Photosynthesis

How to Find Your Passion in 5 Creativity Exercises?

Benjamin Disraeli, a 19th century British Prime Minister, once said, “Man is only great when he acts from passion.”

Effectively or affectively?

The difference between effective and affective is hidden in the nouns “effect” and “affect” which build up these adverbs. “Effectively” means doing something that leads to the desired result. “Affectively” denotes the state which is caused by emotions or feelings.

What does it mean to have a “working knowledge” of something?

It means that you understand how to work with certain things without realizing the theoretical part. For instance, you know how to drive a car, but you don’t have thorough knowledge of the mechanics of the vehicle and how it works inside.

In The Essay “The Third Bank of The River” Why does the Narrator’s Father Had To Leave His Family?

In The Third Bank of The River the mother’s reaction showed that she was very upset with the father’s idea to build a canoe. The reader may understand the boat metaphorically – the canoe meaning the coffin. The father left his family because he was ready for the death, and the canoe and the father’s departure symbolized that.

To what part of industry does a workers education contribute?

To which part of an industry does a workers education contribute? It belongs to human capital. Except for the education itself, human capital includes personal traits of the employee, skills, talents. All those features help the worker to perform better and bring about the economic growth of the company.

Which term describes ATP production resulting from the capture of light energy by chlorophyll?

Lots of students get this question during the Chemistry exam. The answer is simple: Photosynthesis. If it is an open question, write down about the process of Photosynthesis. It is that process which is used by different plants to penetrate light which comes from the sun and turn it into chemical energy. Oxygen is released as the waste product, allowing people to breathe in fresh air.

What is the difference between univariate and multivariate regression analysis?

The univariate vs multivariate analysis is used in examining statistics. Univariate means that there is one variable for analysis. Multivariate means that several aspects should be taken into consideration. Here is the example for multivariate: How gender, age, and level of education influence the score in IELTS?

What does Mark Twain satirize in this excerpt from “the £1,000,000 bank-note”?

In some excerpts, Mark Twain satirizes American society which uses long names and titles to name somebody from the higher stratum of society instead of using simple names. “The Million Pound Bank Note” is also a satirical view of money and corruption. The protagonist is intelligent enough to make use of his money and make even more. The fact that Henry finds a banknote when he is lost is a type of irony rather than satire.

How a Failed Forecast Can Inform Future Planning?

Even the best financial forecasts can’t predict every weak season or every surprise expense. Still, forecasts have a lot to teach the entrepreneur who’s ready to learn, says Tim Berry, cash flow expert and author of The Plan-As-You-Go Business Plan.” A good forecast connects the dots so you can correct problems and take advantage of opportunities.” In this short video, cash-flow experts explain what entrepreneurs can do when forecasts fail, and the metrics they can study to prevent problems in the future.

Where did Gatsby get his money from in “The Great Gatsby”?

How did Gatsby get his money? In the conversation with Tom, Gatsby reveals that he earned most of his fortune by selling alcohol. However, it can be possible that other illegal ventures helped the man become rich. Fitzgerald doesn’t want to show his main character from a negative side. That is why he doesn’t explain a lot about Gatsby’s criminal past.

What evolutionary development allowed plants to grow tall?

What evolutionary development allowed plants to grow tall? It is a vascular system which includes phloem and xylem. These tissues transport nutrition and water over distances and heights. Those plants which are nonvascular cannot grow tall, and they can live only in damp territories.

How do courses in MS at Stanford compare to those at the GSB?

MS&E is more related to technological sphere while GSB is more about strategy in Management. The teaching method in both classes also differ. The former one is more teacher-centered, so you will need to write down the lectures. However, in the GSB you’ll be more involved in the discussion.

What are the three fundamental elements of an effective security program for information systems?

There are three main elements of an effective security program for information systems. It consists of identification (it means entering your username when you log in, but don’t mix it with the password entering), authentication (the means of proving that you are that person) and authorization (when the two aforementioned steps are completed; this step determines what you can do with the system or what you are allowed to do).

Is the National society Sigma Alpha Pi legitimate?

The Sigma Alpha Pi is hands-down legitimate. It is the national society which invites top students to join in. It focuses on enhancing leadership qualities and achieving success.

Another word for expensive?

Food is vital for humans to survive, the population of the world is immense as it approaches 6 billion and all these humans need to be fed on a continual basis. Therefore, a large quantity of food needs to be produced rapidly and on a very large scale. Generally farmers across the western world do produce food very quickly and efficiently and there tends to be a surplus of food, whereas, in less developed countries they have a shortage of food. Due to the size of the world’s population and it’s high levels of demand for food farmers are unable to leave crops alone and let them grow naturally.

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For example, one-third of the crops that are grown worldwide are spoiled by pests, animals particularly insects and many plants. Certain types of crops grow better in certain set conditions and there are many different factors which effect the crop yield. Crops grow by photosynthesis, the environmental factors affecting the rate of photosynthesis, are light intensity, concentration of carbon dioxide in the air, and the surrounding temperatures.

All the requirements for photosynthesis need to be available at a good rate and supply, the light intensity which is usually supplied by the sun needs to be at suitable intensity, which means the crop will only grow certain times of the year due to the amount of light available. The same applies to the concentration of carbon dioxide, which usually does not tend to cause a problem, as there is ample supply of carbon dioxide in the surrounding air, however if it is ever to run low the crops will not grow.

The temperature is another factor which has a huge effect on the growth of crops, if the temperature is to get too high this would prevent any growth of the plant as it would not be able to deal with the extreme temperature killing off the chlorophyll that the plant requires to grow. However if the temperature is decreased to a very low temperature this will restrict any growth, as the plant will not be able to function properly. Therefore, all these factors need to be at the correct rate for the crop to be able to grow sufficiently.

Many different types of crops such as maize, corn, wheat, rice, fruit and vegetables are grown at different times throughout the year and most farming is usually based on monoculture. Which is where one type of crop is grown in a certain piece of land, this technique of mass production tends to cause many problems and is not as straight forward as it seems. If crops are growing extremely well and conditions are correct and all the crops have all their requirements at the right rate and intensity there is still one other factor which would still prevent a perfect yield from being produced which are known as pests.

These pests still destroy all crop yields, by destroying the crop its self and restricting growth in certain ways. When crops are grown they are just like plants in that they compete for mineral ions, water from the soil and light, however when crops are grown using the monoculture method there usually isn’t a problem because it’s the same crop being grown and so the conditions can be controlled.

However, the problems that do arise is that if there is a large concentration of the same crop in one area and they are all in close proximity to each other then there is the potential of the crop being infected by diseases, fungi, unwanted plants and insects which will then lead to the rapid destruction of large areas of the crop. There are a number of different pests, for example, insects, fungi and weeds that effect individual crops in different ways; like insects, fungi and weeds. Weeds are plants that grow in places we do not want them to grow and there optimum growth occurs in ground disturbed by human activity.

They compete with cultivated plants for space, water and minerals. Worldwide, about 10% of crop yield are lost because of weed growth. Weeds tend to come in different sizes and they can be long and the same length as the crops, which means their roots are able to reach deep into the ground and take the nutrients, they require leaving many shortages for the crops. Also weeds can sometimes have broad leafs that cover the crops and so take all the sunlight and restrict the amount of sunlight reaching the crop. The competition between the crops and weed, which is organisms of different species, is known as interspecific competition.

Occasionally you may come across weeds that are very small and do not do any real harm to the crops. The insect pests work in many different ways, each kind of plant has its own species of aphids, and these little creatures have small mouthparts, which they use to suck sap from plants. The loss of sap can be harmful to the plant in many ways in that, it can cause leaves to curl up and become distorted. The leaves are the place where photosynthesis takes place; the curled up leaf leaves the plant unable to photosynthesise efficiently and so can leave the plant stunted.

Another way in which aphids can effect crops are, that as the aphids suck in the sap if that crop was diseased they could pick up the disease or virus and then go suck on another plant which would then pass the disease or virus on, which would spread the disease to many plants, any organism which spreads disease or viruses from host to host is known as a vector. Also if the aphids take in to much sap they tend to secrete it through their abdomens, this is usually a sticky honey dew which forms a sticky droplet which attracts ants, which then attack the crop even further.

So altogether there are a number of ways in which crops are prevented from being grown. The ways in which these pests can be controlled and crops can be grown without too many problems is that we can put into the environment a chemical substance that kills the pest, which is called pesticides, or we can put into the environment another organism, which kills the pest, which is known as biological control. A pesticide is any substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying, or repelling any pests. Chemical control is the use of pesticides. Insects, which eat crops, can be killed with insecticides.

Fungi, which grow on crops, are controlled with fungicides. Weeds, which compete with crop plants for water, light and minerals, can be controlled with herbicides; pesticides are usually applied as pellets, powders or sprays. Many different chemical substances are used as pesticides; there are contact pesticides, systemic pesticides and residual pesticides. The contact pesticides are used as spray as they are sprayed straight on to the crop where the pests are living and as the contact insecticides spray comes in contact with the insect, the insect tends to absorb it in through its gas-exchange pores, the spiracles, along its body.

This is where it attacks the insects and poisons them. The same process occurs with contact herbicides and fungicides the surface of the plant absorbs the poison through, and so the poison then attacks it there. This method is not very expensive however they need to be reapplied continuously as there are always pests, which are missed out, and the affect of it does not last very long. Systemic pesticides work in a similar way as they are sprayed straight on to the crop where the leaves and surface of the plant absorbs it in and so it is transported all around the plant.

Therefore, whenever a sap-sucking insect comes along it sucks the poison into its body, and this eventually results in the killing of the creature. This method for systemic insecticides is very effective because the spray does not have to come into contact with the insect so it only attacks the insects that attack the crops. Systemic herbicides are also quite effective in that they are able to be sprayed onto the surface of the leaf where they get absorbed and then have that poison transported all along the weed killing off the tissue and even reach the roots.

Residual pesticides can also be quite effective, as they are also sprayed directly on to the soil and instead of attacking the actual insect or weed they attack any insect egg and larvae, and weed seedling as they germinate. All these methods are used for chemical pest control; chemical pest control is very effective in that this is the most popular method in the UK for farming large number of crops, to provide the large population of the UK. However even though chemical pest control is very effective and is very popular there are a number of disadvantages of using chemical pesticides.

Firstly, chemical pest controls involve many chemicals that can be very dangerous if they are not monitored correctly. Therefore, chemical pest controls must be safe for farmers to use and must not damage the environment. To provide this there must be continual testing and development carried out on all pesticides. This can be very expensive and this expense will be passed onto the farmer in the form of the pesticide costing a huge amount of money.

This expense is taken by the farmer on the premise that it will assist in the good growth of his crops, however, the disadvantage being that it may not work at all! It is also known that pesticides damage the environment a great deal, Pesticides can badly affect wildlife through changes in the food web, direct and indirect poisoning. And their harmful effects may show up in animals, which have no direct relationship to the original pest. In that in the 1950’s many of the pesticide used did a lot of damage to the environment especially one DDT (dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane).

It was used to kill insects, however people didn’t realise that it is a persistent insecticide, which means it doesn’t break down but remains in the body of insects and the soil. So whenever a bird or other organisms ate the insects they ate the DDT too. And so the DDT stayed in their bodies and just began to accumulate. Also as well as being persistent it was also non-specific as most pesticides are. This means that it not only harms the insect it’s meant to but also harms other living things. For example in the 1960s, the gannet population in Quebec began to shrink.

The shells of the gannets’ eggs were too thin to protect the embryos. Once the egg had been examined they realised DDT was the culprit. Because there where large concentration of DDT in the birds because of all the pests they had consumed which had been sprayed with it. Many other birds such as ospreys, eagles and peregrine falcons also had been affected greatly and populations of those birds had declined. Also all the chemical sprays that are sprayed into the air will have a great effect on the atmosphere.

So many pesticides harm the environment a great deal, even though many tests are done before hand. Pesticides also change wildlife habitat, for example if a herbicide was put down on certain plants or vegetation, animals that depend on that piece of vegetation find it difficult to live any longer and so slowly will begin to die out, and so if they begin to die out then the population of their predator that relies on that particular creature, will begin to decrease. Another problem, that that may arise is if a particular pesticide is used a lot the pest may eventually become resistant to it.

The pesticide no longer kills the pest and so a new one has to be developed at all times which results in more resources and cash flow being ploughed into developing and testing. Also once the pesticides are applied, they can be used up quickly and if it rains they sometimes need to be reapplied which takes much time and effort because special clothing and safety measures need to be carried out each time. The most important disadvantage of using chemical pesticides are that the crops that have been produced using pesticides are now covered with chemicals which we will now eat and which can be very harmful for us.

Another major harm to humans is to farmers, who are using the pesticides and are in contact with it on a continual basis and it has led to them becoming extremely ill, for example, in parts of the UK, farmers and their families are being diagnosed with illnesses, which are associated with pesticide poisoning. Such conditions as multiple sclerosis that are occurring in many of the farmers, especially in the cases where they use sheep dipping as part of their work.

Also in less developed countries the farmers are effected a lot more because they do not have all the specially designed clothing which they require and so in places like Malaysia and Sri Lanka, 7 to 15 per cent of farmers experience poisoning at least once in their lives. The advantages of using pesticides are that all these chemicals do produce the maximum amount of food, which is very cheap for the consumer, because the farmers are able to produce on a mass scale, using the chemicals to make sure they have a high-quality crop yield. Also pesticides work very fast and most of the time instantaneously, once applied to the ground.

With pesticides you usually have a guarantee that they will work and be extremely effective, and solve the pest problem. Chemical pest control is one way to control pests even though there are a number of disadvantages, however the other way to stop pests from destroying crops are by biological control. Biological control is not using chemicals but the use of a specially chosen living organism to control particular pests; the chosen organism may be a predator, parasite or disease, which will attack the harmful insect. It is a form of manipulating nature to increase a desired effect. Examples of this are usually

A bluebird: it eats insects to prevent damage to trees and gardens. They are found throughout the United States, UK and Canada A ladybird beetle: it eats small soft insects, which prevents damage to fruit and crops. They are found throughout North America. A garden spider: consumes insects with wings by catching them in a sticky web that it spins. Usually found in America and UK. Biological control is usually done in three ways known as classical biological control, conservation and augmentation, these are three ways to use these natural enemies against unwanted insect pest population.

Classical biological control is to import which involves travelling to the country or area from which a newly introduced pest originated and returning with some of the natural anomies that attacked it and kept it from being a pest there. New pests are constantly arriving accidentally or intentionally. Sometimes they survive. When they come, their enemies are left behind. If they become a pest, introducing some of their natural enemies can be an important way to reduce the amount of harm they can do.

The second method is conservation; conservation of natural enemies is an important part in any biological control effort. This involves identifying any factors that limit the effectiveness of a particular natural enemy and changing them to help the beneficial species. Conservation of natural enemies involves either reducing factors, which interfere with the natural enemies, or providing needed resources that help natural enemies. The final method is augmentation; augmentation is a method of increasing the population of a natural enemy, which attacks a pest.

This can be done by mass producing a pest in a laboratory and releasing it into the field at the proper time. Another method of augmentation is breeding a better natural enemy, which can attack or find its prey more effectively. Mass rearing can be released at special times when the pest is most susceptible and natural enemies are not yet present, or they can be released in such large numbers that few pests go untouched by their enemies. The augmentation method relies upon continual human management and does not provide a permanent solution unlike the importation or conservation approaches may.

There is also another way in which pests can be controlled using the biological control method, which is known as Biochemical pesticides these are natural occurring substances, which are safe. This is because most plants and animals produce chemicals that can be used, as pesticides, the oils and seeds are usually the substances, which can be pesticides. For example many insects produce chemical substances called Pheromones, which attract the opposite sex. Synthesised pheromones are sometimes used to attract pest insects into traps.

The traps are usually sticky which hold the insects and so enables you to get rid of them by killing off the insects. Another method of biological control is crop rotation this helps to discourage pests. Since different pests affect different crops, crop rotation can be very effective method of pest control. Using crop rotation means that there is high possibility of pests dying out before the same plant is grown on the soil again. In many cases, removing their preferred food and shelter can control pest populations. Examples of crop rotation are below. Year1: potatoes – may be affected by potato cyst eelworm

Year 2: cabbage – may be affected by clubroot and brassica cyst eelworm Year3: beans – root nodule bacteria improve soil nitrate supply All these methods of biological controls can be used however they also have many disadvantages to them, just as chemical control biological control takes more intensive management and planning. It can take more time; require more record keeping, more patience, and sometimes more education or training. Because a successful use of biological control requires a greater understanding of the biology of both the pest and its enemies.

Also often the result of using biological control is not as dramatic or quick as the results of pesticide use, which can react very quickly. The aim is not to wipe out the pest because this could be counter-productive. If the pest were reduced to such an extent that it no longer provided enough food for the predator, then the predator in its turn would be wiped out. The few remaining pest could then increase their population rapidly, in the absence of the controlling agent. The ideal situation is where the controlling agent and the pest exist in balance with one another, but at a level where the pest has no major affect on the crop yield.

Even though biological control has disadvantages it also has many advantages. Biological control, overall is a far safer method as it reduces the environmental and public safety hazards of chemicals, as the food we are eating is not covered with poisonous sprays and the air is not being polluted by sprays which we breath in that can be quite harmful to us. Also biological control is cheaper for the farmer to use overall because like pesticides they don’t have to be reapplied continuously, once they have been introduced they begin to work and consume the pest, so together its cheaper and less time consuming and easier to apply.

Another advantage of biological control is that the pest are less likely to become resistant to the control organism then they are to pesticides, which means unlike pesticides a new pesticide doesn’t have to be developed on a regular basis. Also unlike most insecticides biological controls are often very specific for a particular pest. The biological and chemical controls of pests work very well individually however the two can be used together, this is known as integrated control.

This method can be very successful as was shown in Indonesia in 1970’s, when they began to use large numbers of pesticides to control the pests to produce high yields strains of rice. There where a lot of brown planthopper pests, and so farmers found them selves spraying up to 8 times a season, to get rid of the pests however it was later discovered that the insecticide was the problem of the large number of these pests. This is because the sprays had wiped out all the natural predators of the pest, particularly the spiders and yet only had a limited effect on the pest its self.

So it was here that the integrated control was introduced. With integrated control the use of pesticides is always the last resort with the minimum amount used. This then prevents pests and enables large healthy yields of crops without using too many pesticides, which have many disadvantages. However using integrated pest management is not always easy, the technique requires time, knowledge and dedication on the part of the farmer. Overall when using pest controls there are a number of factors to consider, to get maximum effect and sustain pest control.

The important factors to consider are how efficient each method is at controlling the pest, the cost, damage that might be caused to the environment, and possible health hazards. When considering how efficient each method is at controlling pests I think both are quite good in their own way in that biological control is aimed at the one pest whereas chemical pesticides tend to infect all insects and plants that they are sprayed on. However at the same time chemical works a lot faster and targets the problem more efficiently whereas biological takes a lot more time to establish its self to the environment and take effect.

The cost is a lot cheaper for the biological, because even though it costs a lot to research and develop to make sure everything is correct and working well, it doesn’t cost the farmers a lot to get the method started, and once it has been applied it doesn’t have to be re-applied continuously like chemical control. Also with chemical control there is the extra cost on top to develop and test the chemical product, also new chemical products need to be developed continuously at all times because pests become resistant to them quickly unlike biological control.

Even though biological requires a lot of development, training and testing it only has to be done once and then there usually is a result, and doesn’t have to be repeated over and over again to develop new pesticides like chemical control. Damage that might be caused to the environment is mostly caused by chemical control because there are a number of pollutants sprayed into the air, which infect the atmosphere, and there are a lot of chemicals going in to the soils, which also damages the soil.

Also if pesticides are persistent a large concentration can be built up in different animals, which can cause problems and be dangerous to those animals. Additionally pesticides are not selective and harm creatures that don’t need to be infected; also a number of habitats can be destroyed when certain plants are killed. Whereas biological don’t have any environmental effects and so biological controls would be a better one to use. Possible health hazards are that chemical controls can be dangerous to the people who have to apply them to the ground and also the food we eat has absorbed the spray and so they can infect us and harm our bodies.

However biological controls do not have any health hazards, therefore, are very safe and is the better one to use. In addition in the developed world we have become increasingly concerned about the long-term effects that chemical pesticides and herbicides may have on us as we eat our well-sprayed food. We have also become progressively greener over recent years, with more and more people expressing concern over the future of the earth and our effect on it. Substituting biological control for chemical intervention therefore seems like a very good idea.

The developing world cannot yet afford such concerns the main struggle for many developing nations is to be able to feed all their hungry mouths. But in these countries too the cost of chemical control and the increasing resistance of pests to the expensive chemicals are adding another powerful voice to the arguments in favour of biological control as an integrated part of pest management. So overall the one I think is best and has least problems and safest to use is the biological controls.

Poisonous but also a healer. It is very abundant in Idaho but very scarce and hard to find in Scandinavia. Wolf Lichen is the name of this mysterious plant. It is one of many different types of lichen found in nature and varies in ways such as habitat, use, and appearance. Lichen is a slow-growing plant genus that is usually structured in a spindle or leaf like shape. Lichen is made up of two components; fungi and algae. (Hollering, J. 014) The Fungal aspect is present in that it contains Chitin in their cell walls, they produce hyphen, spore producing, it is multicultural, and that they deed on dead trees/plants . The algal component means they are eukaryote, are able to photosynthesis, and they have specialized tissues. (Thomas-Sucker, J. 2012) In Wolf Lichen and dead/dying trees form by symbiotic relationships. Symbiosis describes a close interaction between two organisms that benefits/harm at least one of the organisms. Sometimes symbiotic relationships can be beneficial, but can be sometimes harmful.

This symbiotic relationship is beneficial to one another, because if we did not have dead or dying plants we could never have Wolf Lichen(Hollering,J. 2014). Wolf Lichen also produces its own food in order for it to survive. To do so, it goes through photosynthetic processes. Photosynthesis starts with trapping the sun’s energy in the form of sugar. Then the Wolf Lichen stores the resulting sugar in cells to form glucose for quick growth. Photosynthesis represents the beauty of the chemical process that takes six water molecules from the roots and six carbon dioxide molecules from the air and creates one sugar molecule.

If there was no such thing as photosynthesis there would be no life on earth as we know it. (aesthetic, J. , & Comma, C. 014) Lichen are categorized into three different kingdoms, which are Kingdom Fungi, Kingdom Protests, and Kingdom Moaner. One interesting fact about Wolf Lichen is they are able to shut down their metabolism during times when nutrition is scarce and also in freezing weather. Wolf Lichen typically grows less than a millimeter per year. There are a total of 287 different types of species of lichen of 68 genres, and a total of 8 different varieties in Idaho .

According to recent research conducted by Dustin Shown, John Areola, and Braided Irishman on the Ph of lichen; Wolf Lichen, along with other lichen have a mean of approximately 4. 1 on the Ph scale. This means that Wolf Lichen have an acidic compound (See figure 1 at presentation). (Thomas-Sucker, J. 2012) Wolf Lichen is also named Lethargy. There are two types of Lethargy (L. ) that are not easily noticeable; L. vulpine and L. Columbian. These two species are very similar in many ways but also very different. L. vulpine is asexual and reproduces with sorehead, while L. Alumina is sexual and does not reproduce with sorehead. L. vulpine is the only lichen that is poisonous. (Hollering,J. 2014) Sorehead is a reproductive structure for lichens. Lichens can reproduce asexually and sexually. Sorehead is a powdery substance composed of fungal hyphen that wraps around contractible. Fungal hyphen make up the basic body structure of lichen. (Conrad,J. 2005) As Wolf Lichen can grow to the size of 1 CM. But can be as large as 12 CM. The branches are round and wrinkled when in very dry conditions. The color ranges from a light yellow-green to a dull yellow.

It will not grow in freezing temperatures. However; frost does not kill it, it Just stops growing. Once the weather is warmer the lichen will start growing and reproducing. Wolf Lichen is extremely sensitive to air pollution and will not grow in polluted areas. Wolf Lichen grows on dead trees and stumps. It grows more often on sunny sides of trees and rocks. It does not usually grow in coastal rain forests. (Conrad, J. 2005) In the past people have poisoned wolves and other animals with Wolf Lichen. Since the lichen is poisonous, it allowed the Coachman people in Northern California to use poison arrow heads.

Farmers in the past used pieces of meat, crushed glass, and inserted Wolf Lichen to poison the wolves and other animals that would bother their crops. (aesthetic, J. , & Comma, C. 2014) The lichen has vulpine acid in it which stops the respiratory systems of the animals. The glass is used to damage the intestines of the animals, so that the toxin could attack the body and kill the animals. Wolf Lichen is very poisonous, which made people have to use a mask so they wouldn’t harm themselves. (ABA, N. 2011) Wolf Lichen was used as a yellow dye. This dye was used for coloring baskets.

Wolf Lichen was also used for medicine. Lichen was used to wash out wounds and cuts, curing their injuries. (Conrad, J. 2005) Statistics show that fifty percent of all lichen are known as an antibiotic. In the United States they used lichen for mouth, stomach, intestines, anus, vagina, nose, ear, and skin pain. While in Finland it was used for treating skin eruptions, skin wounds, and athlete’s foot. (Hollering, J. 2014) In Scandinavia, Wolf Lichen is a rare species and are red-listed, which means that they are in danger of becoming extinct.

Wolf lichen used to be abundant in an area of Scandinavia called GarГenslaved, but after the years had passed, Wolf Lichen became scarce and harder to find. The Wolf Lichen was exploited and ruined, so trying to protect GarГenslaved against people who destroyed Wolf Lichen is one thing we can do to hopefully save the Wolf Lichen. Also Wolf Lichen is the most photographed lichen in GarГenslaved. The species are also located around Europe and all the way to North America. (ABA, N. 2011) Although Wolf lichen is scarce in Scandinavia it is very abundant in Idaho.

Wolf Lichen is found on most of the trees that are dying or already dead. Wolf Lichen is an indicator that helps people tell if trees or other plants are dead or dying. It can be found all over the town of McCall, Idaho, which is right next to Ponderosa State Park. Wolf Lichen helps the state park by letting them know what trees to cut down or to watch out for so it does not cause any damage to the people visiting or damage to the ecosystem. (Shoehorn, S. 001) Wolf Lichen is mostly found on twigs and stumps of most trees or plants. There are, however, lichen that is found on tree bark,and also houses and fence posts.

It sometimes begins on rocks. It usually grows in a thick, solid cover, around and on dead trees and limbs. It is more abundant in numerous habitats where sunlight is more commonly found. (Turner & Kindle, 1998) Overall, Wolf Lichen is a special type of lichen, not only is it poisonous and a healer, but it is the only type of lichen that contains poison. It is also categorized into three different types of Kingdoms which differentiates from all other lichens. Wolf Lichen has many uses. The way people used to use it is very different from how we use it today.

www. moalims. com KBSE Guess Paper IX Biology 2010 NEW PATTERN Section “A” (Multiple Choice Question) Q. 1. Prepare multiple choice questions from your text book. Section “B” (Short Questions Answer – Zoology) Q. 2. Define the following ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Physiology Ecology Cytology Taxonomy Palaeontology Genetics Bio-Chemists Embryology OR Write contributions of Al-Farabi, Ibn-Al-Haitham, Bu-Ali Sina in the field of Biology. Q. 3. Write contributions of Galileo, Robbert Hook, Louis Pasteur, Charles Darwin, Greogor John Mendal, Watson and Crick in the field of Biology.

OR Write two verses about the origin of life. OR Describe the structure and functions of the Nucleolus. www. moalims. com www. moalims. com Q. 4. Draw and neat and labelled diagram of the Digestive System of Frog. OR Draw a neat and labelled of the Respiration System of Frog. OR Draw a neat and labelled diagram of the Ventral view of Heart of Frog. OR Draw a neat and labelled diagram of the Brain of Frog. Q. 5. Describe five kingdom classification Margulus and schwartz. OR Describe the structure and characteristics of Virus. OR Write four common characteristics of the following. ? ? ? ? ? ? ?

Phylum Protozoa Phylum Porifera Phylum Coelenterata Phylum Annelida Phylum Mollusca Phylum Echinodermata Phylum Arthropoda OR Write four common characteristics of the following ? Class Pisces www. moalims. com www. moalims. com ? ? ? ? Amphibia Reptilia Aves Mammalia Q. 6. Write down four functions of the blood. OR Name three important arteries of the Arterial System. OR What is Exoskeleton? Name two phyla of animals having exoskeleton. OR Draw a neat and labelled diagram of the structure of human Eye. OR Write the names of any three Endocrine Glands. Also write the name of one harmone secreted by each of them.

Q. 7. Write short note on the following ? ? ? ? ? Heroin Cocaine Marijuana Nicotine Alcohol Q. 8. Define the following ? Variations www. moalims. com www. moalims. com ? ? ? ? Crossing Over Biosphere Eco-System Predation Q. 9. Write short note on the following ? ? ? Thread Worm Liver Fluke Round Worm Section “B” (Short Answer Questions Botany) NOTE: Answer any SEVEN Question from this Section. Each Question carries (03) Marks. Q. 10. Define the following ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Biological Method Hypothesis Theory Bio-Technology Experiment Result Deduction Observation Q. 11. Define Genetic Engineering. ww. moalims. com www. moalims. com OR Write on function of each of the following. ? ? ? ? ? ? Mitochondria Golgi Bodies Ribosomes Endoplasmic Reticulum Centriole Vacuole Q. 12. What are Plastids? Describe any TWO types of Plastids. OR Write five differences between prokaryotic cell and a Eukaryotic cell. OR Define Tissue. Write the names of four types of Plant Tissues and describe them briefly. OR Write two functions of each of the following. ? ? ? Root Stem Leaf Q. 13. State the following parts of a Brassica Flower. ? ? ? Calyx Corolla Androceium www. moalims. com www. moalims. com ? Gyneocium

OR Draw neat and labelled diagram showing the internal structures of a Rod-Shaped Bacterium. OR Define the following ? ? ? ? Pyrenoid Isogany Mycellium Hyphae OR Write four salient features of cynobacteria (blue-green algae). Q. 14. Write four characteristics of Fungi. OR Draw neat and labelled diagram of the internal structure of chlamydomones. OR Write four general characteristics of Bryophytes, Tracheophytes. OR Write three points of differences between Gymnosperms and Angiosperms. OR With the help of a labelled diagram explain the structure of Adiantum, Ptris. Q. 15. Write three points between Monocot and Dicot. OR www. oalims. com www. moalims. com Write four importance o Vascular Plants. OR Define the following ? ? ? ? Parasits Saprophytes Insectivorous Plants Symbionts Q. 16. What is Pollination? Name its two types. OR Write advantages and disadvantages of Vegetative propagation. OR Write down four types of bacteria on the basis of nutrition and write twobeneficial and two harmful aspects of bacteria. OR Define the following terms ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? Alleles Hybrid Allelomorph Homozygous Heterozygous Phenotype Genotype Dominant Character www. moalims. com www. moalims. com ? Recessive Character Q. 17. Describe the Law of Independent Assortment.

OR Why is vegetative propagation ideal for growers? OR Define Photosynthesis? Write its chemical equation. OR How the excretion in plants is different from animals. OR Define Ecosystem and write the names of its components. Section “C” ( Questions Answer – Zoology) NOTE: Attempt TWO questions from this Section. Q. 18. Define Biogenesis and Abiogenesis and describe Needham, Louis Pasture’s Experiment. OR Define Mitosis and Write the names of four phases of Mitosis. Q. 19. Draw a neat and labelled diagram of Arterial System of Frog. OR Draw a neat and labelled diagram of the Eye of Frog. Q. 20.

Define Metamorphosis and describe its two types. www. moalims. com www. moalims. com OR What is meant by Flora and Faunn? Write a short note on the Funna of Pakistan. Q. 21. Describe the process of digestion in Man. OR Define the term Ventilation. Q. 22. Draw two neat and labelled diagrams of showing the two stages of Ventilation i. e. inspiration and expiration in the Human Respiratory System. OR Draw neat and labelled diagram of the structure of human heart. OR Draw a labelled diagram of L. S. of human kidney. Q. 23. Draw and neat and labelled diagram of Human Brain. OR Draw a neat and labelled diagram of Human Eye, Human Ear.

OR Describe the process of Asexual in Animal. OR Describe the process of reproduction and development in Frog. Q. 24. Describe Watson and Crick model of DNA. OR Describe Lamarck’s theory of evolution in detail. OR www. moalims. com www. moalims. com Describe Darwin’s theory of evolution in detail. OR Write in detail Abiotic components of Ecosystem. OR Define the following ? ? ? Carbon Cycle Water Cycle Nitrogen Cycle OR Write short note on the following ? ? ? Bacteria Protozoa Viruses Q. 25. Write short note on the following ? ? ? ? Influenza Poliomyelitis Measles AIDS OR Draw neat and labelled diagram of human tooth.

Section “C” (Discriptive Questions Answer – Botany) www. moalims. com www. moalims. com NOTE: Attempt TWO questions from this Section. Q. 26. Draw a neat and labelled diagram of Root, Stem, Leaf. OR Explain the structure of Nostoc with the help of labelled diagram. OR What are heteropic plants? Write short notes on saprophytes and Insectivorous plants. OR With the help of diagram describe and experiment to show. ? ? ? Carbon Dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis. Oxygen gas is evolved during photosynthesis. Chlorophyll necessary for photosynthesis. OR Which factors are necessary for photosynthesis? Describe them. OR How A. T.

P formed in a cell? Explain. OR Write two similarities between respiration and combustion and two differences between photosynthesis and respiration. Q. 27. Define Transpiration. Write five factors affecting the rate of transpiration. OR With the help of diagram describe the physical properties of Xylum. OR Define two types of movements in plants and give one example of them. www. moalims. com www. moalims. com OR Describe Asexual Reproduction in plant. OR What is mean by dispersal of Seeds and Fruits? Describe any two methods of dispersal of Seeds and Fruits. OR Describe Mendel’s Law of Segregation in detail. www. moalims. com

Abstract

In this lab, we were to separate pigments and calculate Rf values using plant pigment chromatography, describe a technique to determine the photosynthetic rate, compare photosynthetic rates at different light intensities using controlled experiments and explain why rate of photosynthesis varies under different environmental conditions. In the second part of the lab, we used chloroplasts extracted from spinach leaves and incubated then with DPIP and used the dye-reduction technique.

When the DPIP is reduced and becomes colorless, the resultant increase in light transmittance is measured over a period of time using a spectrophotometer. If pigments are separated, then Rf values can be determined. Introduction Paper chromatography is a useful technique for separating and identifying pigments and other molecules from cell extracts that contain a complex mixture of molecules. As solvent moves up the paper, it carries along any substances dissolved in it. The more soluble, the further it travels and vice-versa.

Beta carotene is the most abundant carotene in plants and is carried along near the solvent front since it is very soluble and forms no hydrogen bonds with cellulose. Xanthophyll contains oxygen and is found further from the solvent front since it is less soluble in the solvent and is slowed down by hydrogen bonding to cellulose. Chlorophyll a is primary photosynthetic pigment in plants. Chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoids capture light energy and transfer it to chlorophyll a at the reaction center. Light is part of a continuum of radiation or energy waves.

Shorter wavelengths of energy have greater amounts of energy. Wavelengths of light within the visible spectrum of light power photosynthesis. Light is absorbed by leaf pigments while electrons within each photosystem are boosted to a higher energy level. This energy level is used to produce ATP and reduce NADP to NADPH. ATP and NADPH are then used to incorporate CO2 into organic molecules. In place of the electron accepter, NADP, the compound DPIP will be substituted. It changes chloroplasts from blue to colorless. Methodology

Obtain a 50 ml graduated cylinder which has about 1 cm of solvent at the bottom. Cut a piece of filter paper which will be long enough to reach the solvent. Draw a line about 1. 5 cm from the bottom of the paper. Use a quarter to extract the pigments from spinach leaf cells and place a small section of leaf on top of the pencil line. Use the ribbed edge of the coin to crush the leaf cells and be sure the pigment line is on top of the pencil line. Place the chromatography paper in the cylinder and cover the cylinder.

When the solvent is about 1 cm from the top of the paper, remove the paper and immediately mark the location of the solvent front before it evaporates. Mark the bottom of each pigment band and measure the distance each pigment migrated from the bottom of the pigment origin to the bottom of the separated pigment band and record the distances. Then, turn on the spectrophotometer to warm up the instrument and set the wavelength to 605 nm. Set up an incubation area that includes a light, water flask, and test tube rack. Label the cuvettes 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, respectively.

• Using lens tissue, wipe the outside walls of each cuvette. Using foil paper, cover the walls and bottom of cuvette 2. Light should not be permitted inside cuvette 2 because it is a control for this experiment. Add 4 mL of distilled water to cuvette 1. To 2, 3, and 4, add 3 mL of distilled water and 1 mL of DPIP. To 5, add 3 mL plus 3 drops of distilled water and 1mL of DPIP. Bring the spectrophotometer to zero by adjusting the amplifier control knob until the meter reads 0% transmittance. Add 3 drops of unboiled chloroplasts and cover the top of cuvette 1 with Parafilm and invert to mix. Insert cuvette 1 into the sample holder and adjust the instrument to 100% transmittance. Obtain the unboiled chloroplast suspension, stir to mix, and transfer 3 drops to cuvette 2. Immediately cover and mix cuvette
• Then remove it from the foil sleeve and insert it into the spectrophotometer’s sample holder, read the percentage transmittance, and record it. Replace cuvette 2 into the foil sleeve, and place it into the incubation test tube rack and turn on the flood light. Take and record additional readings at 5, 10, and 15 minutes. Mix the cuvette’s contents before each reading. Take the unboiled chloroplast suspension, mix, and transfer 3 drops to cuvette 3. Immediately cover and mix cuvette 3 and insert it into the spectrophotometer’s sample holder, read the percentage transmittance, and record. Replace cuvette 3 into the incubation test tube rack. Take and record additional readings at 5, 10, and 15 minutes. Mix the cuvette’s contents just prior to each readings. Obtain the boiled chloroplast suspension, mix, and transfer 3 drops to cuvette
• Immediately cover and mix cuvette 4. Insert it into the spectrophotometer’s sample holder, read the percentage transmittance, and record it. Replace cuvette 4 into the incubation test tube rack and take and record additional readings at 5, 10, and 15 minutes. Cover and mix the contents of cuvette 5 and insert it into the spectrophotometer’s sample holder, read the percentage transmittance, and record. Replace cuvette 5 into the incubation test tube rack and take and record additional readings at 5, 10, and 15 minutes.

Chromatography is a technique used to separate and identify pigments and other molecules from cell extracts that contain a complex mixture of molecules. This can be used to identify the pigments that are used in the process of photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is the process by which plants use light energy to produce chemical energy in the form of food. This is where plant pigments come into play because they are the reason why the plant is able to absorb light.

Chlorophyll a is one such pigment. These pigments along with many others are contained in organelles known as chloroplasts. One of the problems encountered during the course of this lab included human error when using the spectrophotometer. The student made slight errors when setting the transmittance to the required levels. On a few occasions, the group accidentally introduced light into a cuvette where the variable being tested was the absence of light. This might have caused some error when taking measurements of the percentage of transmittance.

This resulted in skewed data, which meant that the experiment had to be repeated once more. During the first part of the lab, the group made an error by allowing some part of the pigment to be in the solvent. This did alter our results in the end.

What type of chlorophyll does the reaction center contain?

• What are the roles of the other pigments? Chlorophyll a is in the reaction center, and the other pigments are able to absorb light from the other wavelengths that chlorophyll a cannot absorb light from, and then they transfer the energy harvested from the other wavelengths to the chlorophyll a, providing more energy to be used in photosynthesis. 4B: Photosynthesis/The Light Reaction
• What is the function of DPIP in this experiment? DPIP is the electron acceptor in this experiment (instead of NADP which is what is normally used in plants).
• The electrons boosted to high energy levels will reduce the DPIP, which will change its color from blue to clear as more high energy electrons are absorbed by it.
• What molecule found in chloroplast does DPIP “replace” in this experiment? It replaces NADP molecules that are found in chloroplasts.
• What is the source of the electrons that will reduce DPIP? The electrons come from the photolysis of water.
• What was measured with the spectrophotometer in this experiment? The light transmittance was measured, which really was the measure of how much the chloroplasts reduced the DPIP
• What is the effect of darkness on the reduction of DPIP? Explain. Darkness will restrict any reaction to occur.
• What is the effect of boiling the chloroplasts on the subsequent reduction of DPIP? Explain. By boiling chloroplasts, we denature the protein molecules, ending the reduction of DPIP.
• What reasons can you give for the difference in the percent transmittance between the live chloroplasts that were incubated in the light and those that were kept in the dark? The percent transmittance grew to steadily higher numbers as the experiment progressed because the light reaction was able to occur.
• However, the dark cuvettes had stable levels of transmittance because light is necessary to excite electrons, which, in turn, reduces the DPIP.

The leaves are the part of a plant where most photosynthesis takes place. 

Key: 1. Waxy cuticle: this gives the leaf a waterproof layer, which lets in light. 2. Upper epidermis: provides an upper surface. 3. Palisade cells: contain chloroplasts. 4. Spongy mesophyll: collection of damp, loosely packed cells. 5. Lower epidermis: layer of cells on the lower surface. 6. Air space inside the leaf: allows contact between air and moist cell surfaces. 7. Stoma: a hole in the leaf through which gases diffuse. . Guard cells: change shape to close the stoma. One unique feature of leaves is that they have tiny holes in them to let carbon dioxide and oxygen enter and exit. The hole formed between these cells is called a stoma. A stoma is just a hole. It is controlled by two guard cells, which change shape to either open or close the hole. Something makes water enter the cells by osmosis and so they swell up and change shape, but no one is quite sure of the trigger. The stomata (air holes) on plants are normally open during the day and closed at night.

These stomata are found on the undersides of leaves. This is because if they faced the sunlight, some of the plant’s precious water could evaporate out of them.  Guard cells Hole Open stoma Closed stoma Photosynthesis is the way that plants make their food using energy from sunlight. This is the word equation: Plants use the green dye (or pigment) called chlorophyll to pick up the energy from the sunlight. Plants make sugar and use some of it for energy to keep them alive (respiration) but they also use some for growth and repair by making fats and proteins.

However, it is not always sunny so plants need to be able to store some of the sugar they make, so they convert it to a storage carbohydrate (starch). Plants could use starch or glucose. Starch is insoluble (it does not dissolve in water) while glucose is soluble. This means that if starch is used, less water is required to keep its food stored. The amounts of water, carbon dioxide, sunlight and temperature can all affect how effectively a plant carries out photosynthesis.

The amount of water is effected by how much is taken up through the roots and how much is lost from the leaves. If less water is available in the leaf then photosynthesis will occur more slowly. Similarly, if there is less carbon dioxide around then photosynthesis will occur more slowly. There wont be enough of the fuel (substrate) to get the reaction to work. If there is less sun, which usually means it is cooler too, then there is less energy for photosynthesis and it occurs more slowly. So photosynthesis works best when it is warm and sunny.

Aim

The aim of my experiment is to determine whether or not the intensity of light will affect the rate of photosynthesis in a plant. To do this, I am going to observe Canadian pond weed (Elodea) under varying light intensities. The Elodea will be submerged in water. I will count the amount of oxygen given off in this experiment by counting the number of bubbles produced. I used Canadian pondweed because of its unusual ability to emit bubbles of gas from a cut end, when placed in water. Introduction

Photosynthesis occurs only in the presence of light, and takes place in the chloroplasts of green plant cells. Photosynthesis can be defined as the production of simple sugars from carbon dioxide and water causing the release of sugar and oxygen. The chemical equation for photosynthesis can be expressed as: sunlight Carbon dioxide + water sugar (glucose) + oxygen + water CO2 + H2O C6H2O6 + O2 + H2O All plants need light in order to photosynthesise. This has been proven many times in experiments, so it is possible to say that without light, the plant would die.

The reason that light intensity does affect the rate of photosynthesis is because as light (and therefore energy) falls on the chloroplasts in a leaf, it is trapped by the chlorophyll, which then makes the energy available for chemical reactions in the plant. As the amount of sunlight (or in this case light from a bulb) falls on the plant, energy is absorbed. This means that energy is available for the chemical reactions, and so photosynthesis takes place. The more light there is that falls on the leaf in the first place, the quicker the rate that the reaction can take place.

There are many factors which will affect the rate of photosynthesis, including light intensity, temperature and carbon dioxide concentration. The maximum rate of photosynthesis will be controlled by a limiting factor. This factor will prevent the rate of photosynthesis from rising above a certain level, even if the other conditions needed for photosynthesis are improved. It will therefore be necessary to control these factors throughout the experiment so as not to let them affect the reliability of my investigation into the effect of light intensity.

I predict that as the intensity of light increase, so will the rate of photosynthesis. I also predict that if the light intensity increases, the rate of photosynthesis will increase at a proportional rate until a certain level is reached, and the rate of increase will then go down. Eventually, a level will be reached where an increase in light intensity will have no further effect on the rate of photosynthesis, as there will be another limiting factor, in this case probably temperature.

Initially, to determine a suitable range of levels of light intensities at which to record results for my experiment, I did a preliminary investigation in which I recorded the number of bubbles of oxygen given off in a given time at various light intensities. To alter the light intensity, I placed a lamp at various distances from the plant. I also therefore needed a way of accurately measuring the light intensity, and I did this using a light intensity monitor.

I obtained the following results:

Light intensity (%) Number of oxygen bubbles collected 100 38 95 51 90 45 85 36 80 33 75 14 70 7 65 1 60 0 Although this is a very quick, simple and efficient way of obtaining an idea of the trends for the graph, and the boundaries for the measurements, this experiment was not in itself in my opinion accurate enough to be the basis of my main experiment. This lack of accuracy was mainly due to the fact that by simply counting the bubbles, I was relying on each bubble being exactly the same size, which they clearly were not.

The preliminary experiment will give me a best fit curve to which I can compare my main graph, and also points at either end of my results at which it is clear to see light intensity has little or no effect. Here, it was in fact at a light intensity of around 95% when it seems that another factor such as temperature or carbon dioxide concentration has become a limiting factor. In my main experiment, it will not be necessary to take readings above this point. It also shows that while my outer limits are justified, it will be better to take more readings between the current light intensity values of around 60 – 95%.

 This way I will obtain more results between an accurate value scale. Here are my results from my preliminary experiment: [IMAGE] Method Input variables Light intensity – This is to be varied by increasing and decreasing the distance from the light source to the plant Output variables Volume of oxygen (rate of photosynthesis) – This is to be measured by finding the number of bubbles of oxygen produced in a 30 seconds. Carbon dioxide concentration – This can affect the rate of photosynthesis, since if there is too little CO2, it can become the limiting factor.

In this case, as long as the experiment is done over a short period of time, the amount of carbon dioxide used up by the plant will not be sufficient enough to cause the carbon dioxide concentration to become the limiting factor. If my experiment were to be performed over a longer period of time, this would become a problem. Water availability – Water is also required in the photosynthesis reaction, and when it is lacking, the plants’ stomata close to prevent further water loss. This closing of the stomata cells also leads to little carbon dioxide being able to diffuse through.

Clearly, in a water plant, (like the pondweed) as long as the plant is fully submerged in water at all times, this will not be a problem. Temperature – Enzymes are used in the photosynthesis reactions of a plant. Therefore, temperature will increase the rate of photosynthesis, until a point at which the enzymes weaken and work at a slower rate. I am going to perform the experiment at 22 degrees, checking the temperature frequently in case the heat given off from the light should slightly raise the temperature, in which case I shall simply refill the beaker with more water after each experiment.

I drew it as a curve rather than a straight line because of the clear pattern of the points. This meant that the rate of photosynthesis increased as the light intensity increased. This was because photosynthesis is a reaction, which needs energy from light to work, so as the amount of energy available from light increased with the rise in light intensity, so did the amount of oxygen produced as a product of photosynthesis. My graphs showed that the relationship between the light intensity and the rate of photosynthesis was non-linear, as both graphs produced a best-fit curve.

From these results, I am able to say that an increase in light intensity does certainly increase the rate of photosynthesis. The gradual decrease in the rate of increase of the rate of photosynthesis (the shallowing of the curve) can be attributed to the other factors limiting the rate of photosynthesis.

As light intensity increases, the photosynthetic rate is being limited by certain factors, such as carbon dioxide and temperature. These factors do not immediately limit the rate of photosynthesis, but rather gradually. As light intensity increases further, so the rate of photosynthesis is being limited by other factors more and more, until the rate of photosynthesis is constant, and so is almost certainly limited in full by another factor. Overall, both graphs and my results support my predictions fully.

My idea that the rate of photosynthesis would increase with light intensity was comprehensively backed up by my results. This is because a higher light intensity involves a greater level of light energy, which can then be transferred to a special protein environment designed to convert the energy. Here, the energy of a photon is used to transfer electrons from one chlorophyll pigment to the next. When enough energy has been gathered at a reaction centre, ATP can be synthesised from ADP. The oxygen collected in the experiment is in fact the by-product of this reaction, and so it is lear to see that the more light energy, the more ADP is being converted into ATP and more oxygen is produced as a result.

Evaluation

Although I feel that my experiment was sound overall, I thought there were many points at which the accuracy was not perfect. As I have already stated, my preliminary experiment was not accurate enough to justify being used as my main experiment. This was mostly due to the fact that I was relying on all the bubbles being the same size, which they clearly weren’t, however many of the smaller inaccuracies also apply to my main experiment.

Firstly, the distance between the light sources and the Canadian Pondweed were not measured to a very high degree of accuracy, especially when you note the fact that the distance should have been measured exactly from the filament of the light bulb to the centre of the plant. It is possible here to find a percentage error. I estimate that the error could have been up to 0. 5cm and I will find the percentage error for the largest and smallest reading using this estimate: Percentage error = possible inaccuracy total reading % error distance 10 5cm 1 50cm Percentage error is just how much your guess was off from the actual value. The formula is: |estimate – actual|/actual * 100% [That is: the absolute value of (the estimate minus the actual) all divided by the actual, all multiplied by 100%. ]* It is clear to see that the percentage error is much less for the larger distances. Although I was not actually using the distances as part of my results, I used them as a marker for where the lamp was placed each time, as I assumed that the light intensity would be the same each time at a particular distance. Therefore, any inaccuracies in measuring the distances, i. e. f a distance was slightly different when doing the actual experiment from the distance at which I earlier measured the light intensity, an error would ensue. The second major inaccuracy was in measuring the volume of oxygen given off. When reading the syringe there could have been an error of 0. 25mm, and again it is possible to find a percentage error. % error volume 3. 57 7ml 50 0. 5ml For the smallest volumes this is clearly a massive error, and to improve this, it would be necessary to do the readings over a longer period of time, therefore increasing the volumes, and in turn reducing the percentage errors.

Another error would have been due to background light in the vicinity. We tried to reduce this error by closing all blinds in the laboratory, but due to practical reasons, we could not all perform the experiment in a separate room, and we therefore experienced light pollution from other student’s experiments. This would have had a very marginal effect on my results as a whole, but to eliminate this problem completely, it would have been necessary to perform the experiment in a totally dark room. A further inaccuracy was in the heat generated by the lamp.

As I have earlier described, temperature has a very noticeable effect on the rate of photosynthesis, and so any increase in the temperature of the pond water would have had serious effects on the accuracy of my results. To ensure this did not happen, I monitored the temperature of the water before and after every reading, to check that the temperature did in fact not rise. It turned out not to be a problem, as over the short period of time taken by my experimental readings, the temperature did not rise at all.

However, if I were to extend the time of my experiment to 5 minutes for each reading for example, which would have the effect of reducing other percentage errors, I would have to find some way of keeping the temperature constant. One way of doing this would be to place a perspex block between the lamp and the plant, which would absorb most of the heat, while allowing the light energy to pass through. As I mentioned in my planning, carbon dioxide concentration could have been an error in the experiment. However, I feel that due to the short period of time taken there is very little chance that the oncentration would ever have been so low as to become the limiting factor. Again if I were to carry out the experiment over a longer time period, it would have been necessary to add sodium hydrogen carbonate to the water to increase the carbon dioxide concentrations. The last inaccuracy, though a small one, was in the time keeping. The main problem here was in when to begin the minute. If for one reading, the minute was started just after one bubble had been produced, and in another reading it was just before, this could have had a negative effect on the accuracy of my results.

I therefore ensured that in each case I started the stopwatch just after a bubble had been produced, thus heightening the accuracy. Overall, I felt that due to the small volumes of oxygen involved, my experiment was not as accurate as it could have been, however I believe it was accurate enough to support and justify my hypotheses. Improvements could have been made as I have stated, mainly by simply increasing the time taken. However, due to practical time constraints in taking the readings for my investigation, and some consequential problems relating to time extension, I could not in fact make these adjustments.

The other obvious way of increasing the reliability of my results would be to take many repeat readings and find an average. To extend my enquiries into the rate of photosynthesis, I could perhaps try to link in some of the other limiting factors to the same experiment, as well as investigating them in their own right. It could also be interesting to explore the effects of coloured lights on the rate of photosynthesis, which could lead to the question of whether or not other types of light, such as fluorescent lights or halogen lights, would have a different effect on the rate of photosynthesis.

Be it any activity, business or event, there is bound to be the probablity of a loss and thus, an inherent risk is always involved. The risk perceptions and risk taking ability vary from person to person and business to business. Although eliminating risk completely from one’s portfolio of investments is impossible, it can be controlled and brought down to reasonable limits by following a structured approach towards Portfolio Management. Frequently used as a synonym for asset allocation, Portfolios and the management thereof are one of the most commonly discussed topics in today’s academia and business.

Thanks to numerous recent corporate and financial failures (Barings Bank, the LTCM, the Russian default of 1998, Swissair, Enron, WorldCom, the sub prime crisis in the US and most recently, the global financial crisis), Investors are realizing the importance of managing and controlling their investment portfolios in a prudent manner. There are a variety of financial instruments available which can help in successful Portfolio Management. This paper aims at first understanding asset allocation and portfolio management.

It further goes on to define financial risks and then reviews all relevant literature available on the ways in which successful portfolio management enables an investor in maximizing returns and minimizing the risks involved. Based on the analysis of the literature, the paper has a set of recommendations, which can help Investors in drafting effective Portfolio Management strategies so that they too can tackle future crisis successfully. Introduction 1. 1 What is portfolio management?

A portfolio is defined as the sum total of all investments done by the same individual or corporate investor. The various asset classes include stocks ( buying a piece of a company); bonds ( principal is assured, rate of interest is pre determined and have a fixed maturity) and mutual funds ( a pool of money invested in capital market instruments by professional fund managers on behalf of the investors). Having a successful portfolio which stands the test of time is not an easy task though, since it should be designed based on an individual’s risk appetite and financial goals.

Thus, each individual will have a different portfolio suited to his needs. The world of investing, alas, doesn’t have any shortcuts. While designing a portfolio, three factors namely financial goals, risk appetite and time horizons are very important to be considered. It is these three factors which help an investor figure out how much money he would need at different stages of his life and how much volatility can an investor tolerate during various stages of his life.

Long term investments can afford to take a higher level of risk mainly because a temporary bull run will not cause havoc in the portfolio. Another feature of professionally managed portfolios is that they are constantly churned to maintain the pre-decided asset allocation. This is something that cannot be actively done in self-managed portfolios mainly because of a lack of time/ expertise and opportunity. A healthy portfolio must consistently shift from over-weighted areas of the portfolio to under-weighted ones, thus maintaining the pre-decided asset allocation at all times.

Portfolio management is an art. It involves decision making about the various investment options, matching financial goals and objectives to investments and balancing risk-return factors. Portfolio management involves doing a SWOT analysis of choosing debt or equity, growth or value investment style, flexible or fixed asset allocation and domestic and international investment options in order to maximize returns with minimal risks.