Cognitive Effect of Bilingualism: Enhancement by Stimulation

Bilingualism is considered to have numerous benefits in modern society. It enables a person to have competitive advantage in a simple communicative aspect but also in social success. As a result, more emphasis is given to learning a new language from early age and bilingual is thought as a merit. However, there has been skepticism about bilingualism regarding cognitive development of children.

It was considered as hinderance regarding the children’s cognitive development. In a bilingual setting, the amount of input of each language is comparatively insufficient and unequal compared to monolingual setting. For many years, people thought that bilingual settings lacked the appropriate amount of input required for language competency and even cause confusion, leading to slow development of children.

However, recently, numerous studies and empirical evidences are supporting the argument that bilingualism is not only providing positive effects on social success, but also development in human body itself. The acquisition of communicate tool have additional benefit on individual physique and this additional characteristic implies significant features regarding education and social policy. Among the benefits that has been studied as a result of bilingualism, cognitive effect is the benefit that is directly related and observable regarding human body. Broad studies are being held to prove the relation with bilingualism, second language acquisition and cognitive benefits.

Although controversies rise regarding which comes first and second, such as cognitive superiority led to bilingualism or bilingualism led to cognitive advantage, evidence and studies suggest that bilingualism seems to be the reason for cognitive advantage. On the other hand, mechanism of how language learning helps human cognition is controversial and leave space for research. From many possible explanations, the stimulation by language could be a possible reason.

If language usage is related to human cognitive sensory, using multiple language could be using multiple and diverse cognitive sensory compared to monolingual. As a result of additional usage of sensory, bilingualism might have resulted advancement in function. Through the mechanism of stimulation and enhancement, the correlation between bilingualism and cognition could be explained.

From previous research by Liquan Liu in 2017, it is possible to find benefits of bilingualism in cognitive development. Liu have suggested that bilinguals had higher cognitive performance and ability compared to monolinguals. For example, bilinguals were more likely to perceive new information or knowledge faster and were able to utilize it. The performance was not bounded only in language performance, but also non-linguistic performance.

Regarding language performance, Liu argued that bilinguals were better in “discriminating two different language, communication skills, learning of two speech structures simultaneously, and social communication skills.” (Liu 2017) In a non-linguistic perspective, bilinguals had “higher neural sensitivity to stimulus, visual cues and higher working memory capacity” (Liu, 2017) The abilities and performances shown are described as cognitive ability of human.

The concept and meaning of cognition entail broad meaning. As a result, to identify the effect of bilingualism, the necessity of narrowing down the concept of cognition arises. In terms of meaning of the word itself, cognition is described as “the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses.” (Cognition. Oxford Dictionary) It encompasses processing ability, agility and production abilities. Moreover, it includes both socio-cultural aspect and aspects in human body.

Amongst the multiple definition and aspect of cognition, it could be narrowed down to two aspects: cognition in social aspect and physical aspect. Social aspect of cognition could be referred to how people perceive social relation and world. It could be compared to the software in a machine that interpret stimulus and produce outcome. How bilinguals would perceive superior or elderly when using different language, or how different language users perceive the world could be an example.

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis could be considered as study regarding social cognition. However, cognitive effect in social aspect has possibility in interpretation as the process or result cannot be illustrated through clear data. On the other hand, cognition in physical aspect is a hardware that includes capacity and ability of our body. The activation rate of brain, the capacity to handle multiple task, how it is susceptible to damage, and how it reacts to outside stimulus could be an example of physical cognition. Compared to the social aspect, physical cognition has less room for interpretation as it could be observed by scientific studies, such as neuro science and brain science. The performance of individuals’ physical ability could be measured and interpreted.

When searching for evidence or case regarding physical cognitive effect of bilingualism, the case study comparing the point when dementia arrive between monolingual and bilingual shows clear evidence of advantage. Bialystok compared the age when dementia occurred between 93 lifelong bilinguals and 91 monolinguals. The characteristic of two group was that monolingual group experienced higher education, which imply that they are not intellectually less developed then bilinguals.

Surprisingly, the result showed that in average, bilinguals showed 4 years of delay in occurrence of dementia. Moreover, the difference in the point of L2 acquisition did not show significance in delay of dementia. The delay of dementia could be interpreted as bilingualism affecting cognitive reserve, which is the capacity of brain defending brain damage. Bilingualism had enhanced the hardware of human brain.

In terms of software of human brain, study on executive function proves that bilingualism enhances the processing ability of human. Moreover, the effect was depicted regardless of the type and content of bilingualism. Executive function is a set of capacity regarding human cognitive ability. It is related to process control and production of human such as attention control, reasoning and flexibility when solving problem. In terms of bilingualism study, bilinguals were measured to do Simon task and showed higher performance compared to monolinguals. Luk has conducted a research comparing monolingual and bilingual children.

The result showed that bilingual children had higher verbal fluency compared to monolingual children. Luk tried to measure the agility and amount that a child could produce in a given setting. Bilingual children had higher letter fluency in a condition where they had to produce words with just one letter given. Luk argued that letter fluency is an indication to measure how competitive a person is in controlling brain and memory recollection. The ability is related how human reacts to stimulus and utilize its brain to produce outcome.

The research conducted by researchers distinctively show that bilingualism and learning a language helps cognitive development. However, the reason why it helps human cognition is not explained as it is a finding by result. Moreover, as there are many variables that is related in human language learning it is difficult to narrow down the reason that what has caused the benefit. However, through neuro scientific research it is possible to assume and depict the reason and the process that cause the effect. By comparing bilingual and monolingual brain, it is possible to see the difference in brain development.

Moreover, if learning a language is a stimulus to brain and usage of language as a work out of brain, it is possible to distinguish and identify what kind of process does it to brain. From a Darwinist perspective, body parts of living organism evolve and enhance its ability if there are constant usage and stimulus. On the other hand, body parts lose its function and atrophied if it is rarely activated or used. For example, wisdom tooth and coccyx has lost its function and atrophied as it lost its usefulness. From this frame, our brain and cognitive development could also be explained by stimulation and enhancement.

Among many neuro scientific studies, research comparing monolinguals and bilinguals in brain matters and activation shows the process and evidence of why bilingualism enhances cognitive performance in human. Firstly, Luk ‘s white matter research and Abutalebi’s grey matter research on human brain show the development difference between bilinguals and monolinguals. Human brain’s central nerve system is constituted with two different matters, which are white and grey matter. Grey matter is a matter which contains neurons and synapses, and it is usually pinkish-grey.

Grey matter controls muscles in our body and perceives outside stimulus. On the other hand, white matter is constituted of axons that connects different grey matter parts in our brain. The integrity of white matter is related to the function of brain, affecting learning performance, utilization and connectivity of brain parts. It is believed that the volume and density affect general performance of human. The density and volume could be used to measure cognitive capacity of individual.

In terms of white matter volume, Luk and the research team observed the changes in connectivity and structure of aging lifelong bilinguals and monolinguals. The result showed that the white matter integrity was higher in corpus callosum compared to monolinguals. It resulted higher brain connectivity between other parts of the brain. The result could be interpreted as there were higher connection between different parts and it has led to enhancement in brain function. On the other hand, Abutalebi had observed and compared grey matter volume between monolinguals and bilinguals.

The research subjects were late bilinguals and monolinguals. The observation result showed that bilinguals had bigger grey matter volume in inferior parietal lobule compared to monolinguals. Inferior parietal lobule is a part of brain which affects “lexical representation, semantic integration, and phonological working memory”. (Michelli et al. 2004) Possible explanation is that bilinguals had more stimulus and activated the brain compared to monolingual. Moreover, in a simple view, if the only difference is the number of languages that is used, using more language might have triggered the development in brain parts.

Lastly, in terms of activation and utilization of brain, PASA hypothesis and related study provides the benefit of bilingualism. Through the study, it was possible to observe the activation and utilization rate of bilingual brain. PASA (Posterior-to-Anterior Shift in Aging) hypothesis predicts that there is a shift in neural activity in brain parts while human is aging. Generally, an average person shows decrease in neural activity in posterior sensory region of brain and the anterior sensory region’s activation rate increases. (Grant et al. 2014)

However, bilinguals showed different result compared to average monolinguals. Bilinguals activation rate in posterior region did not show significant decline while aging as monolingual subjects did. Moreover, the connectivity between two regions were higher than monolinguals. Grant argued that the cause of this difference came from the language switching process. By switching language, it had stimulated and utilized different parts of the brain.

As a result, the researchers could observe better memory preservation, recollection, executive function and capability to recollect detailed information from past events. Moreover, bilingualism seem to benefit cognitive reserve, enabling higher restoration rate from brain damage. From the researches, the stimulation of additional language has enhanced both the software and hardware of the brain, which resulted higher cognitive ability.

To conclude, by integrating the findings from numerous researches, strong correlation between bilingualism and enhancement of cognitive ability seem to exist. However, the finding is susceptible to opposing argument as the findings are mostly empirical. The claim which comes first, the innate cognitive ability has resulted ability to perform bilingualism, could arise.

However, when considering other sensory or physique in human body is also developed through constant stimulation and utilization, brain and cognitive development would also be like as it is. Moreover, by using neuro science techniques, the difference in development over time would give clear evidence and correlation between bilingualism and cognition. The discoveries would be able to provide deeper intuition and room for enhancement concerning language policy, schooling, child education and so forth.

Works Cited

  • Abutalebi, J., Canini, M., Della Rosa, P.A., Green, D.W., Weekes,B.S. (2014) The neuro protective effects of bilingualism upon the inferior parietal lobule: a structural neuro imaging study in aging Chinese bilinguals. J. Neuro linguistics 33, 3–13. 2014.09.08
  • Cognition | Definition of cognition in English by Oxford Dictionaries. Retrieved December 03, 2017, en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/cognition
  • Grant, A., Dennis, N. A., & Li, P. (2014). Cognitive control, cognitive reserve, and memory in the aging bilingual brain. Frontiers in Psychology
  • Liu, Liquan. Lecturer in Child development, (2016) Western Sydney University. “Bilingual babies are better at detecting musical sounds, research shows.” The Conversation, 13 Oct. 2017
  • Mechelli, A., Crinion, J.T., Noppeney, U., O’Doherty, J., Ashburner, J., Frackowiak, R.S., et al. (2004). Neuro linguistics: structural plasticity in the bilingual brain. Nature 431, 757–757

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Why do we age

Why do we age? I recently took part in 5 experiments undergoing everyday activities to see how it feels to be; ; Blind Bone density problems Hearing difficulties To have limited fine motor skills Memory loss First activity I took part In expected us to try clothes on (that required buttons) to be able to fasten the buttons wearing thick mittens and gloves. The mittens and the gloves resembled the elderly and the Limited fine motor skills (finger movements required to fasten the buttons).

This task got me very frustrated as It was very difficult to fasten the buttons because as you get older your receptors become less insensitive this is linked to the fact that the brain and nervous system goes through natural changes, your brain and spinal cord lose nerve cells and weight therefore nerve cells begin to pass messages more slowly, a breakdown of nerves can affect your senses. You might have reduced or lost reflexes or sensation.

This leads to problems with movement and safety. This can affect people’s self-confidence as they may not understand their own weaknesses making it hard for them to trust themselves to do anything. The mittens and thick gloves resembled this as it was almost as if my fingers were numb and I found it hard to control them in a way I wanted to causing me feel empathy towards the elderly who do suffer with these everyday tasks.

The second activity I took part in was listening to a video clip with the volume turned down, this resembled the elderly with hearing difficulties as I really had to strain to hear the smallest sound. It usually is the higher pitched sounds that seem to be harder to hear as we get older and also it is more difficult for the elderly to hear voice and conversations whilst there is background noise, I could hear the lower pitched oases such as the laughter in the background but not the detailed Information In the conversations.

As you age, structures Inside the ear start to change and their functions decline. Your ability to pick up sounds decreases. You may also have problems maintaining your balance as you sit, stand, and walk. This could affect a person’s self-confidence and self-Image as they may feel embarrassed If they lose balance or have to ask again for someone to repeat themselves when really It Is Just a natural occurrence that happens to us all.

Linked to the sensory system controlling your senses such as hearing, sense of smell, taste and sight. The third activity I took part in required me to read a prescription and separate some elderly face, when you get older your eyesight not only adjusts more slowly to change in distances and light changes from daylight to night vision but if the prescription is hand written it could be more difficult for the elderly to read and understand also the font or printing of the prescription could have the same effect.

If the elderly person is not only having eyesight difficulties but also could be prone to diseases such as Parkinson for example and might not be physically able to separate the pills onto the specific days this could be a problem as it could have a potential life risk, if they need to take pills every day and they could not be able to do so. All of the eye structures change with aging. The cornea becomes less sensitive, so injuries may not be noticed. By the time you turn 60, your pupils decrease to about one third of the size they were when you were 20.

The lens becomes yellowed, less flexible, and slightly cloudy. The fat pads supporting the eyes decrease in amount and the eyes sink into their sockets. The eye muscles become less able to fully rotate the eye. The fourth activity I took part in was making Christmas cards with our eyes restricted by wearing glasses with numerous of different blockages for our eyesight, so we was completely or partially blind, we had to write the card, decorate the card and put it in the envelope.

This task was particularly difficult and frustrating as it was physically impossible to do the task without messing up, as you don’t know if you have already included the information or how neat it was. As we age the most common in sight difficulties is trouble focusing on something close, such as reading, writing and itching television this is called presbyters, it also gets harder to tell the colors apart but for our activity this was relevant as we tried different glasses on which reduced our eyesight to different limits.

This could affect someone self-esteem as they may feel they are getting worse as they age and not feeling good enough as they once did in their younger days. The last activity I took part in was attaching heavy weights onto my arms and doing daily tasks such as brushing our teeth and brushing our hair for 2-5 minutes, we felt the strain and this resembles an elderly person who may suffer with bone density robbers most common in women after menopause, this may leave you feeling weak as when we age our muscle mass naturally decreases as our bones lose calcium, linked to the musculoskeletal system.

The decrease of muscles for an elderly person could create a serious risk for daily activities as if they fall they wouldn’t be able to brace themselves properly and ease the fall as their muscles may not be strong enough to hold themselves. This could affect someone’s self-esteem as they may change their own opinion of themselves may see themselves as Weak’ when really the decrease of muscles begins Just after 30 years of age.

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Psycholgy

The Individual nerve cell, comprised of the axon, dendrites, and cell body. 2. Many neurons In the nervous system? 0 86 billion 3. Function of cell body, dendrites, and axons. O Cell body: Contains the nucleus and other major components. O Dendrites: How Branch out from the cell body and receive messages from other neurons. O Axons: Carries messages away from the cell body to the dendrites. 4. Define popularization/ deportation, o Popularization: Resting state of neuron, semiprivate.

Deportation: Stimulated state, neuron is no longer mostly negative on the inside. 5. How do neurons fire? O Sodium ions pump in, depopulating the axon, before the popularization returns. 1. What is a neuron? O The Individual nerve cell, comprised of the axon, dendrites, and cell body. 2. How many neurons In the nervous spite? deportation. O The individual nerve cell, comprised of the axon, dendrites, and cell body. 2. How many neurons in the nervous system? O Sodium ions pump in, depopulating the axon, before the popularization returns.

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Romeo and juliet Essay

“What similarities and differences do you find in the ways the problems of characters in love are presented In Romeo and Juliet and a section of poems you have studied? ” One problem we see with Romeo and Gullet’s love Is that It Is quite shallow. This Is evident when Romeo saw Juliet. He says: “O, she doth teach the torches to burn bright! ” (Line 43) This suggests that Romeo seems to highlighting how much Juliet stands out. If she Is able to “teach the torches” it suggests that Juliet has the skills of what she is teaching. Also, Juliet is the light that frees him from the darkness of his perpetual melancholia.

This quote is a simile where Romeo implies that there would be no light or no seeing if Juliet wasn’t so beautiful and that she radiates grace and beauty. In this case, we can assume that because torches are associated brightness, Juliet brings a sense of brightness to the room. This sentence is the first thing Romeo says about her and we know he is awe because he starts the sentence with “O” and ends with an explanation marks. But it is important to point out that at this point he hasn’t even spoke to her, so this evaluation of Juliet Is all based on her looks, and he doesn’t even know Gullet’s name.

We see more evidence of his shallowness when he describes Juliet “As a rich In Ethiopia ear – Beauty too rich for use, for earth too dear”. (Line 45) This suggests saying that a very dark person wearing a Jewel beauty which Is Intensified against a darker color and would make the jewel stand out from far away and it’s also him saying she’s a rare beauty. In this case, Romeo seems to describe Juliet as “rich jewel”. Romeo says the word “an Ethiopia” which refers to a person from Ethiopia or other dark skinned people around the world. Romeo was using this contrast to express his awe of Gullet’s beauty.

To him, she shone as bright as a brilliant Jewel on a black background. If Juliet is described as “rich Jewel” it suggests Romeo seems to consciousness focuses In on who is a star, a diamond, or a dove Just like “rich Jewel”. The quote, I choose also emphasis Romeo into saying that Juliet is like Jewel whose beauty Is too rich to use, and also is almost unearthly. All this evidence shows that Romeo and Gullet’s Is quite shallow as Romeo doesn’t even know her and has fallen love at the first sight with Juliet because of her beauty. While, Romeo has problems because of his tendency to fall in love so easily, in Act 2

Scene 2 the problems Juliet has seen to be of a more practical nature. This is evidence when Romeo was swearing his love to her, and she tells him: “O, swear not by the moon, discontent moon, that monthly changes in her circled orb, lest that thy love prove likewise variation. ” This quote seems to say that If you swear by the moon, you could change your mind and might ruin Gullet’s love and her life Just like the moon Is Inconstant and keeping changing Its shape, Like sometimes It’s full, sometimes it’s half there. And sometimes it’s completely gone. Because of changing hanged in this way.

In this quote Juliet is also trying to and wants that love that is where she can find it, the moon is never where it was the night before, therefore she is saying, love me not by the moon, but love me with your heart, love me by something that will never change or more further and then closer, love me with all that you are, also swear not by something that is never the same. As a girl, especially one of the wealthy families, Juliet doesn’t have same freedom as Romeo has as a boy. Juliet need to be pure virgin before even thinking about getting married and cannot aka the risks to fall in love with someone who might change their mind.

This conversation was taken in places, when it was at night and at this point the moon was out also it’s probably by moonlight. This gives more important to what Juliet was saying – not only it is the moon changeable, but it’s also what light their conversation at that moment. This is why Juliet was asking questions whether or not Romeo will be in love with her once morning comes. There is more then on to show that Romeo has problems because of his tendency to fall in love so easily, in the Act 2 Scene 2, the robbers Juliet has seen to be more practical nature. This is evidence when Juliet talks about by herself, she says: Romeo? Name. My love. Caplet. ” “O, Romeo, Romeo, wherefore art thou Deny thy father and refuse thy Or if thou wilt not, be but sworn And I’ll no longer be a In saying this, Juliet seems to call into the night for Romeo to “refuse thy name” and in return she will “no longer be a Caplet. ” Within that lies one of the great conflicts of the play – the family names will go against their love. Juliet says to herself why is Romeo the one she loves is his name, why can’t it be another name. If he can’t do that, then she would change her name. This is happening because of their families and their names, and also they are enemies.

She wishes that Romeos name were different so that they would not be enemies. This suggest strongly that Juliet loves Romeo but can’t because if her father sees her with someone or with their enemies son then her father would make her starve to death and will be begging for money, food on the street. However, she doesn’t tell Romeo that she loves him first but Romeo heard Juliet on her balcony talking to herself. Throughout the conversation Juliet makes Romeo to say to her that e loves her but in a way that she will understand. This shows Juliet seen to be practical nature and Romeo with his problems because of his tendency.

In Act 3 Scene 5 we see that the problems of lying to their parents because particularly complex for Juliet. Gullet’s father was angry at Juliet because she refused to marry Paris and her father was forcing her to get marry to Paris on the next early Thursday, was saying to think about it otherwise her father would: “Hang thee, young baggage! Disobedient wretch! I tell thee what: get thee to church o’ Thursday, Or never after look me in the face. Speak not. Reply not. Do not answer me. My fingers itch. ” This suggests that Gullet’s father is angry at Juliet because she refused to marry Paris who is Gullet’s father’s friend’s son.

This means that if Juliet doesn’t get married to Paris then her father told her to not to talk to him and never like men would have in those days. Women in those days have to be virgin. After her father comes in and begins to shout at Juliet, she responds fearlessly, which made her father angry: mining baggage, disobedient wretch! ” which expresses Caplet’s fury at Gullet’s unexpected disobedience. This suggest how Juliet has matured enough to stand up to her parents and not act like respectful child they expected Juliet to be.

Lord Caplet approaches Juliet in rage: “Speak not. Reply not. Do not answer me. ” This shows Caplet immediate rage at this daughter disrespectfully behavior and also shows maturity within after having stood up to her parents. After her father’s rage, Juliet turns to her mother. We then see how Juliet is portrayed as a more dependent character; ‘Oh sweet mother, cast me not away. ‘ Here Juliet refers to Lady Caplet as mother having previously referring to her as madam, showing how her allegations with her mother has worsened.

Overall Juliet is presented as a matured and disobedient daughter however needs the comfort of a motherly figure. By calling her mother would suggests how Juliet is trying to make the situation better. In this case, Juliet is presented as a more vulnerable, innocent who seeks for her mother’s comfort. On the other hand, it could be understood that Juliet is being cunning and deceitful, by calling her mother and making Lady Caplet feel bad and going to comfort Juliet, even though Juliet previously shouted at her and disobeyed her mother by spending the night with Romeo.

In Having, Duffy presents the speaker as being unable to cope with the effects of love. We can see this as she doesn’t think “it’s only the heart that b-b-b-breaks. ” This suggest that Having is very heart broken after what happen to her, because in her wedding day her lover wasn’t presented in the wedding or the next day which shows that she was dumped so gives on life by getting young boys in the house where she is and has adopted a girl so that she can be rude to the young boys because the boys was attracted by the girl and so that the young boys is heartbroken Just like Having was.

Duffy uses onomatopoeia disturbingly to mock the sound of a heartbeat or the heart slowly b-b-b-breaking in to pieces. This poem trying to show that Hafnium’s mind and spirit have been broken as well as her heart emotionally and mentally. The difference between Romeo and Juliet and also Having is very rare. This is because Having was Jilted bride who left the wedding banquet on her table and also kept on her wedding dress and veil. On the other hand, Romeo does not get to marry Juliet because one thought the other was dead when there weren’t and then committed suicide.

However, it relates somewhere because it is battle for eve. Romeo and Juliet had battle for their love because of their parents. And Hafnium’s fiance© left her, and also had battle of love. Even though their love is great and can’t withstand many harsh attributes in the end it leads to death. Romeo and Juliet loved, went through obstacles and in the end met death. In Romeo and Juliet and in Having there is lots of oxymoron. In sonnet 18, the narrator seems to be in love with the person, he is writing about.

However, his attitude to love seems Shakespeare is trying to say sometimes the sun is far too hot, and often it is too cool, mimed by clouds and shade, which doesn’t describe the person he is trying to describe because the word “hot” means the weather which changes every day and sometimes in the news it says on that it is going to be sunny, but, however, on that day it was rainy because of the weather. So, this suggests that this doesn’t quite describe that person.

However, it emphasizes the young beauty of the person. If Shakespeare is able to say that the person is “heaven shines,” he is trying to say that the person is very natural at being beautiful as he says “heaven,” and also explains hat the person he is fallen in love is very nice, peaceful and calm. This quote also means that the person is more beautiful than summer’s day because they are too hot. In “Valentine” Carol Ann Duffy presents problems associated with love in a more realistic way.

She shows how complex love can be when she says: “It is a moon wrapped in brown paper. ” She is trying to say that love is romantic as she says “brown paper. ” Paper is made from trees which is natural and pure. So, in this case, Duffy is trying to say love is realistic but somehow complex because to make a brown paper takes more than an hour to make. The phrase “moon” suggested love is calm but not always because the moon has different phases which could represent the changes in a person’s personality.

This means that you can fall in love in different ways because as the moon changes phases so can human beings. This suggest that it takes a long time to know a person and in different ways because in the quote the moon is wrapped in brown paper so, if the moon becomes unwrapped, it will give light. This suggests that in the first stages of love, there will be kindness and carefulness with each other’s feeling. In conclude,…..

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Compair and Contrast: Zombies vs. Teenagers

Danger: Zombies and Teenagers are Ahead Mindless and blood lusting bodies fill our streets. Dragging themselves around without purpose or progressive thoughts. One would think that they should close the doors and lock the windows. However its not just decaying zombies that I speak of, its our teens. The biggest difference is the plain fact that teenagers are alive and zombies are undead. While both teenagers and zombies are completely different looking on the outside, on the inside they are very similar. Both are dangerous when they roam in groups.

They have no choice of who they are, but I would like to show you how to understand both of them by comparing them to each other. Even how to destroy them. Danger is something teenagers are always getting themselves into, and when zombies are around everything else is in danger as well. Danger can be described as being put in harms way or threatening harm to others. A teenager is dangerous to themselves and other teenagers. They are reckless and don’t think before they act. Being reckless is a serious issue for teenagers because they think they are invincible. Believing nothing bad will happen to them.

However because of this thought process, teenagers are the ones who get harmed, or in trouble more often then any other age group. The reason for this is because the people who watch out for them aren’t around at the times when teens are making the important decisions, that hold weather they get good or bad consequences. As a child an adult is all ways there to hold their hand and watch their back. As an older adult after the college years, ones life has calmed down and the realization of mortality sinks in therefore they are more careful about what they do with there bodies and minds.

Young adults and teens are new to a world full of wonders, they do much experimenting, to learn the cause and effect of the actions and decisions they make. For example a teenager is about to drive a car with many other teens in the vehicle. One teen turns the radio up and everyone is dancing in there seats, screaming and laughing. The driver is being put in a dangerous situation. With all the distractions, he could do serious damage to the car and everyone in it. Its true that sometimes the driver is fine and nothing bad happens but the situation is still dangerous because of the possibility of a harmful ending.

Putting other people in danger is something that zombies do as well. Obviously zombies are dangerous to other people. They attack with no warning. They spread diseases, and don’t even have the thought process to care about who they are hurting. However what is not as obvious is that they are a danger to themselves. A zombie will walk right into danger without realizing they might die. The reason they don’t realize this is because their is only one thing on their mind and that is BRAINS! A zombie will walk straight toward a crazy redneck with a shot gun and wont even flinch at a warning shot.

A zombie with continue trying to eat a dog even after someone has chopped an arm or leg off of it. When a zombie wants something they will do anything to get it, and this puts themselves in a whole lot of danger. Similar to a zombie a teenager is dangerous to themselves and others, luckily this behavior of recklessness will change and they will mature as they get older. A zombie on the other hand will never be cured and most likely they will not live very long if they keep their recklessness up. Ever wonder why teens and zombies are never by themselves?

Its because they want to protect themselves. Teens like to move in packs and the bigger the pack the better. They go to the movies in a group of three and they meet another group in line for popcorn and they have grown in size. Teens show up at the mall because they know that someone they know will be their. If a teen is somewhere public alone they could be mistaken as a loser, and that would be traumatic for their reputation. Therefore they always have at least four to five buddies with them. Just like teens zombies need to be with other zombies, however its not for the company.

Zombies like to go in packs everywhere because if they outnumber people, then they are more likely to be successful at their initiative attack. They are considered much more dangerous when in groups larger then three. If one were to spot a zombie alone they would feel superior and have no problem taking them down. Therefore zombies travel in groups no less then one hundred-sixty-six other brain eating peers. Weather someone is a teenager or a zombie they really don’t have a choice on becoming what they are. Teenagers become teenagers through the lifecycle.

Everyone wishes they could skip the hormonal, emotional, and awkward stage in their life, but they cant. Its part of being human. The reason teens are different then other age groups is the crazy thing that happen to their bodies. Which I wont go into because this is not a, “What is Happening To My Body” pamphlet. Everyone goes through being a teenager, but not everyone will be a zombie. However once someone is bitten they have no choice to becoming a zombie. Its a disease that travels through a violent contact. The only thing one can do to stop it is to not be bit, by fighting back.

If you want to know how to destroy a zombie or even a teenager it is all very similar. Go for the brain. A teenagers mind is what keeps them going in life if you make them feel terrible, then they will be miserable. If one were to embarrass them or destroy their reputation then they will never be able to live it down and until their dying day they will have never forgotten about the day their life was destroyed. Harsh? However so is bashing a zombies scull. It is their mind that would need to take damage to be destroyed. This is also the same way zombies are killed. Destroy the brain.

Even though zombies don’t use their brains, their body is still dependent on it to be undead. the brain must be smashed or shot or in some way mutilated to make sure the zombie doesn’t come back. Disconnecting the body from the head is not enough. The body will still wander around and the head will still try to bite. The mechanics of this biological phenomenon are not completely understood by scientist yet. However the important thing is that if you kill the brain then you kill the zombie. The mind is a powerful organ for zombies and teens, and if you can take it out then you will succeed in destroying teenagers and zombies.

While teenagers and zombies are on different levels of status, they are surprisingly similar to each other in many ways. Being dangerous and stupid are things that are not very positive to their attributes. However they can outnumber any other group. What they must go through is difficult on both of them as well. A teenager goes through body changes and is very sensitive and can be taken down easily through hurtful words. A zombie goes through a disease where they body decays and every one is trying to kill them. It seems like they are on the same boat. I wouldn’t want to meet either one in a dark alley.

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Can Behavior Be Passed Down Genetically?

There is currently a substantial body of research supporting the argument that there is a genetic influence on numerous human behaviors, such as homosexuality, intelligence and personality. One indication that behavior has a genetic basis is that behavior is often species specific. Examples include the warning behavior of prairie dogs or the mouth to mouth sharing of blood amongst vampire bats. The closer our genetic resemblance is to a certain species, the more behaviors we have in common. Since long it has also been known that behavior can be bred true, which is the reason why some breeds display specific behaviors.

Behavior is also known to change in response to changes in biological structures or processes. Examples include the use of the SSRI drug which alters the reuptake of serotonin in the synapses and consequently our mood, or the loss of important cognitive functions due to brain damage. As the anatomical structure and the physiological processes depend on our DNA we can infer that genes indirectly influence our behavior. It is important to bear in mind that the brain can alter its structure from experience, but this capacity must clearly be genetically determined.

Most researchers agree that all behaviors are more or less indirectly influenced by genes. Where they disagree is the extent to which genes influence behavior. Some behavior also seems to be more influenced by genes than others. The influence of cognitive, social and cultural factors on behavior cannot be denied, and even though there may be a genetic predisposition for many disorders, the extent to which the genotype is expressed in its phenotype will depend on environmental influences.

The stress-vulnerability model, for instance, assumes that the onset and symptoms of mental disorders are influenced by three interacting factors; biological, environmental and protecting factors that may protect the individual against development of a disorder. A study that illustrates the interaction of genes and environment on behavior is a molecular genetics study by Caspi et al. (2003). Caspi et al. investigated the relationship between the 5-HTT gene and occurrence of depression in 847 New Zealanders. The 5-HTT gene is responsible for the production of serotonin in the body, which in turn has an influence on our mood.

A DNA sample was taken of each participant, who also was asked to answer a questionnaire on depression. In order to ensure the participants’ honesty in their self report, their responses were cross checked with a friend of their own choice. The researchers also controlled for levels of stressful life events. The results showed that participants with a short allele on the 5-HTT gene had an increased vulnerability for depression between the ages of 21 to 26. The study also found that the participants only had developed depression if they had suffered from stressful life events, no matter whether they had a propensity for the disorder or not.

Replications of the Caspi study in different countries by Chiao and Blizinsky (2010) further support a gene – environment interaction for depression. They investigated the prevalence of the short allele in the 5-HTT gene in different populations and found that there are higher frequencies in populations that are considered to have a “collectivist” culture, such as Asians, and that there are lower frequencies in populations with an “individualist” culture, such as Europeans or North Americans. This seems counter-intuitive, considering that depression is more common in individualist cultures than collectivist cultures.

Asians should genetically be more prone to depression than Europeans and North Americans, yet Europeans and North Americans are more likely to suffer from it. The research is suffering from several methodological problems. It is possible that depression is as common or in the East as in the West, but that it is underreported. If the data is to be trusted, it suggests that Asian cultures may have better protective factors against the development of depression compared to Western culture, such as better social support.

These findings raise potential ethical issues of discrimination and prejudice. Because of the methodological weaknesses of the research, the findings are not conclusive. Most research supports an interaction between genes and environment on behavior. Genetic research on twins and families usually measure the degree of similarity in characteristics, such as intelligence, between genetically related and unrelated individuals. From this comparison, a concordance rate between 0 and 100 is calculated.

If the rate is close to 100, the behavior is assumed to have a strong genetic basis. On the other hand, if the rate is low, environmental factors are thought to play a major part. Some of behaviors that have the highest concordance rates are homosexuality, schizophrenia, alcoholism, general mood levels, and intelligence, with average concordance rates between 60 and 70. Behaviors with lower concordance rates include depression, personality, religious values, political beliefs and vocational interests, with average concordance rates of around 30 %.

It may seem curious that some of the latter behaviors have a small genetic component, and it is possible that the concordance rates are flawed by methodological issues. The concordance rates fluctuate between studies of the same behavior. This may be due poor control of confounding variables. Some relationships may be purely coincidental, such as in a famous study by Bouchard where two identical twins raised apart had a wife with the same name and in addition had named their son by the same name.

Even if monozygotic twins that are raised in different families exercise similar behavior, it can also be because they are raised in similar social and cultural settings, because they look similar and therefore are treated the same, or because they exercise similar behavior patterns of adopted children. Also, one cannot rule out that researcher expectancies and small sample sizes can influence the concordance rates. Finally, there is a construct validity problem of the studied behaviors. Concepts such as intelligence lack an agreed upon definition, and some mental disorders are viewed differently in different countries.

It is therefore difficult to compare concordance rates between such studies, as they are measuring different concepts. Even so, it is possible that if personality and talent has a genetic component, individuals may be biologically more inclined to some interests than others, and thus may be more likely to adapt a certain value system or vocation. Even though there are methodological problems involved in genes and behavior research, there is overwhelming evidence that there is an influence of genetic inheritance on most behaviors. The extent of this genetic influence is however still controversial, and may vary depending on the behavior.

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Artificial Intelligence in Today’s Society

Artificial Intelligence in Today’s Society Larry Anderson INF103 Instructor Geathers November 21, 2011 “The goal of many computer scientists since the mid-20th century has been to create a computer that could perform logical operations. ”(Bowles, 2010, 9. 2). The journey to achieving this is called Artificial Intelligence, which is considered to be the branch of computer science that is focused on creating machines that engage in human behavior, and intelligence. “The term Artificial Intelligence was first coined at the Dartmouth Conference in 1956 by John McCarthy. ” (McCorduck, 2004, 2. ). “The Dartmouth conference paved the way for examining the use of computers to process symbols, the need for new languages and the role of computers for theorem proving instead of focusing on hardware that simulated intelligence. ”(Krishnamoorthy & Rajeev, 1996, 9. 1). Even though this name was coined in 1956, we saw artificial intelligence 15 years earlier when the electronic computer was created in 1941. Artificial Intelligence is an exciting subject that will only get better with time, allowing humans to do things that were never thought to be reality, until the last few decades.

In this paper, I will be telling you about the four main studies of artificial intelligence and their importance to our society, as well as how they are affecting our everyday lives. These four studies are expert systems, natural language, neural networks, and robotics. Mostly all artificial intelligences can be categorized under these four studies. Not only are these technologies making life easier, they are making life more enjoyable for all societies. The first study of artificial intelligence I will talk about is expert systems. Expert systems are computer programs that contain large amounts of information in a certain field.

These programs use this large amount of information to solve problems that normally would require human intelligence. The great thing about expert systems is that they can process information, in seconds, which would take humans days. Every expert system is made up of two parts: knowledge, and reasoning. “The knowledge base of the expert systems contains both factual and heuristic knowledge. ”(Engelmore & Feigenbaum, 1993, 1. 2). The knowledge is the information, while the reasoning is the problem solving aspect of the expert system. One common, but powerful paradigm involves chaining of if-then rules to form a line of reasoning. ”(Engelmore & Feigenbaum, 1993, 1. 2). For example, if you have these symptoms, then you must have a head cold. Expert systems are affecting our everyday lives by diagnosing illnesses, and predicting the weather. “One of the first systems was a computer that could perform a medical diagnosis. ” (Bowles, 2010, 9. 2). A doctor can enter symptoms into a computer, and then process a few questions for the doctor; after answering the questions the computer will make a diagnosis of the patient.

This is very useful to doctors because now they can see more patients, and give promising diagnosis efficiently. The second way expert systems are affecting our lives is by predicting the weather. Meteorologists are using these systems to help predict hurricanes and tornadoes. This is very helpful to society, giving people more evacuation time during major storms. The second study of artificial intelligence is Natural Language, which is considered human language. “Natural language processing programs use artificial intelligence to allow a user to communicate with a computer in the user’s natural language. (Poole & Mackworth, 2010, 12. 6). The computer can both understand and respond to commands given in human language. The two biggest hurdles in this study are phonetic knowledge, and pragmatic knowledge. Phonetic knowledge concerns how words are realized, and how words are realized as sounds. Pragmatic Knowledge has to do with how sentences are used in different contexts and how that affects sentence interpretation. Even with the tough barriers of language, and the meaning of words computer specialists are producing helpful natural language processing programs to better society. When was the last time you made a customer service call?

Natural language is affecting you when you call a customer service number, and an automated voice tells you to say a command. “Voice-recognition systems are now handling night and weekend toll-free directory assistance calls for big corporations. ” (Poole & Mackworth, 2010, 12. 6). For example if you need to check your balance for a cell phone bill, a voice-recognition system can assist, without the need of a human. This allows the human customer service representatives to help customers with more complex questions. Another way natural language is being used is with Google’s real time translation application.

With this application you can take snapshots of things in a different language with your phone and it will translate the words into your language in seconds. This can be useful when you are traveling in different countries, needing directions, or when you are selecting from a menu in a different language. “A neural network is, in essence, an attempt to simulate the brain. Neural network theory revolves around the idea that certain key properties of biological neurons can be extracted and applied to simulations, thus creating a simulated, and very much simplified brain. ”(Reingold & Nightingale, 4. 1).

The first important thing to understand is that artificial neural networks are an attempt to recreate the computing potential of the brain. However, no one has ever simulated anything as complex as an actual brain which makes it very difficult to finish the whole project. Credit card fraud is very big in the present day, because many people are not using cash; instead they are using credit cards and debit cards to make transactions. “Nearly 400,000 transactions per day are of fraudulent charges. ” (Brause & Langsdorf, 1). Neural Networks are being used to detect fraud transactions with the principal of pattern recognition.

Every time a credit card user uses their card there is a pattern of transaction. Neural network software uses information such as how much money a person makes, type of transactions made, and how frequent certain transactions are made to predict fraud. “Neural network based fraud detection is based totally on the human brain working principal. As the human brain learns through past experience and uses its knowledge or experience in making the decision in daily life problem the same technique is applied with the credit card fraud detection technology. ” (Patidar & Sharma 2. ). The last study of artificial intelligence I will be talking about is robotics. Robots are physical agents that perform tasks by manipulating the physical world. “They perform tasks which are idealizations or extensions of human capabilities. ”(Selig, 1992, 1. 1). Robots have four characteristics; sensing, movement, energy, and intelligence. First off, a robot must sense its surroundings using light, touch, and pressure sensors. Secondly a robot must have movement; a robot needs to move around in its in environment, whether or not the whole robot moves, or just parts.

Thirdly, a robot needs power to function properly, this energy could be solar, electrical, or battery powered. Last, it must have some kind of intelligence, such as software from a programmer in order to operate. Actual robots might seem like far off science fiction, but that is not the case robots have been affecting our everyday life for years. One of the biggest uses for robots today is in the automotive industry. Over the past few decades robots have completely changed the automobile industry in many ways.

Even though the use of robots has also led to many workers losing their jobs, it is very cost effective. The robots are used for welding, painting, drilling, sanding, cutting, and moving tasks in manufacturing plants. The robots have improved this industry with a job efficiency that couldn’t be duplicated by humans. These robots have made assembly lines and factories safer by handling jobs that are too dangerous and too difficult for workers to perform. Another great way that robots are working in society’s favor is by cleaning up toxic and contaminated areas that would otherwise be harmful to humans.

The biggest reason that robots are able to do these jobs is that they can be easily shielded against hazardous environments and are easily replaceable, unlike humans. Robots are used to clean up nuclear waste or clean ammunition, and landmines all over the world. Robots are also an asset to the military because they can detect and diffuse bombs in a combat zone. These robots are saving lives every day because they are able to go into situations that are life threating to humans and get the job done.

The studies of expert systems, natural language, neural networks, and robotics are just in their early stages of advancements, but are already showing important promising characteristics for the future of mankind. We already see these advancements being put to the test by making medical diagnosis, predicting weather, voice automated services, catching transaction fraud, building automobiles, and cleaning up hazardous wastes. There is no doubt that Artificial Intelligence is already affecting society in ways that were never imagined decades ago.

Technology will continue to explode into the next few decades, excelling in Artificial Intelligence, how we embrace the advances, will define us as a society. Resources: Bowles, Mark, D. (2010). Introduction to Computer Literacy. San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint Education. McCorduck, P. (2004). Machines Who Think. Natick, MA. AK Peters, Ltd. Krishnamoorthy, C. , Rajeev, S. (1996). Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems for Engineers. CRC Press. Englemore, R. & Feigenbaum, E. (1993). Expert Systems and Artificial Intelligence. WTEC Hyper-Librarian. Poole, D. & Mackworth, A. 2010). Artificial Intelligence Foundations of Computational Agents. Cambridge University Press. Reingold, E. & Nightingale, J. Artificial Intelligence Tutorial Review. http://www. psych. utoronto. ca/users/reingold/courses/ai/ai. html Brause, R. & Langsdorf. Neural Data Mining for Credit Card Fraud Detection. J. W. Goethe-University. Frankfurt, Germany. Patidar, R. & Sharma, L. (2011). International Journal of Soft Computing and Engineering. Jaipur, India. Selig, J. (1992). Introductory Robotics. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall International.

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