Cambodia

Cambodia is a small Southeast Asian country that borders on the Gulf of Thailand and is situated between Laos, Vietnam and Thailand. It has a population of 12 and a half million people, and has just come through a time of great hardship that has lasted since 1975. The people responsible for this country’s turbulent past are the Khmer Rouge forces that invaded Phnom Penh in the 70’s. Over 1 million people died during their rule, through enforced hardship and execution. This country has seen war, human massacres, and dictatorship.

Economically, Cambodia is a country discovering itself in tourism terms, with a 34% increase in tourism for the 2000-2001 period. Cambodia has a wealth of history and culture predating the Khmer Rouge tyranny and many travelers see it as an unadulterated, tourist-free experience. Cambodia’s industries are in garments, rice milling, fishing, wood and wood products (although some of these are illegal operations), rubber, cement, gem mining (another generally illegal industry), and textiles. The unemployment rate is 2.8%. 80% of all employed people are working in the agriculture sector, which consists of rice, rubber, corn and other vegetables. Exports in 2000 were $942 million and these consisted of timber, garments, rubber, rice, and fish. The majority of these exports went to neighbouring countries, and 10% went to the USA.

Cambodia’s population of 12,491,501 and has a growth rate of 2.25% per annum. This rate takes into account, the following things: It’s birth rate per 1000 head of population – 33.16, and the deaths per 1000 head of population – 10.65.

The migratory rate of 0 people per 1000 is also worth mentioning. The infant mortality rate is 65.41 per thousand live births.

Life expectancy in Cambodia is 56.82 years, compared with Australia’s approximate 75 years, this is very low. Literacy rates for the total population are 35% (This takes into account persons over 15 years who can read and write). For all the population, women’s literacy rate drops to 22%, while men are on 42%.

All the above statistics explicitly take into consideration, death linked to or as a result of AIDS, this lowers life expectancy, higher infant mortality rate and higher death rates. Lower population, growth rates and changes in population distribution by age and sex are also affected. Deaths per year as a result of AIDS are 14,000 and the prevalence rate is 4.04%.

SECTION B

Agriculture-

11% of Cambodia’s total land usage is in permanent pastures. This clearly illustrates that farming animals in Cambodia is not a huge industry. Officially, there are 0% permanent crop pastures, but it is estimated that this figure has risen to 4% over the last two years. 5% of all land used is for narcotics/drug manufacturing, with Cambodia being a huge international producer of heroin, opium, amphetamines and cannabis.

After massive political upheaval, which brought an end to the Khmer Rouge regime in the mid-1990’s, Cambodia finally looked started to restore some semblance of normality to the country’s economy. The primary industries were one of the first areas the new government decided to develop, unfortunately with political infighting and civil violence all plans for industry development were put on hold. It was only after 1999, the first full year of peace in 30 years that the government implemented strategies to make agriculture a more prominent and lucrative industry. They launched a plan to reduce rural poverty to 31% by 2005, but still retain an economic growth rate of 6 to 7 percent a year.

This plan hopefully will reconstruct rural infrastructures by drawing up public investment plans, setting up rural development banks and small-scale financial institutions. Local authorities and councils also needed to be perfected and this happened in communal elections in February of this year, in this way, a lot of the corrupt government officials were voted out of office. Much of the international aid that comes to Cambodia is put into the improvement of rural services such as roads, power supply, education and healthcare.

The current types of agriculture that exist in Cambodia today are rice (growth and milling), rubber, corn, and miscellaneous vegetables. Livestock and poultry also make up a portion of the industry, there are also fisheries and forestry. Statistics are organised as: Crops 18%, livestock and poultry 7%, Fisheries 16%, forestry and logging 4% (All these statistics are from the 2000 GDP and are approximate to the nearest full number).

As a result of the government’s development process, technology in agriculture had risen dramatically over the past 2 years. Tractors, diggers, ploughs and other large machinery

are fast becoming commonplace on farms, and there are often share policies initiated between farmers to gain finance on equipment and pay it off together while both using it. Biotechnology is a very small area, and genetic research is virtually nonexistent, but as a result of government funding, and initiatives between industry and local government, new farming methods of irrigation and fertilisation are being developed.

Land tenure in Cambodia is a process being reviewed currently. A lot of the land is owned by local government and the state (almost 45%) but a policy put in place to encourage foreign investors, has spun off and created a profitable and legitimate loophole for local farmers. The government allows rent of land for up to 90 years at a very low price, and seeds, fertilizers, mechanised agriculture equipment and other farm-related things are all exempt from taxes or have low duties. Farmers who export more than 80% of their produce are also exempt from all duties.

Industry-

In Cambodia industrial expansion, has been quite important and could well be called a ‘corner-stone’ of their economic performance. It is a country relatively rich in natural resources, resources that have more or less remained untapped because decades of war and non-industry related development (infact the term ‘anti-industry’ is fitting) have inhibited it. The government now regards areas of industry such as garments and textiles as ‘two major pillars in the national economy’.

Development of these industries creates 50,000 jobs a year for the rural labour force alone, and helps gain foreign exchange for the national treasury. Garment enterprises now employ 150,000 workers nationwide but this figure is disputed, as many factories and manufacturing plants do not officially exist for tax-evasion purposes, so the figure is in all actuality higher. Huge openings in the markets of the American, Canada and European Union have provided Cambodia with major export partners, and given them quality standards for their products to reach.

Mineral and gem mining is a big business, with police and the government coming down hard on the estimated 50% of illegal operations currently operating along the border of Thailand in the North Batdambang and South Eastern Siem Reap regions. This mining is usually strip mining, which means they take the top layer of soil, trees, rocks, natural vegetation and habitats and mine for whatever particular mineral they are looking for. This is a huge disturbance (Infact it destroys it) to any environment, and in when a company does this environmental legislation states that all soil and rocks must be replaced, and trees replanted, so that some the environment and can regrow and resemble something of it’s previous appearance and function.

Illegal companies do not do this reparation work and turn unique and biologically diverse area into a desolate crater, full of mining pollution and waste. The minerals being mined for are gemstones, iron ore, manganese, and phosphates. Mining provides employment to something like 230,000 people, and also helps to develop rural industries like retail and food processing, because of the masses of people that have to be situated at the mines. There are processing plants at some of the mines but a good majority of all mined material is sent to processing plants in Thailand and PDR Laos.

Timber and forestry is perhaps the most lucrative and at the same time destructive industry. As with the mining, a good proportion of the logging that occurs is illegal and the government is slowly eradicating all of these operations, this eradication began in 1999. With forests and woodlands making up 66% of all land use, it is hardly surprising that this area of industry has become huge. The government is now putting in place rules and regulations to try and curve the amount of trees being cut down and processed every day, in the hope of retaining large amounts of it’s rainforests and natural wildlife habitats. Logging companies that had concessions to forests have recently agreed reluctantly to reduce their productions from an already reduced 50% capacity to 25% while violations are addressed. All the above industries need major reform and right now have huge pollution and waste outputs, that flow straight into the sea.

Fisheries are a vital industry in Cambodia, providing the principal source of protein for the population and providing significant employment. Fishing activities are divided into large-scale operations involving exclusive concessions on fishing areas in the Tonle Sap (a large inland lake) and floodplains, licensed medium-scale activities, or small-scale family fishing. A rapid increase in medium and small-scale fishing and mismanagement of fishing areas in recent years is leading to overexploitation of some species but others are still plentiful. An estimated 67,000 people are employed in the fisheries industry, this takes into account: fisher people, deck-hands, and all boat related staff, processing staff at processing and packaging plants and executives and business people.

Before the pollution from other industries gets to the sea, it goes through mangroves that line the coast. As a result of massive pollution being put through the mangroves, they are all slowly dying. The mangroves are a nursery for fish, that eventually will not exist, and so neither will the fish, thus destroying a very important industry.

Other Emerging Industries-

In recent years the services sector and tourism were hit hard by the political disturbances of 1997 and 1998, but over the past 5 years consumer confidence has returned and made headway for new spheres of development. In 1999 tourist arrivals to the country rose by 41%, and then by another 34% in the year 2000. Tourism is a major industry, generating $63 million in 1999. The government in conjunction with airlines has created direct flights to Siem Reap from destinations such as Bangkok, Ho Chi Minh City and there are plans for flights from Singapore, all this has contributed greatly to tourism in regional areas of Cambodia and has huge marketability as multi-country package tours become very popular to westerners.

The service sector, accounting for 36% of total GDP in 2000, seems ‘poised to enter a sustained period of expansion after several years of stagnation’ according to economic analysts from the ADB organisation. United Nations involvement, and becoming a member of the WHO, has certainly affected the public’s attitudes towards restaurants and hotels. The aforementioned organisations set up protocols and regulations for the government to implement, and trained inspectors and officials to make sure proprietors and companies abide by them. This has seen a 49% growth in services and more consumers than ever.

Cambodia’s main export partners are as follows: Vietnam 18%, Thailand 15%, US 10%, Singapore 8% and China 5%. It’s import partners are much the same with the addition of Japan. The trade balance is reasonable with imports at $1.3 billion and exports at $942 million.

11% of Cambodia’s total land usage is in permanent pastures. Officially, there are 0% permanent crop pastures, but it is estimated that this figure has risen to 4% over the last two years. 5% of all land used is for narcotics/drug manufacturing, with Cambodia being a huge international producer of heroin, opium, amphetamines and cannabis. There is large-scale political involvement in stopping this drug-trade, but a lot of local officials previous to the elections, were involved in taking bribes and in some extreme circumstances were actually growing and selling drugs themselves.

Section C

Economic development for any country is a long and hard journey that has problems with trade, neighbouring countries, religious aspects etc. Possibly the most important thing to consider, as a spin-off of development is the impact it has on the environment. This impact on the environment can be things like forestry, mining, pollution, species of animals becoming endangered, and declination of bio-diversity etc. Cambodia has a lot of these problems and they are being addressed, but it is the illegal (and legal) logging that carries the title for most urgent industry to fix, as it is destroying the forests and killing animals. This is saying the least about what the implications of this destruction may be.

Slowly the government is naming national parks and declaring them forbidden to forestry companies. What is happening when companies chop trees down is that they are destroying habitats of wildlife, preventing things from ever growing again because of their wastes, and as a result reducing the total bio-diversity of the country. In these rain forests and woodlands, many endangered animals that are extinct in Thailand, Vietnam and PDR Laos, live and coexist.

Species such as Asiatic elephants, tigers, lepoards, Asiatic rhino’s, gibbons and crocodiles are all slowly losing their homes as the number of suitable habitats grows less and less. When deforestation occurs upstream, massive damage as a result of floods occurs downstream. This flooding affects everything, from agriculture (farms being underwater and losing crops, livestock, equipment), to towns and villages being underwater. Funnily enough, the inverse of this situation is that fisheries and their production improve greatly with the more severe floods.

Most of the environmental consequences have been discussed in previous sections, so in summing up, Cambodia is a country of rich history and huge potential tourism, it’s social ideals still have a fair way to improve, but in Cambodia you can see a country that against all odds has come out of political oppression and started to find it’s identity and become a developed country.

The Royal Plowing Ceremony The Royal Plowing Ceremony is one of the most important annual royal traditional ceremonies, which is held at the open square of Veal Preah Merhu in front of the National Museum in Phnom Penh every year. This ceremony is deemed one of the marvelous blessings of the Cambodian people. Each king has led this celebration since ancient times. According to the tradition, the Royal Plowing ceremony is celebrated to predict the upcoming orn, bean, grass, sesame, water, wine.

It is also celebrated to give a blessing to farming and to pray to God for sufficient seasonal rainfall, which is essential to encouraging all of the Cambodian farmers to produce a high crop yield. This year’s Royal Plowing Day was celebrated on May 21st, presided over by His Majesty Preah Bat Samdech Preah Baromneath Norodom Sihamoni, King of the Kingdom of Cambodia. It was held in the Meru field (Viel Men), north of the Royal Palace in Phnom Penh. For this year, Keo Chanmony, a CPP Member of Parliament from Kampong Chhnang province, was appointed as Mehour, while Cambodian lawmaker, Say Chhum, acted as Sdech Meak.

After finishing the symbolic plowing and throwing seeds of a portion of the field, a pair of sacred oxen were led to eat rice, corn, beans, sesame, grass, water and alcohol, which had been prepared on trays. It was seen that the sacred oxen ate corn, beans, and grass but shunned rice grain. The oxen’s choice of corn, beans, and grass led the Royal Palace’s chief astrologer Kang Keng to declare that this year’s corn and beans harvests will be bountiful.

However, he warned that the eating of grass signaled that Cambodia’s livestock will suffer from some pandemic diseases. Any way, the astrologer did not spell out to the crowd what it meant for the rice yield, sparking concern among superstitious farmers. “I am very worried that we will not have a good paddy harvest,” farmer Ros Makara, 52, told AFP after the ceremony, “but I will try my best to grow rice. I don’t totally rely on the prediction. ” Ok Men, 46, from Prey Veng province, said she was worried about her cows. I have to be careful in taking care of and preventing my cows from contracting diseases,” she said. Another corn and bean farmer from Kandal province, Chhit Sorphea, said the prediction made him confident of a good harvest, and he would expand his planting. After the rite, the participants could enjoy the exhibition of agricultural products, agro-industrial products, forest products and by products, domestic animal products, rubber output, tourism potential, and agro-tourism which was held for three days, from 21-23 May 2011, in Viel Men.

In that occasion, there have been many media coverage of the Royal Plowing Ceremony this year. In country’s broadcasting such as national TV which transferred to all Cambodia’s TV and radio, Koh Samtepheap newspaper, DAP news, many website on the internet like: www. rfa. org/khmer, www. cambodia. org/news , www. everyday. com. kh , www. news. bbc. co. uk , www. chanbokeo. com, and so on, all of the them have been broadcast this royal ceremony through same source by different style of each.

Containment was a united states government policy uniting military, economic and diplomatic strategies to contain any further spread of communism in the world after the world war II , with the goal of thereby enhancing America’s security and influence abroad . The Soviet Union created an Eastern Bloc of countries that it occupied, annexing some as Soviet Socialist Republics and maintaining others as Satellite States that would later form the Warsaw Pact. The United States and various western European countries began a policy of “containment” of communism and forged myriad alliances to this end, including NATO.

Several of these western countries also coordinated efforts regarding the rebuilding of Western Europe, including western Germany, which the Soviets opposed. In other regions of the world, such as Latin America and Southeast Asia, the Soviet Union fostered Communist revolutionary movements, which the United States and many of its allies opposed and, in some cases, attempted to “rollback”. (Peter) Ans2) In 1962, the Soviet Union was desperately behind the United States in the arms race. Soviet missiles were only powerful enough to be launched against Europe but U. S. missiles were capable of striking the entire Soviet Union.

In late April 1962, Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev conceived the idea of placing intermediate-range missiles in Cuba. For the United States, the crisis began on October 15, 1962 when reconnaissance photographs revealed Soviet missiles under construction in Cuba. USA decided to quarantine the island and tensions began to build on both sides. Finally, negotiations were held and Soviet Union agreed to dismantle the installations if United States assured not to invade Cuba. This is a very important Case of cold war confrontation because this crisis was the closest the world ever came to nuclear war.

(burr & robinson) Ans3) The Vietnam War occurred in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia from 1959 to 30 April 1975. The war was fought between the communist North Vietnam, supported by its communist allies, and the government of South Vietnam, supported by the United States and other member nations of the South Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO). The united States entered the war to prevent a communist takeover of S The first attempt to avoid the induction into the war was raised by a college student from the National Coordinating Committee to End the War in Vietnam. Gradually college campus demonstrations in the U.

S. intensified The United States ceased all bombing and other attacks in North Vietnamese territory on November 1, 1968, to encourage negotiations for ending the war. Aimed at reducing the level of fighting and negotiating a settlement, the Paris Peace Talks began in May 1968. (Zhang) Ans4)The policies followed by united states in Cambodia were -: • No U. S. ground combat personnel in the country, and no U. S. advisers with Cambodian units. • Air missions against enemy supplies and personnel that pose a potential threat to South Vietnam or seek to establish base areas relevant to Vietnam.

• Military assistance to the Cambodian government in amounts and types suitable for their army. • Encourage other countries of the region to give diplomatic assistance. • Encourage and support the efforts of third countries who wish to furnish troops or material (Nixon) Ans5)In 1950 united states of America followed the policy of containment. Containment was a united states government policy uniting military, economic and diplomatic strategies to contain any further spread of communism in the world after the world war II.

In Vietnam, USA decided to support the government of South Vietnam and the other member nations of the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO). The united States entered the war to prevent a communist takeover of South Vietnam. In the 1950s ,America’s policy toward Central Africa was caught between maintaining good relations with allies in Brussels, London, and Paris. (helmreich) Works cited byrd, Peter (2003). “Cold War”. in Iain McLean & Alistair McMillan. The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics.

Oxford University Press. Xiaoming, Zhang. “China’s 1979 War With Vietnam: A Reassessment,” China Quarterly. Issue no. 184, (December, 2005) Nixon, Richard. “United States foreign policy for the 1970’s – Laos and Cambodia” www. let. rug. nl/usa/P/rn37/writings/ch6_p2. htm Helmreich, Jonathan E. “U S Foreign policy and the Belgian congos in the 1950” The Historian, January 1 , 1996 Leon robinson, Jeremy &burr,William. “chronology of submarine” Contact during the Cuban missile crisis, October 1, 1962 – November 14, 1962

For a very long time ago, the advance of technology and science were at very low rate, unlikely from nowadays. So, people started to believe in superstition.

They have believed in things that are unseen and unknown – even up to now, although some people have turned their aspects on the science and modern technologies. On my point of view, I can’t say that I don’t believe in superstition at all, nor can I say that I thoroughly have belief in superstition.As a matter of fact, everything always has its advantages and disadvantages. I, accordingly, choose to believe in superstition fifty percent, and another fifty percent on science. I have my own reasons by saying that. I think that superstition has some good points that people have taken for granted up to these days. As we can all see in our everyday lives, superstition makes people afraid of sins which they think they will get from their deeds.

Imagine, for example, if there is no superstition, people will become fierce and kill each other like animals, for they know no sins or good deeds.Another example, there also contains some good advices in superstition, including in the religions like Buddhism, Jesus, etc. In Buddhism, the Buddha advises us who are Buddhists a lot of good advices which are very significant in our social lives, such as counseling people to have morality, to respect and to be open-hearted to each other, etc. Therefore, these examples show that superstition plays important roles in our living in the society. Despite from these advantages, I think superstition has its disadvantages as well.For instance, if people believe too much in superstition without careful consideration, it can affect their mentality badly, and it is capable to lead them to bad ways and can even destroy their whole life because of that. When a person is too religious, he or she will think that they can get or achieve anything due to their God, not because of their own efforts.

Moreover, they think they can even give up their lives for their God. Another example, like in Islam religion, Muslim people never have chances to study or work properly because of their religious reasons, such as they have to pray to their gods many times a day.I don’t think that is reasonable; instead, it is very ludicrous. One more example, some poor people believe that they are poor because of their sins from their earlier lives, and they don’t try to find the ways in order to get themselves out of their poverty. Consequently, as I describe all the advantages and disadvantages of superstitions above, I think that it is appropriate to only believe in superstition 50%. So, I suggest you all to consider clearly before you decide to believe in something because it can either lead you to good ways or bad ways.

Stung Treng, one of the distant northeasterly states of the Kingdom of Cambodia, is inhabited by different cultural minority groups in add-on to the bulk Khmers, such as ” Brao, Kaveth, Lun, Phnong, Khmer Khe, and Kuy ” ( Center for Advanced Study, 2009, p. 285 ). Without schooling, these groups have high hazards of being exploited and exposed to bad behaviours such as drug maltreatment and unprotected sex. With low degrees of literacy they can be more prone to infection by common diseases in their community like malaria and dandy fever febrility, which farther depletes their minimum incomes necessitating outgo on medical specialties and medical expertness. Furthermore, their full potencies to develop themselves every bit good as their community have non been realized due to miss of chances.

There are many benefits associated with female parent lingua based bilingual instruction: higher registration rates in formal system ; lower dropout rates ( a common ground for dropout in the early old ages of instruction is linguistic communication ; there are high dropout rates for kids talking a different female parent lingua to the linguistic communication of direction ) ; lower repeat rates, for kids necessitating to reiterate peculiar class of their schooling ; higher rates of success for misss remaining in instruction ; higher rates of parental and community engagement in kids ‘s instruction ; it can better the relationship between political leaders and a multilingual population ; it leads to greater proficiency and eloquence in national linguistic communication ( and besides so international linguistic communications if these are pursued ) if initial direction is done in female parent longue ; and community engagement in instruction is really of import – affecting parents, community and instructors in instruction helps kids learn. Greater engagement is found when initial direction is in the female parent lingua.

Over recent old ages the United Nations Children ‘s Fund ( UNICEF ) , in coaction with the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport ( MoEYS ) , has piloted a bilingual instruction programme in Siem Pang territory, Stung Treng state, where most Kaveth cultural group members are concentrated. This has been done in order to supply primary instruction to kids of this group by utilizing a bilingual theoretical account of larning implemented by CARE Cambodia, portion of CARE International, in Rattanakiri state. The programme focused on a minority population in three small towns of Siem Pang territory straight profiting about 225 kids. For confidentiality purposes the small towns will be known as small town K, small town O and small town T.

1.2 Problem Statement

The bilingual method of learning adopted in the plan has been the agencies of supplying primary instruction to kids of cultural minorities in this state and its impact has non been studied therefore far, so the research worker has great involvement in researching this.

1.3 Purpose and Significance

It is anticipated that the informations collected and analyzed in this survey will be used as a strong foundation to reason for an enlargement of the plan to other minority communities which are presently underserved by the Kampuchean instruction system. This has deductions for an addition in instruction entree for the-hard-to-reach kids of the state ‘s minority groups. The scope of possible impacts include the person ‘s future work chances, their attitudes towards and value for instruction, and the development of positive behaviours towards effectual wellness and hygiene patterns within the minority communities.

Hopefully, the research findings will show the positive results and impact of the bilingual instruction programme. It may besides bring out issues or jobs that can be addressed. The positive impact will function as an protagonism message to the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport “ for bilingual instruction to be portion of national instruction policy programs, and the programs must be implemented in pattern with sufficient resources in the signifier of allocated financess, decently trained forces and other necessary resources ” ( UNESCO, 2005, p. 3 ) .

1.2 Research Questions

This research proposal intends to research the inquiry ” What are the self-reported impacts of attending at the bilingual instruction programme on kids, their households and communities? ” with the following purposes:

1. To document the impact on take parting pupils of their attendance/involvement in the bilingual instruction programme in Stung Treng :
2. To document the impact on the households of pupils who attend the bilingual instruction programme in Stung Treng ; and
3. To document the impact on the local communities in which pupils and their households attend bilingual instruction programme in Stung Treng.

2. Methods

Discussed in this subdivision will be the sampling technique, informations aggregation procedures and the method for informations analysis. Ethical issues and the stairss taken to turn to them will besides be considered here.

2.1 Sampling

The proposed research will concentrate on the impact of bilingual instruction on the minority communities in Siem Pang territory, Stung Treng state. In each of these communities there is one school supplying bilingual instruction from classs one to three, and this research will utilize a convenience sample to choose one school with ready entree for the research worker. Two pupils from each of the three classs ( n = 6 ) from the selected school will be invited to take part in an interview. A parent of each of the invited pupils will be invited to take part in a focal point group treatment plus two members of the school support commission based on their handiness ( n=8 ) .

A list of male and female pupils from the selected school will be sought from the school principal by the research worker. Simple random sampling will be used to choose two pupils from each of the three classs. The research worker will compose each single pupil ‘s name on a separate faux pas of paper, topographic point all the faux pass in a container, agitate the container, and choice faux pass from the container until the coveted figure of participants is selected. This procedure will be repeated by class and gender with misss in one container and male childs in the other in order to hold gender balance. It is of import to hold gender balance in this survey so that every bit representative voices can be heard.

An Information Form and an Informed Consent signifier and missive from the school principal developed by the research worker will be sent to parents by the instructor through the selected pupils to seek their parental blessing. If parents of the selected pupils do non O.K. of their kids take parting in this research, the same procedure will be repeated with other pupils of the selected school until the coveted sample has been achieved.

There are restrictions deducing from both clip restraints and geographical conditions for carry oning this research, so the sample size will non be big plenty to generalise the results of this survey. This trying attack besides has some restrictions. It can non vouch a good representation of the whole population in the small town or the category, cut downing the generalizability of the consequences. However, the impact of bilingual instruction in this minority community can still be measured through a carefully structured research tool.

2.2 Data aggregation

2.2.1 Interviewing

Data will be collected through single interviews with the pupils of each of the three classs who have received parental consent to take part, and with two grownup focal point groups of four each group dwelling of the parents of three pupils and a member of school support commission in each group. Student interviews will be done by class degree, three interviews with the 2 kids from the same class degree.

Due to clip restraints, carry oning pair interviews with pupils is a preferred option to the research worker. To cut down the possibility of male childs ruling the interview, the interviewer will deliberately direct the inquiries to girl pupils in an attempt to promote female engagement.

The possible grownup participants in focal point group treatments will be provided with an Information Sheet in their ain linguistic communication, explicating the research intent and a Consent Form ( see Appendix A ) . Potential kid participants will be provided with an Information Form and Consent Form in their ain linguistic communication that requires parental every bit good as child consent, in an effort to turn to ethical concerns about questioning kids who are under the legal age of consent. Interviews with pupils will be conducted at their school on Thursday forenoon because Thursday is no-class twenty-four hours whilst focal point group treatments will be conducted in the afternoon of the same twenty-four hours and at the same topographic point. The interviews and concentrate group treatments will be audio-recorded for ulterior written text and analysis

The interviews and concentrate groups ( draft inquiries in Appendix E ) will be conducted by the research worker and facilitated by a bilingual instructor, who can talk the local linguistic communication good, to assist smooth the procedure and to avoid any possible misinterpretation during interviews and concentrate group treatments. The instructor will non be the kid ‘s instructor to forestall any concerns of the kid in the event they make a critical remark. An instruction functionary each from the provincial and territory offices will be approached to set up communicating flow between the research worker and survey participants in footings of doing assignments for the interviews and concentrate group treatments.

An interview protocol and inquiries will be developed for usage in the interviews and concentrate group treatments ( see Appendix B ) . Students will be asked semi-structured inquiries by the research worker, with interlingual rendition by a bilingual instructor. Possibly examining inquiries will besides be developed to utilize when new subjects come up during interviews and concentrate group treatments. The research worker will discourse the inquiries beforehand with the transcriber to clear up the content and purpose of the inquiries with the purpose of thereby cut downing confusion during the times of questioning and treatment.

All interviews and treatments will be audio-recorded so that the procedure can be conducted swimmingly without breaks for note pickings. The recordings will subsequently be transcribed for thorough analysis, and will be translated into English. The recordings, the written texts every bit good as the interlingual renditions will be stored and watchword protected in the research worker ‘s personal computing machine for confidentiality and will be destroyed after the research study has been completed.

There are some restrictions to the usage of interviews and concentrate group treatments. Students, their parents and community leaders of the minority group do non hold much exposure to the universe outside their immediate community, and this may take to narrow positions in their responses and treatments and limit the profusion of data/information aggregation. All the research participants are new to interviews and concentrate group treatments, and this may keep them from talking openly and honestly. The usage of a transcriber could besides perplex the procedure and add an unintended confusion to participants. Focus groups can non vouch confidentiality hence single respondents may be restrained in their responses if they believe person in the group might state others about peculiar remarks, particularly any perceived as critical.

2.3 Data analysis

The analysis will be done first by transcribing the recorded responses from the interviews and focal point groups. Similar phrases from each transcript are put together under descriptive labels. By making so, informations are pooled and a form or subject will emerge. Give the little figure of participants in both interviews and concentrate group treatments, informations analysis will be done utilizing excel spreadsheet.

2.4 Ethical considerations

The true intent of this survey will be obviously explained to all participants in this research and the general benefits deducing from this research for their community will besides be explained in order to derive their full engagement. It will be explained that engagement is voluntary and anon. . By making so the research participants understand they are non compelled to prosecute against their will and may retreat from take parting at any clip.

The research worker pays great attending to ethical issues that might be concerned with the survey in footings of coercion and power imposed on the participants. Therefore, the research worker has designed an Information Sheet and Consent Form in the cultural linguistic communication explicating the intent and the procedure of the survey every bit good as their right to decline to take part before the survey can get down.

An informal attack to the behavior of the interviews and focal point groups will be pursued in order to set all the participants at easiness and to arouse as rich and varied information as possible.

3. Literature Reappraisal

3.1 International context

Surveies have shown that direction in the female parent lingua is good to achievement in other capable countries and 2nd linguistic communication acquisition. In parts where the linguistic communication of the scholar is non the national linguistic communication of the state, bilingual instruction can do female parent lingua direction possible while supplying acquisition of the national linguistic communication at the same clip ( UNCESCO, 2003 ) .

International research shows that at least five old ages of direction in the first linguistic communication -but sooner throughout the instruction system – is required to supply a solid foundation for farther surveies. A strong foundation in the female parent lingua is besides needed for 2nd linguistic communication acquisition and successful transportation of the literacy accomplishments from the first to the 2nd linguistic communication ( UNESCO, 2006 ) .

Teaching basic accomplishments to hapless kids through linguistic communication submergence may be damaging, but bilingual instruction is a much more effectual option. Students in the United States of America having direction in a native linguistic communication and English at different times of the twenty-four hours were found to do the most dramatic additions in reading public presentation compared to their English-only equals. This research is pertinent to multilingual low-income states ( World Bank, 2006 ) .

The figure of old ages of direction in the first linguistic communication is the most of import forecaster of reading public presentation in a 2nd linguistic communication. It is non of import what the first linguistic communication is, but instead how much cognitive and academic development the pupil has experienced in it. The higher the pupils ‘ accomplishment in the primary linguistic communication, the faster they will come on in the 2nd linguistic communication ( World Bank, 2006 ) .

3.2 Kampuchean context

The footings ” cultural minorities, ” ” autochthonal peoples, ” ” hill folks ” and ” Highlanders ” are non synonymous. They are used interchangeably to depict the population groups who reside in remote, difficult-to-access countries within Cambodia. They make a life largely by subsistence agriculture and from forest merchandises, and do non talk Khmer, the national linguistic communication, as a female parent lingua ( UNCESCO, 2005 ) .

With the publicity of Education For All ( EFA ) , the Royal Government of Cambodia ( RGC ) is cognizant of the demand to do instruction accessible to all. The Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport is get downing to acknowledge that bilingual instruction may be an effectual manner of run intoing the educational demands of Cambodia ‘s cultural minorities while enabling them to take part more to the full in Khmer society ( UNESCO, 2007 ) .

To accomplish Education For All in minority communities, particular schemes such as bilingual instruction can be used ( UNESCO, 2006 ) . Bilingual instruction encompasses more than the female parent lingua as the linguistic communication of direction. Curriculum, stuffs, instructors and, learner-centered methodological analysiss are all elements of the educational procedure related to the autochthonal people ‘s civilization in a wide sense. Furthermore the attack has promoted the acceptance of inclusive instruction with scholars from upland autochthonal groups have long been marginalized and deprived of any chance for formal instruction ( UNCESCO, 2005 ) .

Cultural minority communities have maintained their cultural, lingual and traditional differences through their farness from the bulk cultural communities. Given this farness, there has non been the chance to back up substructure and the development and/or renovation of school edifices, conveyance and administrative substructure that instruction may necessitate ( UNCESCO, 2005 ) . This compounds the disadvantage of the minority groups even further.

There have been few educational chances for autochthonal peoples and, accordingly, there are few trained forces who are fluid in cultural minority linguistic communications and Khmer. As Khmer is non the first linguistic communication of the different upland groups, kids are placed at a disadvantage when it is used as the lone linguistic communication of direction ( UNESCO, 2005 ) .Find some figures that describe the engagement rates of cultural minority groups in higher instruction in Cambodia – it will beef up this point every bit good as the Significance of the research

Given that there have been few undertakings that catered to the specific educational demands of cultural minorities, there is besides a deficiency of stuffs that are culturally relevant or readily adaptable for usage in footings of linguistic communication and content ( UNESCO, 2005 ) . Indeed, small town support for schooling has been missing, most likely due to the fact that formal school services did non run into the demands of the community, and conflicted with socio-cultural norms in upland small towns. Besides, learning methodological analysis and inflexible time-tabling were non suited. Curriculum and stuff developed for the cultural minorities needs to be appropriate to accommodate the demands of the autochthonal communities. If an instruction undertaking is non based on existent, identified demands in the targeted communities, the scholars will hold it inappropriate and non utile for their demands ( UNESCO, 2005 ) with subsequent low engagement and success rates.

Education for misss faces particularly tough obstructions within Cambodia and can be observed frequently in the signifier of negative attitudes – by parents, instructors and community members. Discrimination is apparent in societal norms, linguistic communication, and submissive stereotypes. Socio-cultural influences work against misss ‘ entree to instruction in the signifier of early matrimonies, a heavy domestic work load and low educational outlooks ( UNESCO, 2005 ) . This is particularly true in a traditional society like Cambodia, in which miss ‘ instruction is less valued than male childs ‘ and misss are confined to household jobs, allow entirely misss from the state ‘s minority groups.

Built by the Khmers between 802 and 1220 AD, the ancient temples of Angkor Wat exist as the remaining relics of a historically and religiously rich city. While many other historical and religious structures in Cambodia have disappeared due in part from being constructed out of vulnerable materials like wood, Angkor Wat still remains as a symbol of the divinity of its former kings, as well as for the palace itself. Likewise, Indonesia’s Borodubur temples exist as the single remaining structures of the city.

The temples of Angkor Wat and Borodubur hold several similarities within architecture and symbolism, both being heavily based on religious belief. However, different features within both structures, architecturally and symbolically, distinguish and provide insight into the individual cultures. Significance of Hinduism, Astronomy, and Cosmology In Angkor Wat Architecture With Hinduism serving as the prevailing religion of Cambodia, the temples of Angkor Wat serve as a visual bridge between the terrestrial plane and the spiritual one.

The temples of Ankgor Wat uses architectural features in order represent various ideas of Hindu Cosmology; “The walls, moats, central sanctuary, entrances, pyramidal temples and bridges with naga balustrades, and monuments such as the Neak Pean, or Bayon,” all contribute to the re-creation of the heavenly world on Earth. By re-creating this, Earth and the heavenly world are entwined; creating a bond between the two worlds that allows humanity to flourish. In constructing Angkor Wat to represent religious beliefs, the Khmer people literally built heaven on Earth.

By creating a tangible representation of what is believed to have happened in the past, the past becomes more real and more concrete to viewers and believers alike. In order to honor the Hindu God Vishnu, Suryavaram II built Angkor Wat during the early years of the 12th century, around 1150 B. C. Structurally, the central building of Angkor Wat is serves as a re-creation of Mount Meru, the mountain that the center of the Jambudvipa within Hindu cosmology as well as being considered the axis of the Earth by the Hindu religion.

The central mammoth of a tower represents Mount Meru, and uniquely faces west instead of east towards the sunrise, as all other temples do. Several theories explain why the temple faces west; the first theory being that the west is associated with Vishnu. In facing the temple west, the temple continues to serve as a means of honoring Vishnu. The second theory states that King Suryavarman intended Angkor Wat to serve as his funerary temple while a the third theory explains that the alignment of the central tower with the sun adds another dimension to the divinity of the temple.

Ankgor Wat’s architecture does not only exhibit its religious roots, but also displays the importance of astronomy and cosmology. It “contains calendrical, historical, and mythological data encoded into its measurements. ” Because solar movement regulates the position of the bas-reliefs, the architecture exhibits the importance of the sun to the Cambodians. The Cambodians built the structure of Angkor Wat to align directly with the sun during the spring equinox, “where the sun can be seen rising over the central tower. Although no concurrent reason exists as to why the sun is so important to the Cambodians, what can be said is that the sun was so significant to the Cambodians, that they not only based their calendar on the solar and lunar cycles, but they constructed their King’s palace, a place of great importance that connects the heavens with Earth, to align with the sun. The five central towers of Ankgor Wat that stand 77 meters tall hold religious significance as well. These five inter-nested rectangular towers represent five peaks of the mountain Meru.

Also, the moat surrounding the central temple that measures 190 meters wide symbolizes the cosmic ocean that existed before the dawn of creation, and the enclosing wall represents the rock encircling the universe. Creating a replication of “Mount Meru, enclosing walls as the wall of rock, and the moat filled with water as the ocean” serves as the essential architectures for the Cambodians to re-create and symbolize their Hindu religious beliefs. Decorative elements through out the towers and galleries present their own characteristics and fulfill specific needs within the temple.

The towers are formed into the shape of the ever-popular lotus buds, and the galleries are used to expand the many passageways of the temple. Also, the axial galleries within the temple are used to connect several enclosures. Characteristic decorative components of Angkor Wat include narrative and historical bas-reliefs, pediments, and devatas. The bas-reliefs located in the gallery of Angkor Wat holds a special signification for Angkor Wat. The gallery displays heaven and the underworld in which garudas and lions are holding the celestial palaces.

These gerudas indicate that the palaces were floating in heaven, comparing Angkor Wat to the palaces of the Gods. This display furthers the idea that Angkor Wat acts as a liason between the world of Heaven and Earth. Because the palace physically remains on earth but spiritually resides within heaven, the palace acts as communal place for believers to gather. The bas-reliefs and pictures did not only serve to decorate the palaces, or depict stories of the past. They hold the important task of transforming the palace into a “celestial dwelling” or heavenly place.

Further evidence to support this notion is the fact that many scenes are hidden to the point where they cannot even be seen by the naked eye. This highlights the spirituality of the place, that spirituality is not necessarily tangible or seen. In hiding the bas-reliefs, or making them subtler in the overall construction of the temple, furthers the idea that the palace is not meant to be just a place of beauty, but also a place of divinity. Candi Borobudur Layout Unlike Angkor Wat, Buddhism more heavily influences Borobudur.

Built in Indonesia in the 9th century as a shrine to Buddha as well as a pilgrimage site for believers, Borobudur consists of six square platforms topped with four circular platforms. Nearly 2. 700 relief panel and 500 statues of Buddha decorate the temple. Additionally, 72 Buddha statues surround the center of the top platform of the monument. As a pilgrimage site, Pilgrims climb from the bottom of the monument, ascending to the top. While on their voyages, they are said to pass two three levels of Buddhist cosmology, or three stages of Buddhist enlightenment: the Kamadhatu, Ruppadhatu, and Arupadhatu.

These levels represent the world of desire, the world of forms and the world of formlessness. Borobudur differs from Angkor Wat in that is constructed as a single, large stupa, with no inner space. It is the single remaining temple of its kind in Java, and is more than likely intended as a shrine to Buddha, instead of temple or house of worship. Typical Buddhist temples were built with rooms, intended to possess icons; Borobudur does not have the same amount of space or rooms to properly house icons, suggesting that the purpose of Borobudur differs from the other temples of Java.

Various theories exist to explain the purpose behind Burobudur and architecture. It has been said that Borobudur represents Mt. Meru, that it contains three levels of Buddhist enlightenment, that the “round upper terraces were meant to form the base for an enormous stone stupa which contained a precious relic of Gautama Buddha,” or that Borobudur was simply a stupa or for initiation rights. Religious Symbolism in Borobudur Architecture Similarly to the uniqueness of Angkor Wat facing the west, Borobudur is unique as well, for it was constructed on a bedrock hill, between two volcanoes, instead of on a flat surface like other temples.

Similarly to the Khmer temple, Borobudur also displays several variations of religious significance throughout the architecture. The lotus is prevalent in the architectural and decorative aspects of the shrine. The architecture of Borobudur is similar the appearance of a lotus and the Buddha statues within Borobudur symbolize the Lotus Sutra, which is found in several Mahayana Buddhism texts. Additionally, the four circular platforms located on the top of Borobudur are also considered to embody the leaf of a lotus.

The foundation of Borobudur measures approximately 118 meters on each side, in the form of a square. Of the ten platforms that make up the structure six are square and the remaining four are circular. The highest platform exhibits seventy-two small bell shaped and decoratively pierced stupas. Statues of Buddha reside within these pierced stupas. When Borobudur is viewed from above, the monument resembles the appearance of a tantric Buddhist mandala, furthering the representation of the Buddhist cosmology.

The division of Borobudur into three parts, the base, body, and top, symbolizing the three stages of what Buddhist cosmology considers the “ultimate goal. ” The base represents the Kamadhatu, the five square platforms the make up the body represent Rupadhatu, and the three circular platforms that compose the top represent Arupadhatu . Similarly, the paths that guide pilgrims to the “ultimate goal” were designed through sacred Buddhist knowledge, based on Buddhist cosmology. Comparable to Ankgor Wat, Borobudur possessed exact measurements that possibly indicate calendrical, astronomical and cosmological themes.

The exact ratio formula 4:6:9 has also been discovered in the Pawon and Mendhut, two other neighboring Buddhist temples. The monument further represents cosmology because it can be concluded that the 360 squares that surround the central square of the monument symbolize the 36o degrees of the “celestial circle that surrounds the Earth. ” However, details of the Buddhist system details vary from those of Hinduism origins, although the Buddhist system’s temples also focus on the idea of a central mountain that represents Meru.