic orders, while the Etruscans used the more primitive Tuscan order. The Doric and Ionic orders are very ornate, detailed, and aesthetically pleasing. They feature a column with a fluted design, which gives the pillar a thinner, taller, more elegant look.

The Tuscan order on the other hand, is a very plain design and features columns with a simple base (foundation), capital (crown of the column) and frieze (horizontal section resting on top of the capital, but below the entablature). Etruscan pillars of the Tuscan order were often made of wood and did not have flutes. Some of the other major differences between Etruscan and Greek architecture can easily be seen when comparing the Greek Parthenon to an Etruscan temple.

The Parthenon features a colonnade (row of columns) and steps around the entire perimeter of the complex, while the typical Etruscan temple would have a colonnade and steps in the front of the building only. The Parthenon also featured a one-room cella with two porches. One porch would lead into the cella and the other porch would lead out of the cella. Etruscan temples featured a three room cella with only one porch in the front. The final distinction between the Parthenon and a typical Etruscan temple would be in the artistic level of detail each one was designed with.

The Etruscan temple was built in the very plain and basic Tuscan order, with no ornamentation built into the actual structure itself, but multiple statues of gods placed on the roof of the temple. The Greek Parthenon however, was built in both the Doric and Ionic orders, with hundreds of lavishly decorated statues, figurines and figural reliefs built into the pediments (triangular section above the entablature), metopes (a decorative band that fills the space between the frieze and the entablature), and frieze.

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Music Is a Kind of Mathematics

“Mathematics are a measure of beauty even when man is a measure of beauty”. I heard the professor saying these two sentences in class and it hit me hard. I remembered the teachers in lower classes telling us that Mathematics are the key for everything in life and we didn’t believe them, protesting that “Art”, for example, has nothing to do with Mathematics. Apparently, they were right.

But how come do Mathematics seem to be considered as a measure of beauty? Many philosophers have said and written about art’s beauty and aesthetics, and it always included some kind of Mathematics in it. In 1150 AD, Acharya Hemachandra wrote about, what’s now called Fibonacci Numbers (In Mathematics, Fibonacci numbers are specialized that the last number is the sum of the two previous ones, such as the following: 1,1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55,89,144,233,377,610…), in poetry lines, 70 years before Fibonacci published his own experiment in his first edition of Liber Abaci.

In addition, Pingala seemed to have used them in 200 BC, by considering poetry patterns divided to two lengths of syllables; long and short. In 1, 2 and 3 syllables there’s always matching ways to put them. But when it comes to 4 syllables there’s 5 ways, just like for 5 syllables there’s 8 ways and so it goes. And that’s what’s special and beautiful about poetry and more precisely rhythm.

The Fibonacci numbers were also utilized by many arrangers when composing music, and many poets say that the Golden Ratio goes back to the time of the middle ages. The researches show that Stradivari knew about and utilized the Golden Ratio to put the f-holes in his famous violins. And then there’s Baginsky’s strategy for constructing violins which is in light of the Golden Section. Music made by Mozart, Bach and Beethoven seem to be based on the Golden Section too.

Maybe this is the reason why their music is beautiful. Books about oil painting in all libraries will probably call attention to that it is better to use lines that divide the picture to thirds and to position objects on one of the sides or “around 33%” of the way across rather than in the middle of the picture.

This appears to upgrade the photo to make it more satisfying to the eye and this idea depends again on the Golden Ratio being “perfect”, leaving behind what’s called a beautiful masterpiece painting. Moreover, physical attraction relies upon proportions, and specifically symmetry. When someone else’s body is in proportions and symmetrical, it’s more likely for us to find it more attractive and beautiful. In the same manner, if a face is proportionate, we will probably notice it quickly and think that it’s beautiful and perfect.

Leonardo da Vinci’s illustrations of the human body accentuated its ratio. Essentially, it is trusted that buildings might be more appealing to a number of people if the proportions used are based on the Golden Section. Therefore, the Golden Ration is taught to architecture students rather than civil engineering students, because architecture is more related to aesthetics which is globally based on Mathematics.

For instance, Vitruvius had explained many artistic and architectural things based on proportions, and those are based on Mathematics: -Natural colors, which are found in specific places, and artificial colors that are combined in proper proportions.-“It is thought that the columns of basilicas ought to be as high as the side-aisles are broad; an aisle should be limited to one third of the breadth which the open space in the middle is to have.

“(Vitruvius, The ten books on Architecture, Book V, p.132) Sizes, in this case, are also proportionate, which increases its beauty as much as it assures its stability. The Golden Section, widely the Fibonacci sequence, also happen in nature, in the patterns we sometimes find in pine cones, pineapples, artichokes, petals of flowers, the leaves of the plants… Generally, because of the best approaches to efficiently pack things firmly together, using the Fibonacci sequence.

(The plant needs to get sunshine on all its leaves without one getting in the way of another or else it would be bad for it, that’s what it does without special intervention, as the plant doesn’t do Mathematics, scientists considered the idea of the Golden Section as its natural growth.)

And since God has created everything, some researchers and scientists tend to say that God is the greatest Mathematician such as the following list and many others:-Galileo Galilei who confirmed: “Mathematics is the language with which God has written the universe.”-That in addition the Euclid: “The laws of nature are but the Mathematical thoughts of God.

“And Paul Dirac said: “If there is a God, he’s a great mathematician. God used beautiful mathematics in creating the world.

“To end this here’s what Maulana Wahiduddin Khan believed: “The truth is that God is the greatest Mathematician, the greatest artist and the greatest genius.”

Just like some people consider that beauty is based on Mathematics, “all mathematicians share a sense of amazement over the infinite depth and the mysterious beauty and usefulness of Mathematics” (Martin Gardner), in addition to other people who consider Mathematics as the queen of science (or not even a science, just a beautiful thing). They say that Mathematics is the only place where truth and beauty mean the same thing. And from their point of view, if it is correctly used, it has truth as well as preeminent aesthetics.

And when someone asked him why he considered numbers beautiful, Paul Erdös said: “It’s like asking why is Beethoven’s Ninth Symphony beautiful. If you don’t see why, someone can’t tell you. I know numbers are beautiful. If they aren’t beautiful, nothing is”?

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Bauhaus School

Das Bauhaus Jeremy Hart German Civilization 2320 Professors Cook, Kopp, and Prager March 6, 2013 The Bauhaus, a revolutionary school of art and craft founded by Walter Gropius in 1919, stands today as an important influence on postmodern art and architecture. It is also the namesake of its own movement; which is characterized by severely economic and geometric designs and a functional view of materials. To truly understand the origins of the Bauhaus and the importance of its modern implications, we must first know about the influences that its founder relied on. The Vienna Secession was formed in Austria in 1897.

The secessionist artists attempted to create their own style that had no clear relation to any historical eras. Paired with this avant-garde approach, they relied on more pure geometric designs to produce their art. The geometric approach to art proved to have lasting effects on Gropius and his contemporaries. The Werkbund was the German model of the Vienna Secession. Founded in 1907, the 12 artists and 12 industrialists who comprised it aimed to infuse industry with modern and functional designs. These designs would both foster efficiency and function and be free of traditional elements and ornamentation.

A leading artist in the Werkbund named Peter Behrens was Gropius’ mentor and employer. Along with Belgian painter Henry van de Velde, the two men were Gropius’ main influences in forming the Bauhaus. In the Bauhaus manifesto he wrote in 1919, Gropius vows to return artists to the deep seat of creativity that rests in the handicrafts, and bring together an unbiased consortium of artists who would dictate architectural style to the modern world: “By the grace of Heaven and in rare moments of inspiration which transcend the will, art may unconsciously blossom from the labour of is hand, but a base in handicrafts is essential to every artist. It is there that the original source of creativity lies. Let us therefore create a new guild of craftsmen without the class-distinctions that raise an arrogant barrier between craftsmen and artists! Let us desire, conceive, and create the new building of the future together. It will combine architecture, sculpture, and painting in a single form, and will one day rise towards the heavens from the hands of a million workers as the crystalline symbol of a new and coming faith. In the latter half of this passage, Gropius is expressing a Utopian vision that encompasses the general public: “…building of the future together…from the hands of a million workers. ” The new styles would not be just for artists, but their work would be accessible to everyone. The nature of the designs would be streamlined and simple to they could be mass-produced. The art would not only be of interest and use to a niche audience but to the majority, so they could appreciate its function and efficiency When the new conservative government of Weimar withdrew support for the Bauhaus in 1925, it found a new home in Dessau.

Out of the new home in Dessau came the radical changes in style and material of everyday items, such as tea infusers, office chairs, and table lamps. Most importantly perhaps, the Bauhaus in Dessau was the home of the first workshop for architecture, the key Gropius outlined in his manifesto that would serve as the medium for infusing function and creativity into everyday applications. The new architecture would be the first tangible contributions to industry. Prior to this point, Germany had been in the midst of a severe economic crisis brought on by World War I.

Now that there was money to be spent, new innovations in architecture began to become the standard in the modern industrial world. The first chance the new school had to prove itself, quite ironically, was by building itself. The school was to be constructed following mostly Gropius’ designs, now commonplace features of Bauhaus architecture: flat roofs, lack of ornamentation, and strict geometric lines. The first true revolution in architecture for which the Bauhaus is credited came in the form of the workers’ housing areas.

Architect and Gropius contemporary Ludwig Mies van der Rohe organized an exhibition for architects to design a modern solution for worker housing, with only one rule that each building have a flat roof. Unfortunately no groundbreaking design was hatched, but the designs helped change the culture of architecture forever. The Bauhaus was already establishing itself as a symbol of progressive art and architecture. Following the architectural and industrial boom in Germany, the Bauhaus relocated to America in 1933, fleeing Hitler and the Nazis.

New director Laszlo Moholy-Nagy founded the New Bauhaus in Chicago. The spirit of innovation that marked the original Bauhaus was just as prevalent here as New Bauhaus students developed breakthroughs in photography, film, and the use of materials. In America, the Bauhaus style is still influencing the gamut of industrial design, from towering skyscrapers that seem to be built entirely out of glass, to ‘wiggle chairs’ actually made completely of cardboard. Ultimately, postmodernists and modernists stand starkly opposed when it comes to the necessary attributes and function of designs and art.

Postmodern culture was born out of a disregard for modernist minimalism, arguably a style perpetuated if not championed by Bauhaus theory. So one can say modernism is the de facto reason for postmodernism’s existence. The practitioners of postmodernism sought to revive theories from previous centuries that appealed to the human need for comfort for the body and beauty for the eye. The true similarity between the two movements was the importance of function. Both schools of thought believed art and architecture specifically should serve to promote the building’s function. The true difference lies in aesthetics.

So in the same way we attribute postmodern styles to high art of years past, we can also attribute Bauhaus styles to the past. Gropius’ vision of a return to purer geometric forms, a proclivity for functional efficiency, and respect for materials exemplifies this. We see the strong disjunction between modern (Bauhaus) and postmodern style as the latter reacting to the former. Making this connection lets us argue that modernism and postmodernism are actually two aspects of the same movement, and thus shows us that the free-thinking, subjective aspects of postmodernism owe their creation to the logical, analytical aspects of its predecessor.

Works Referenced Bauhaus Museum. www. bauhausmuseum. com/history/manifesto Bauhaus School. March 4, 2013. http://thebauhaus. org/thebauhaus/ Chicago Bauhaus and Beyond. March 4, 2013. www. chicagobauhausbeyond. org Exhibit Bauhaus. March 4, 2013. http://bengal. missouri. edu/~kuhlerd/art327/index. html Roger Cook. Class notes. http://germanciv. missouri. edu/2320/bauhaus/index. html

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Constructivism

Introduction Russian architecture since the eleventh century up to the early 20th century was predominantly religious. For many centuries, churches were the only buildings that were constructed out of stone. However, the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the influence of the Suprematism movement of 1915 brought about the birth of Constructivism, the modernistic architectural style of Russia from 1924-1932. The brief period that followed the 1917 Revolution marked the beginning of the influence of the avant-garde Constructivist movement in the structure and design of major buildings.

It enjoyed a short popularity until the late 1920s when it was repudiated by the more conservative Stalinist-era architecture. The principles of Constructivism theory come from three main art movements that evolved in Europe during the early part of the 20th century: Russian Suprematism, Dutch Des Stijl, or Neo Plasticism, and the Bauhaus in Germany . Historical Backdrop The Russian Revolution of 1917 In early 20th century Russia, particularly in 1917, there was a series of revolutions that eventually destroyed the autocracy of the Tsar.

This series of revolutions led by the workers of Russia under their leader Vladimir Lenin was known as the Russian Revolution. The February Revolution in March of 1917 focused on St. Petersburg. During this time, the Soviets, or workers’ councils, delegated to the members of the Imperial Parliament the task of governing Russia and overthrowing Nicholas II, the Tsar during that time and the last of the Tsars. Meanwhile, the Soviets, led by the socialists or Bolsheviks, had the full allegiance of the lower-class citizens and workers as well as the political left. The Bolsheviks then formed workers militias.

In the October Revolution that followed, the Bolshevik party under the command of their leader Vladimir Lenin, as well as the workers’ councils, overthrew the Provisional Government in St. Petersburg. Eventually, the success of the revolution paved the way for the birth of the USSR. After this series of events, peasants took over the lands previously owned by the vassals and redistributed land. This also marked the beginning of communal existence especially among the working classes, which led to the building of several constructivist buildings to house the first ommunities and to promote the ideology of communism. The Suprematism Movement of 1915 Suprematism is the main ideology in art that inspired Constructivism, which is the predominant architectural style of Russia during the period from 1924 to 1932. Suprematism lasted from 1915 to 1935 and is regarded as the first systematic school of modernism based on purely abstract pictorial compositions and geometric figures. It is a Russian art movement which was originally founded in Moscow in 1913 by the Russian painter Kazimir Malevich.

Malevich advocated Suprematism as he believed that this is the perfect way “to liberate art from the ballast of the representational world. ” He himself did this by producing art consisting of geometrical shapes flatly painted on the surface of the canvass. The goal of Suprematism is pure sensation and the pictorial space should be emptied of all symbolic content as in Surrealism. Malevich believed that art has to be “decongested and cleared” in order to show a new reality where the most important thing is thought as well as sensation.

Malevich’s Suprematism was also heavily influenced by the then avant-garde movements in art such as Cubism and Futurism. Suprematism, considering that it was based on Malevich’s spiritual beliefs, was regarded as non-objective and apolitical. Aside from its use of only geometric shapes as the ones demonstrated by constructivist forms of architecture, Suprematism also emphasized the use of a limited colour range, which explains the overall appearance of constructivist buildings.

The Beginnings and Golden Age of Constructivism The development of Suprematism led to the movement toward a non-objective art, or art without a subject, in architecture. During the early years of Constructivism, the Russian modernists or avant-garde started embracing Cubism and Futurism, which were two of the major sources of influence of Constructivism. Cubism was a 20th century modern movement popularized by and Georges Braque in France and other parts of Europe from 1907-1921.

Futurism, on the other hand, started in Italy in 1910 and from 1920-1940 was used in the construction of buildings despite the opposition of the fascist state which favoured classical Roman imperial patterns. In 1913-1914, the Russian and Soviet architect and painter Vladimir Tatlin used industrial materials to make and exhibit a number of relief constructions. He was inspired by Italian futurist Umberto Boccioni’s dream of “plastic configurations in space” and Pablo Picasso’s 3D collages, both of which he described by using the term Constructivism.

Vladimir Tatlin was indeed the progenitor of this post-Revolutionary movement in architecture. The year 1921 marked the appearance of the first Constructivist manifesto after the formation of the First Working Group of Constructivists in Moscow. The key artists were Vladimir Tatlin, Kasmir Malevich, Liubov Popova, Aleksandr Rodchenko, Vavara Stepanova, Vasily Kandinsky, Naum Gabo, Antoine Pevsner, El Lissitzky. Actual constructivist theory and design practice began in 1922 in conjunction with the formulation of Vesnin brothers of the plan for the Palace of Labor, which was presented during a competition in 1922.

However, actual building on a significant scale did not start until 1925 after the founding of the Union of Modern Architects, the official organization of the Russian Constructivist architects. By 1925, the first experimental office and residential buildings began their first appearance. Towards the end of 1925, the Constructivists of Russia formed their own organization as a response to the decision of the Rationalists to establish the Association of New Architects, or ASNOVA, two years earlier in 1923.

While the Rationalists and ASNOVA focused on their search for purely aesthetic abstract forms, the Constructivists and OSA (union of modern architecture) brought to life a novel, more practical architectural form, with reference to the purpose of the of the specific building, the materials used to construct it, its design and other conditions for production, and most of all the promotion of social development of Russia at that time. While the Rationalist emphasized the artistic or aesthetic side of architecture, the Constructivists favoured its functional aspect.

The period from1927 to 1929 was considered the golden age of Russian avant-garde architecture. In these three years, a small group of Russian constructivist architects was able to build or plan the best-known buildings in the country. Among the structures built during this time were the Zuyev Club by Ilya Golosov, all the clubs by Konstantin Melnikov and his house, Lenin’s Mausoleum and the Narkomzem building by Aleksey Shchusev, Narkomfin by Ginzburg and Milinis, the Barshch’s and Sinyavsky’s Planetarium, and Nikolaev’s communal house for students. The Concept of Constructivism

Constructivism, or Constructivist Art, is a term used to describe a type of non-representational, or totally abstract, relief construction, sculpture, painting, and kinetics. Constructivist buildings are usually ordered and often minimal, spatial, geometric, architectonic and experimental with how industrial material is used. Furthermore, constructivism combined engineering and advanced technology with a dominant Communist social purpose. The movement produced several pioneering projects as well as prominent buildings and structures before falling out of favour during the early 1930s.

Early constructivist , just like Communism, was idealistic and seeking a new order that dealt with various social and economic problems. The appearance of several constructivist buildings and monuments is characterized by an emphasis on geometrical shapes like rectangular solids and cylinders, often intersecting each other or demonstrating asymmetry. Limited colour range is another quality of constructivist buildings, with the choice of colour as flesh or white signifying simplicity in the communal society.

Red was also a very popular choice of colour for the buildings and monuments like Lenin’s Mausoleum as this colour was known to symbolize Communism. Both the geometrical emphasis and the limits in colour are characteristics of Constructivist Architecture brought about by the influence of Suprematism, which was the most dominant art movement in Russia at that time. German “Constructivism” or the Bauhaus Architecture, the German word “Bauhaus” literally means “House of Building” or “Building School. ” It refers to a school in Germany famous for the style and design that it taught.

It is a form of modernist architecture that was founded by Walter Gropius and existed in Germany, some parts of Europe, the United States, and Israel from 1919 to 1933. The Bauhaus was an architectural ideology similar to Russian Constructivism and existed at the same time that it did. As Constructivism lost its favour because of Stalinist Neoclassicism, the Bauhaus gradually became inactive as the Nazi rose to power. Just like Constructivist structures, Bauhaus buildings usually possess a cubic design and favour right angles owing to its geometrical figure.

Nevertheless it may occasionally feature rounded corners as well as balconies. These buildings usually have an open floor plan and smooth facades. The Most Notable Constructivist Buildings The Rusakov Workers’ Club. One of the most notable examples of constructivist architecture in Moscow is the Rusakov Workers’ Club. It was designed by Konstantin Melnikov and was constructed from 1927 to 1928. On the outside, the club resembles a fan and in elevation, it is made up of a base and three cantilevered concrete areas for the seats.

If the seating areas are combined, the building can seat over 1,000 people while each of these three cantilevered seating areas can be used as a separate auditorium. More conventional offices are found at the rear of the building. Moreover, the materials used in its construction are glass, concrete and brick. The constructivist identity of the building is expressed in its exterior, which the architect Melnikov himself described as a “tensed muscle. ” On the outside, the three seating areas are seen as three large rectangular solids protruding from the walls of the building on the upper part.

Melnikov naturally applied his own values to its construction by setting the Rusakov Workers’ Club, as well as other clubs he had designed, against the hostile city rather than belonging to it by employing sharply distinctive forms to make the structure appear individualist and unique against the general backdrop of urban buildings. Svoboda Factory Club, another constructivist building worth mentioning is the Svoboda Factory Club, or Maxim Gorky Palace of Culture. It was also Konstantin Melnikov who designed the building in 1927. It was completed two years later.

For the general design of the Svoboda Factory Club, a conventional rectangular masonry block was used as a replacement for the original plan of using a flat elliptical tube, thus giving its design a constructivist spirit. The staircase was not curved but built straight, leaving the central rostrum column as the only curvilinear element in the structure. However, although the central rostrum column balances the left and right halves of the building, these halves are not identical with the north side end block significantly higher than the opposite one.

This unique feature is a quality of the individualism of the constructivist movement. Nonetheless, the central rostrum hides such a discrepancy . Zuev Workers’ Club, another prominent example of constructivist architecture is the Zuev Workers’ Club in Moscow. The architect Ilya Golosov designed the structure in 1926 and it was finished after two years. The original function of the building was to house various facilities for the workers of Moscow.

The innovative and unique glazing treatment at its corner and the facade formed from the dramatic “intersection of a cylindrical glazed staircase and a stack of rectangular floor planes” prove to be very photogenic and make the Zuev Workers’ Club a symbol of Russian avant-garde architecture. These two unique qualities reflect a strong unique identity which is characteristic of Soviet Constructivism. The stack of rectangular floor planes has behind them a sequence of club rooms and open foyers that lead to a rectangular auditorium made up of 850 seats.

Golosov, like Melnikov, was an enthusiast not for the logics but for the dynamic forms Constructivist design methods. In the Zuev Workers’ Club, this is evident in the immensely powerful drama of the cylinder intersecting the flat planes . Narkomzem, also known as People’s Commissariat of Agriculture, Narkomzem was another noteworthy example of avant-garde architecture in early 20th century Russia. The building, which is now used today as a working ministry, was designed by Aleksey Shchusev and was finished in 1933.

The most striking constructivist feature of the building is its corner details where a rectangular plane intersects with the cylindrical edge. Aside from the corner details, the overall asymmetry and the ribbon window located on the top floor remain to be the most striking features of Narkomzem . Melnikov’s House. The house of the architect Konstantin Melnikov, or simply known as Melnikov House, is one of the most notable examples of 20th century avant-garde architecture. It is located in Moscow and is located well away from the street.

Melnikov House is a building made up of a combination of both Futuristic and Classical designs consisting of two interlocking cylinders with the rear one noticeably taller than the front. The structure is also perforated with some sixty identical elongated hexagonal windows provided with Constructivist glazing bars. The asymmetry in the cylinders and the uniquely designed hexagons are testaments to Melnikov’s commitment to Constructivism. The cylinders are made from stucco-covered bricks similar to those used in Russian churches and on the facade are written the words KONSTANTIN MELNIKOV ARKHITECTOR .

Narkomfin, another Russian building with constructivist design is the Narkomfin building. It was designed by the architects Ignaty Milinis and Moisei Ginzburg along with engineer Sergei Prokhorov. It was constructed from 1928 to 1930 for the purpose of providing apartments for the employees of the People’s Commissariat of Finance, of the Narkomfin. The transitional, semi-communal apartment was supposed to introduce to the Soviet citizen the communal way of life and to introduce communism into the heart of domestic life and prepare the citizens to fully live a communal existence .

Narkomfin, for its constructivist elements, had a long elegant facade with several rows of horizontal windows. It was topped with the Commissar’s penthouse making it look like and be called “the ship. ” Upon its completion it turned out to be an ensemble composed of three buildings: the housing block, the communal block and a small laundry building. The Narkomfin has remained an icon of modernism in avant-garde architecture of Soviet Russia primarily because of these constructivist elements that make it stand out among the rest.

The Narkomfin building was also known as the most perfectly realized building out of all the communal buildings constructed during the Constructivist Era or in the utopian years of the early Soviet Union. It was also considered the prototype for the modern European apartment blocks and housing estates. Now, the Narkomfin remains as a pilgrimage sites for historians and architects from all over the world. The Communal House (1920-1930) of the Textile Institute, or the Communal House for Textile Institute Students, in Moscow is considered Ivan Nikolaev’s masterpiece and is another noteworthy architectural work of the Soviet constructivist era.

Popularly called Nikolaev’s House or The Hostel, the Communal House demonstrates the “dom kommuna,” or the 2000 adult apprentices shared cabins along an eight-storey block extending for a length of 200 meters. There was a creative mix of dining rooms and recreational spaces in the low block. The Communal House was actually built for textile students to live and study in while adopting a strict military communal fashion that starts with a wake-up call, and proceeds with exercise, shower, and study.

The constructivist elements of the Communal House include half-round stair towers, the triangular staircase, and the vast rectangular volumes as well as the asymmetry demonstrated by the uneven intersections of the various planes in the facade of the building. The Barshch’s and Sinyavsky’s Planetarium, or the Moscow Planetarium, was established on November 5, 1929 and is considered at present a centre of natural sciences. The planetarium is principally involved in reading public lectures and implementing scientific and artistic programs in cosmonautics and astronomy. In the observatory of he planetarium, one can watch the sunspots, the Moon, the planets and many other heavenly bodies with the use of a telescope. The Modern State of the Planetarium M. O. Barshch and M. I. Sinyavsky were responsible for the design of the planetarium and commenced the construction on September 23, 1928, the day of the autumnal equinox. The planetarium was actually one of the largest projection domes for any planetarium in the world, which makes this unique feature one of its most prominent characteristics as a symbol of avant-garde Soviet architecture. However, its apex was only 4cm thick. Located in the former city of Leningrad, now St.

Petersburg, the Red Banner Textile Factory was partially designed by the first foreign architect asked to design in the USSR, Erich Mendelsohn, in 1925 to 1926, and later designed by E. A. Tretyakov, S. O. Ovsyannikov, and Hyppolit Pretraeus until its completion in 1937. The Red Banner Textile Factory was a dynamic, futuristic large factory and was a most notable example of Soviet Constructivist architecture. The Red Banner Factory resembled a ship with the top part of it jutting out of the planes. There is also an asymmetry with the intersection of the cylindrical and rectangular sections of the building on the outside.

These two constructivist features of the factory give it its unique identity and make it stand out. Notable Architects of Russia from 1924-1932 The Russian constructivist designer Vladimir Tatlin was considered the progenitor of Soviet Constructivism because of his revolutionary exhibits of relief constructions from 1913 to 1914. He was also responsible for the appearance of the Constructivist Manifesto in 1921 which paved the way for the first construction of a plan for a constructivist building in 1922 and the actual establishment of constructivist office and residence buildings in 1925.

Tatlin trained at the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture as well as in the Penza Art School. It was after completing his formal studies that he joined a group of avant-garde painters and writers all over Russia. It was also during this period that he formulated several designs for a theater and participated in exhibitions. Konstain Melnikov was one of the big names in Soviet constructivist architecture, being the architect behind the Rusakov Workers’ Club, the Svoboda Factory Club and his own Melnikov House.

Melnikov apprenticed as an engineer after attending the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture. He studied architecture from 1912 to 1917 and it became his passion although he initially studied painting in 1905. As a romanticist and a supporter of Communism, Melnikov was an architect who had independence of mind and rejected the principle of “method” in design and instead focused on “intuition” as the most essential factor in expressing the social and symbolic meaning of an architectural form such as a building.

In his works, Melnikov struggled to combine and Leftist Modernism and often designed his architectural masterpieces with explicit and symbolic historicism. A leader of Constructivism from 1925 to 1931, Ilya Golosov was the Russian architect responsible for the design of the Zuyev Workers’ Club in Moscow and communal housing in Ivanovo. Just like Tatlin and Melnikov, Golosov studied at the Moscow School of Painting, Sculture and Architecture. However, he also studied in the Stroganov School of Arts.

His main impression with the works of the Vesnin brothers made him join the constructivist organization, or the OSA Group in 1925, and from then on he started designing his masterpieces. However, although Golosov was a champion of Constructivist architecture, he regarded the architectural philosophy of Constructivism only as ideal for exterior decoration but not for wholesomeness in terms of functional style. These contrasting views of his regarding Constructivism eventually made him abandon the avant-garde form of architecture in 1932 and settled for neoclassical architecture in his works, hence from Soviet Constructivism to Soviet Realism.

Another name in the Soviet Constructivist architects hall of fame is Ivan Nikolaev. He was famous for the constructivist design and even the formulation of the rules and regulations of the Communal House of the Textile Institute built from 1929 to 1931. He devised a rather rigid and Communist procedure for the members of the training institute which was supposed to be followed through every single day: a wake-up call, exercise, shower and study. In addition Nikolaev was also famous for his modernist campus of the Moscow Power Engineering Institute.

He, however, abandoned his constructivist beliefs in order to adopt Stalinist architecture. Another prominent name in avant-garde Soviet architecture of early 20th century Russia was Aleksey Shchusev. Shchusev was responsible for the constructivist designs of the Kazan Railway Station, the Narkomzem, or Agriculture Ministry, building in Moscow, and most important of all, Lenin’s Mausoleum on Red Square, which he designed only in a stunning period of three days. Another one of his constructivist designs was the Institute of Resorts in Sochi, which he designed from 1927 to 1931.

Shchusev was tasked to design many more buildings after 1932 and some say that he was even the originator of Gothic skyscrapers in Moscow. Shchusev studied at the Imperial Academy of Arts from 1891 to 1897 and his travels to North Africa and Central Asia from 1894 to 1899 may have somehow influenced his partial non-adherence to pure Constructivism. It is also worth mentioning that even before Shchusev designed buildings, he was already tasked to restore church and to design a cathedral during the first ten years of the 20th century.

His restoration of the St. Basil Church in Ukraine, his designs for the Trinity Cathedral in Pochayiv Lavra, and the Marfo-Mariinsky Convent in Moscow made him one of the best and most versatile architects of his time. The expressionist architect Erich Mendelsohn was a German Jewish architect and the first foreign architect who was allowed by the USSR to work for them. In 1926, he partially designed the Red Flag Textile Factory in St. Petersburg. The constructivist design of the exterior of the factory made it resemble a ship.

This particular masterpiece of Mendelsohn is similar to the Mossehaus, which he himself designed in Berlin. He also designed the rear view of the Einstein Tower in Potsdam and the Cohen House in London, all of which had designs similar to that of Soviet Constructivism. Mendelsohn studied architecture at the Technical University of Berlin and the Technical University of Munich, where he graduated cum laude in 1812. His initial work before he became an international architectural designer was as an independent architect in Munich.

One of the champions of Russian Constructivism, not necessarily for his actual works but for his theories, was the name Yakov Chernikhov. Perhaps Chernikhov’s only actual architectural achievement was the Red Nail Maker’s Factory, or Red Carnation Factory, built in St. Petersburg from 1930 to 1931. The rest of Chernikhov’s fame is attributed to his written works. Chernikhov studied at the Odessa Art School where he taught drawing and sketching years later, and at the Academy of Arts at St. Petersburg where he graduated in 1925. He then joined the Constructivist movement and instead of concentrating on the actual ractice of his profession, he wrote and published a series of books which showcased his constructivist architectural fantasies: Fundamentals of Modern Architecture, written from 1929 to 1930; Construction of Architectural and Machine Forms, written in 1931; and Architectural Fantasies: 101 Compositions, written in 1933. These three books did not only make him famous all over the world but also became a source of inspiration to many generations of architects. He had five more books published from 1934 to 1948. Decline of Constructivism

A competition for a grandiose project for the Palace of the Soviets was held in 1932. The constructivists joined the competition with their best entries. However, there was an ever-growing criticism of Modernism as that time, and this affected as well all the Soviet Constructivism. The winning entry was therefore not constructivist but an eclectic Stalinist architecture project by Boris Iofan. By the end of the 1920s, Constructivism was eventually replaced by Post constructivism, which featured buildings designed in a composite style and bore close resemblance to Neoclassicism.

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