Body

Sinners in the hands of an Angry God Jonathan Edwards shows great anger in this sermon through the use of metaphors, personification, and diction. He uses a variety of metaphors to show the dark tone of this sermon. “would have no more influence to uphold you and keep you out of hell, than a spider’s web would have to stop a falling rock. “. This explains how nothing is holding you from hell; that if you make a mistake, you will fall to hell like a rock through a spider web. keeps the arrow one moment from being made drunk with your blood. ” Make one mistake and an arrow may absorb the blood inside you; this is what that metaphor is showing. Within the sermon Edwards shows a great use of personification to create a live feeling of terror. “and justice bends the arrow at your heart”. He is showing that justice will get you, no matter what, if you do something wrong. “the world would spew you out”.

It gives the world a human like reflex to vomit you off earth if you comit a sin or crime. Jonathan uses many similes to explode his anger in this sermon. “your destruction would come like a whirlwind”. Edwards is showing that if you were to do something wrong you will be destroyed like a whirlwind destroys towns. “Your wickedness makes you as it were heavy as lead”. This explains how you will be as heavy as lead and fall to the pits of fiery hell.

I would be grateful if offered the opportunity to be a member of the student body of your University. I am currently undertaking my studies at Grossmont College and I would wish to transfer to your University in order to study Business Administration.

Grossmont College does not offer undergraduate programs and I wish to further my studies to the highest level I can achieve in an institution which encourages both personal and collective academic advancement. I am specifically enthusiastic about your University due to the high levels of integrity and quality education being offered besides providing for students a good environment for studies.

The visions and goals of your University as an academic institution are in line with my personal goals for I desire to positively change the human society through knowledge that I wish to gain from your institution when given the chance.

I believe that University of San Diego is the place where the foundation of my career stand to be shaped as its values has the capacity to further build my worth as a moral and intellectual being. My objectives are to work in the business world as a manager and I believe my studies at your esteemed institution will adequately equip me for such an eventuality.

I completely understand my responsibility as a student and I am only requesting for the opportunity to join your student body and the entire community of University of San Diego. I will abide by all the rules and focus on achieving my academic and intellectual goals while at the same time making positive contribution towards my fellow students and the entire community of the University of San Diego.

I am looking forward to a positive response and an opportunity to join your academic institution. Thank you in advance.

Introduction

All living things requires energy to stay warm (mammals in this case) and to carry out other life process i.e. maintenance, growth, movement, daily activities etc. All of the dietary energy in humans is obtained from the main food sources including carbohydrates, fat and proteins. These major food types are also known as macronutrients and each has its own energy content that provides energy by breaking their chemical bond energy in food molecules. Sugars and fat generate higher energy levels than proteins in non photosynthetic organisms. Fat provide far more energy per gram than carbohydrate or protein for example carbohydrate and protein provides 16.8 KJ/g whereas fat provides 37.8 kJ of energy per gram.

Metabolism a set of chemical reaction plays an important role in providing energy that helps an organism to maintain life. Metabolic process is organised in different pathways that leads a chemical reaction to another through the help of enzymes and coenzymes. The breakdown of food molecules leads to a process known as oxidative phosphorylation that occurs in mitochondria. This process is essential for providing Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a primary source of energy for cellular activities. As the metabolic pathway is organised in to different stages, each stage should be explored in details to understand the process. Hence these stages will be explored later in the essay to answer the essay question in full.

Nutrients to Energy- Three Main Stages

The macronutrients presented in our food are the main source of energy for our body and all three nutrients must be broken down into smaller molecules before the cells can utilize them to produce energy. The breakdown of the larger molecules and oxidisation of those molecules are known as catabolism. The breakdown happens in digestion system where the breakdown is relatively similar for each nutrient. Specialised enzymes, a catalyst, digest specific polymers into monomers, for instant protease are specialised to catabolise proteins into amino acid and glycoside hydrolases turn polysaccharides into monosaccharides and fats are hydrolysed into fatty acids and glycerol by lipase. Oxidation of these molecules occurs once the small subunits are filtered into the cytosol of a cell through an active transport protein.

Glycolysis reaction, which happens under anaerobic conditions, is a metabolic pathway that takes placehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycolysis inside all living cells. Glycolysis breaks sugar molecules glucose, a 6 carbon atom, and fructose into two pyruvate molecules, that contains 3 carbon atoms in each molecule. A difference exists during the combustion of carbohydrate molecule that can occur anaerobically while this is not true for the other two macronutrients.

The transformation of glucose into pyruvate happens in 10 different stages. Each stage has a different enzyme to catalyse 10 different sugar molecules. In the first 5 stages, called preparatory phase, two molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule are used to provide energy to drive the reaction. At the start of last five stages known as pay off phase 2 NAD+ and GAPDH enzyme turn the NAD+ into a NADH molecule by pulling off a hydrogen molecule from GAPDH, two H+ are also produced at this stage. At the end of the stages two NADH are given and four ATP molecules are given from ADP plus P1. The resulted pyruvate proceeds to mitochondria from cytosol to lose two carbon dioxide molecules and change to two carbon acetyl group that joins with coenzyme A to produce acetyl CoA before it enters the citric acid cycle.

Triglycerides, main form of fat, are oxidised in order to break them into smaller units such as fatty acid and glycerol inside the cytoplasm. Fatty acids are activated in cytoplasm before they enter cytosol, a same medium for glucose to citric acid. The activation must be done before the oxidation of fatty acid begins. During the activation, fatty acids change to fatty acyl CoA and ATP turns into AMP. Glycerol is transmitted to the glycolysis while the fatty acids are oxidised through beta-oxidation inside the mitochondria. There are four main enzymes located in mitochondria, therefore a series of four stages occur that convert acyl CoA to acetyl CoA. Two molecules of carbon from an acyl CoA is shortened at each stage to create a molecule of acetyl CoA and a molecule of NADH and FADH2. The resulted acetyl CoA is passed to the citric acid cycle and NADH plus FADH is entered into the electron transport chain.

Proteins consist of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Although carbohydrates and proteins hold a similar structure but there is still a difference among their structure. Carbohydrates are made out of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen while protein has an addition of nitrogen and sulfur. Nitrogen is responsible for the creation of essential amino acids. There are all together 20 essential amino acids that build all body cells in animals. Body cell metabolise amino acids into fats or glycogen if excessive proteins are consumed in human diet. The breakdown of proteins to amino acids through digestion opens the path to energy metabolism of proteins.

If amino acids are used to generate energy it must be done through deamination process where amino acids are broken into their constituent parts. Vitamin B6 associate with its enzyme in transamination cause nitrogen to transfer to a kito acid causing amino acid to lose its nitrogen and amino group. Ammonia is synthesised when amino acid in transformed to L glutamate through transamination process. Ammonia produces urea that travels through the blood to the kidney and excreted in urine.

Now that urea is removed from the process the carbon skeleton of amino acids can be used in different ways i.e. for protein synthesis or ATP formation. Carbon skeleton can also be stored, mainly in livers, as glucose by gluconeogenesis. This starts by converting carbon skeleton into acetyl CoA so that the coenzyme can be transmitted to the citric acid cycle where acetyl CoA is oxidised to generate ATP. Gluconeogenesis (a metabolic pathway) aims to form glucose from using non carbohydrate carbon substrate including glycerol, glycogenic amino acid. The resulted glucose can be converted to glucose 6 phosphates from phosphoenolpyruvate. The end product is pyruvate; notice the end product of glucose in glycolysis is same. The process requires energy in order to provide energy during starvation in fasting or extreme exercise.

Citric acid cycle (also known as Kerb’s cycle) is a chain of eight reaction taking place in mitochondria. It is true for each macronutrient to go through this chain of cycle and the oxidation on all of the acetyl CoA carbons entered from different nutrients is similar. This is an important stage as most of the energy produced in mitochondria happens after this cycle is completed to produce molecule carrying electrons. The carbon present in acetyl CoA is fully oxidised to a CO­2 molecule during this reaction. Acetyl CoA filters its two carbon molecules to critic acid cycle and a reaction between acetyl and oxaloacetate produce citrate in the first chain of the cycle. Activated carrier molecules are generated from the oxidation of citrate molecules. Every cycle generates 3 NADH molecules, 1 GTP molecule and 1 FADH2 molecule. Two molecules of CO­2 are given off as waste. The NADH and FADH2 molecules carry hydrogen and electrons which then proceeds to an oxidative phosphorylation process. The oxidative phosphorylation provides most of the energy in the whole system. The cycle does not require oxygen to carry out the process but the oxidisation of pyruvate requires oxygen. Hence the cycle works under the aerobic condition.

The next and final step occurs along an electron transport chain in the mitochondrion inner membrane. The electron transport chain structure in four different proteins consists of five complexes. The high energy electrons from reduced electron carriers, NADH and FADH2, are bombarded to the electron transport chain where the electron moves from an electron donor to a terminal electron acceptor. These electrons are added to the NADH and FADH2 molecules in the citric acid cycle.

The electrons from NADH enters complex I where it’s oxidised back to NAD+. Therefore one electron is captured and joins a proton to form a Hydrogen atom and one electron is lost during NADH losses its hydrogen. The electron from the hydrogen carries onto next stage while the proton moves back the inner membrane after the production of FMN to FMNH2. The electron in last complex embeds to the molecules of O2 gas and combines to two H+ to produce water H2O. While the electrons travel through these four complexes and provides enough energy to pump H+ ions (protons) outside the inner membrane.

The concentration gradient of H+ is gained due to the movement of these protons. This gradient stores energy that is sufficient for the production of ATP by phosphorylation of ADP. This process is known as oxidative phosphorylation where the electron is in its lowest form of energy therefore all the energy from the food molecules are oxidised to synthesis enormous amount of ATP. There are approximately 30 molecules of ATP gained after the complete oxidation per molecule of glucose or fatty acids or amino acids to H2O and CO2. Complete combustion of proteins also produces NH3 as waste products.

Conclusion

As the essay reaches its conclusion we can suggest that these macronutrients follow a similar pathway to generate ATP. Although the means of getting to the citric acid cycle for each macronutrient is different i.e. fat must be activated before it enters cytosol whereas protein goes through deamination process, not true for either glucose or fat. Also the function of glucose and protein is quiet different glucose only provide energy to the cells but proteins can participate in protein synthesis to formation of enzymes and carry important materials through the body etc.

Molecular Biology of the Cell 4th edition, Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, et al. New York: Garland Science; 2002.

Preteens with a high body mass index (BMI) have increased risk factors for coronary artery disease in adolescence, researchers found. More Video Watch: Childhood Obesity: What Parents Need to Know Watch: Is Pregnancy Weight Gain Dangerous For Child? Watch: Is This Your Child’s School Lunch? Those with a greater BMI between ages 9 and 12 were more likely to have high blood pressure, high levels of LDL cholesterol — the so-called bad cholesterol — and triglycerides, and insulin resistance at ages 15 or 16, Dr.Debbie Lawlor of the University of Bristol in England and colleagues reported in BMJ. Heavy Kids Become Teens With Heart Risks Overweight Preteens Risk Heart Disease in Adolescence, Researchers Say “Childhood BMI alone adequately identifies those who will be at increased risk of adverse cardiovascular profiles in adolescence,” they wrote. A higher BMI in childhood has been associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease later in life.

But few studies have examined the shorter-term effects. Among 5,235 children ages 9 to 12 studied as part of the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children, 18. 5 percent of the children were overweight and 4. 5 percent were obese. The prevalence of cardiovascular risk factors at ages 15 and 16 ranged from 2. 9 percent for high diastolic blood pressure and triglycerides, to 28. 8 percent for high systolic blood pressure.

Girls who were heavier at ages 9 to 12 but lost the weight by ages 15 to 16 had similar chances of cardiovascular risk factors to those who were normal weight at both ages. In boys who were heavier at younger ages, these risk factors still existed later even if they lost weight, but were significantly smaller than those who remained heavy, the researchers said. Children who change from overweight to normal weight improve their cardiovascular profiles compared with those who remain overweight in childhood and adolescence,” they wrote.

Introduction

All hormones in the body play a central role in the body, and quite a few of them regulate body function and help keep homeostasis. One gland that makes and stores important hormones is the Thyroid gland, which is located at the lower part of the neck, below the Adams apple and is wrapped around the trachea. The hormones it produces and stores help regulate heart rate, blood pressure, body temperature and the rate at which food is converted to energy. The two most important thyroid hormones are thyroxine and triiodothyronine. The thyroid gland also makes the hormone calcitonin, which is involved in calcium metabolism and stimulating bone cells to add calcium to bone. The production of thyroid hormones is controlled by another hormone called thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH). This is made by an endocrine gland in the brain called the pituitary gland.

The thyroid gland can become overactive (hyperthyroidism) or underactive (hypothyroidism). Hypothyroidism usually develops gradually. The symptoms are mild some of the symptoms are, tiredness, dry skin, thinning hair, sore muscles, weakness, depression, weight gain and a slow heart rate.

The most common cause of hypothyroidism is autoimmune thyroiditis, this is an autoimmune disease, which is caused by antibodies attacking the body, rather than attacking foreign bodies like bacteria. The Antibodies destroy the thyroid gland cells and this prevents the thyroid gland from working properly. Hypothyroidism can be treated with a thyroxine replacement medicine, called levothyroxine.

Hyperthyroidism

The thyroid gland is overactive and produces excess thyroid hormones; Graves’ disease is the most common cause of hyperthyroidism. It’s is another autoimmune disease. In Graves’ disease, the antibodies mimic the activity of TSH, causing the thyroid gland to produce too much thyroid hormone, leading to the symptoms of hyperthyroidism some of the symptoms are, shaking, being hot and sweating more than usual, losing weight, having increased appetite, tiredness, muscle weakness, palpitations and shortness of breath. Medical treatment of hyperthyroidism can be anti-thyroid medicines such as carbimazole and propylthiouracil, to reduce the production of thyroid hormones. However, over time anti-thyroid medicines can lead to hypothyroidism.

Blood glucose

Controlled by hormones; these hormones are controlled by the pancreas. The pancreas has glucose receptor cells, which monitor the concentration of glucose in the blood, and it also has endocrine cells (called the islets of Langerhans), which secrete hormones. The alpha cells in the islets secrete the hormone glucagon, while the beta cells in the islets secrete the hormone insulin. In a healthy person blood glucose levels should be 80-120mg.100cm-?. Insulin is secreted when blood glucose levels are high to make it fall and glucagon is secreted when blood glucose is low to make it rise. As shown in the diagram:

The most common disorders involving blood glucose and the hormones are diabetes type 1 and type 2;

Type 1 insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM) is caused by a lack of insulin either by a faulty insulin gene so there is no functioning insulin or by an autoimmune attack on the beta islets cells that produce the insulin so there are no cells left to produce it. This type of diabetes mainly occurs in children and young adults, onset is usually sudden. The main Symptoms of this are fatigue and copias quantities of urine which contains glucose. If this goes undiagnosed and treated then a coma may result from hyperglycaemic or hypoglycaemic, hyperglycaemia is where too much blood glucose is in the body, there is no insulin so no removal of the glucose from blood, the kidney then cant reabsorb all the glucose and the glucose in the urine takes water with it by osmosis, cells also can’t take the glucose in the blood up quick enough so start using fats and proteins in respiration, all this causes Dehydration, loss of vital salts and low blood pH which results in a coma.

Hypoglycaemia

Where there is not enough blood glucose, and no glycogen stores in liver because of the lack of insulin, glucagon has nothing to act on and blood glucose is too low to supply respiring cells which results in a coma. The treatment for type 1 is diet and insulin injections.

Type 2 none insulin dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) is caused by a resistance to insulin and usually comes later on in life, a contributing factor to type 2 is also obesity, treatment is diet and exercise, tablet that increase cell sensitivity to insulin and in extreme cases insulin injections.

Additional glands that make hormones are the adrenal glands (also called suprarenal glands), these are small glands located on top of both kidneys. The adrenal glands work with the hypothalamus and pituitary gland. Both adrenal glands are composed of two parts that have different functions and structures. The outer part is the cortex and is essential to life, where as the inner part is the medulla and is not essential to life. The adrenal cortex makes three groups of steroid hormones from cholesterol, collectively called adrenocorticocoids these are, glucocorticoids, minerslocorticoids and sex hormones (androgens). The medulla is completely surrounded by the cortex, and it is part of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system. It is stimulated by its extensive sympathetic nerve supply to produce the hormones adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine).

One of the main disorders of the adrenal cortex is hypersecretion of glucocorticoids or Cushing’s syndrome, symptoms of this syndrome include; weight gain and fatty deposits, skin changes, depression, brittle bones, muscle weakness, headaches and high blood pressure. Cushing’s syndrome can be caused by an over use of a steroid medication or by a tumour that causes your body to produce more cortisol. Treatments for these causes could be reducing the dose of steroid medication or for tumours surgery, radiotherapy or chemotherapy. With the adrenal medulla the main disorder is hormone secreting tumours, which cause excess adrenaline and noradrenaline, the symptoms of which are; hypertension, weight loss, nervousness, headaches excessive sweating, hyperglycaemia and glycosuria.

Kidneys

Important functions to do within the body, there functions are; the formation of urine, filtration and selective reabsorption. Each kidney is associated with a different group of structures, the right kidney is associated with; the right adrenal gland, the right lobe of the liver, the duodenum, the hepatic flexure of the colon, the diaphragm and the muscles of the posterior abdominal wall. The left kidney is associated with; the left adrenal gland, the spleen, stomach, pancreas, jejunum, the splenic flexure of the colon, the diaphragm and the muscles of the posterior abdominal wall. The kidney is extremely flexible in its working. It excretes large amount of hypotonic urine when water intake is very high, while it excretes small amount of hypertonic urine when water is deficient and needs to be conserved. This is very useful in Osmoregulation.

Osmoregulation

control of the levels of water and mineral salts in the blood. The water potential of the blood must be regulated to prevent loss or gain of water from cells. Blood water homeostasis is controlled by the hypothalamus. It contains osmosreceptor cells, which can detect changes in the water potential of the blood passing through the brain. In response, the hypothalamus controls the sensation of thirst, and it also secretes the hormone ADH (antidiuretic hormone). ADH is stored in the pituitary gland, and its target cells are the endothelial cells of the collecting ducts of the kidney nephrons. These cells are unusual in that water molecules can only cross their membranes via water channels called aquaporins, rather than through the lipid bilayer. ADH causes these water channels to open.

All these hormones that have been mentioned are working to help keep homeostasis. Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment and is important because it results in our cells being bathed in tissue fluid which has the correct amount of water, mineral salts, glucose and temperature, a great deal of the hormone system is dedicated to homeostasis. Temperature homeostasis is controlled by the thermoregulatory centre in the hypothalamus. It receives input from two sets of thermoreceptors: receptors in the hypothalamus itself monitor the temperature of the blood as it passes through the brain (the core temperature), and receptors in the skin monitor the external temperature. Both pieces of information are needed so that the body can make appropriate adjustments. As stated previously Blood glucose concentration is controlled by the pancreas. The pancreas has glucose receptor cells, which monitor the concentration of glucose in the blood, and it also has endocrine cells (called the islets of Langerhans), which secrete hormones.

Homeostasis

Controlled by our nervous and endocrine systems. The endocrine system is all the glands that secrete hormones (proteins or steroids) some glands that have been mentioned and a lot more that haven’t, the main glands are; Thyroid, Pituitary, Pancreas, Adrenal, Hypothalamus, Testes and Ovaries.

The endocrine system relies on negative feedback to maintain control.

This works as shown in the diagram, Negative feedback means that whenever a change occurs in a system, the change automatically causes a corrective mechanism to start, which reverses the original change and brings the system back to normal. It also means that the bigger then change the bigger the corrective mechanism.

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