Future Trends in Crisis Intervention

Table of contents

 Abstract

Mental Health Paraprofessionals (MHPP) will work with the client and family on behavioral issues that occur in the home, school, and community. The MHPP serves on the treatment team and assists professional staff with the execution of the treatment plan. They also assist with securing community services that might be available to the client and the client’s family. The purpose of intensive Mental Health Paraprofessional Intervention is to enable the client to be maintained in the most normalized, least restrictive setting as possible, and to prevent unnecessary, inappropriate institutionalization.

This paper discusses an overview paraprofessionals, the impact the paraprofessionals have on the field, the challenges that organizations are faced, and how to manage with the implemented changes. Future Trends in Crisis Intervention As the population in the United States continues to climb the need for human services professionals does the same. Human service agencies are often face the dilemmas of being over-worked and under paid. Professionals in this field are often prone to burnout because of these dilemmas. Sadly, human service agencies are often the first to experience budget cuts.

These budget cuts affect the human service professional’s organization, facility, coworkers, pay, clients, and their personal moral. Leading officials of many human service organizations are noticing the affects of these dilemmas and are trying proactive approaches in solving the epidemics. As a result, the paraprofessional is becoming increasingly popular as the organization can fill the much needed worker positions and assist in alleviating clinician case load. This paper discusses the impact of this trend on the human services field and how the trend will impact the practice of crisis intervention in the future.

The challenges faced as a result of the impact, and how the worker can proactively deal with this expanding trend is also covered. It is vital for these services to keep up with the demand and save as much of the valuable budget money. The Paraprofessional Counseling paraprofessionals are bachelor’s level graduates whom have completed a course in order to become certified as a paraprofessional. Paraprofessionals generally work in mental health centers, crisis units, day treatment programs and group homes.

Generally they provide direct care to patients, where as a counselor, psychologist or psychiatrist offer more specified trained services. Treatment centers will employ support staff to work directly with their patients; counseling center paraprofessionals (CCP) are distinctly different from other support staff (Barrios & Perlas, 2010). They hold a certification in working with the mentally ill and a bachelor’s degree while certified counseling technicians (CCT) have a similar certification, but hold a high school diploma instead of a bachelor’s degree (Barrios & Perlas, 2010).

Some treatment centers will also hire direct service professionals that do not have CCP or CCT certifications, but generally, those whom hold a certification are in higher demand and are more employable. Contact of a Paraprofessional The main purpose of a CCP is to interact directly with patients in their care; this may involve setting and enforcing rules on unit, organizing daily activities, and helping with chores or other similar duties.

According to Christine Wyman (2012), “They often have more contact with clients that much of the other staff, including doctors, psychologists, and therapists, as the CCP is usually in charge of the client’s day to day activities. ” Though the CCP performs less specialized work, they often have the most insight into individual clients. Because of the constant contact they are an invaluable member of the treatment team. With how often CCP’s get to observe patients on a daily basis they are able to pick up on behavior patterns that other staff may not see.

They are also able to see how various treatments affect a patient in their daily lives. Some CCPs are designated to work one on one with a single client. A CCP in this role is often assigned as such because a client has a particular need. “Such needs could include but are not limited to helping a client with severe cognitive or physical limitations, watching a client whom is a danger to himself or others or working with a client whose treatment goals involve intensive one on one work” (Wyman, 2012).

Impact

There are many ways that the use of counseling center paraprofessionals can benefit the organization. One of the many benefits of the paraprofessional in the human service career field could be that they require less training than typical clinician or other human service professional. That way the CCP is able to become certified and begin work in a much shorter time frame then someone who is going through all the required schooling and testing to become a licensed professional. Another aspect deals with the lesser amount of pay therefore saving the organization money.

With the way budgets are being cut it is important to stretch every dollar as much as possible. “Someone without the education or licensure will not be able to do as much as a professional and therefore require less pay therefore saving money for other areas it is needed” (Barrios ;amp; Perlas, 2010). Since CCP’s spend a great deal of time with the patients they serve as valuable member of the treatment team in helping diagnose issues and observe if prescribed treatments are working. With the CCP’s doing this then that opens up the professionals to work with more clients on a one on one basis.

Challenges Paraprofessionals in the human services field can be considered both an important asset and a nuisance to the clinicians and the clients served. With all the good that a paraprofessional brings the position also has some negatives. During this tumultuous economy, districts find themselves entertaining a variety of solutions as a means of tackling severe budget reductions, and colleges are faced with the impossible task of providing quality student services without adequate resources.

As a result, paraprofessionals may have absorbed additional duties previously performed by a robust counseling department. Also the CCP’s can be improperly trained or supervised. Because of these two occurrences the care provided can suffer. When people are overworked they are more likely to suffer from burnout. In this case the lack of CCP’s can cause burnout on behalf of the professionals and if the CCP’s are doing more than they should they can become burnt out. Managing Paraprofessional responsibilities should not extend beyond information dissemination.

When the duties expand into goal setting, planning or decision making, the paraprofessional has overstepped his/her professional boundaries. It is recommended that paraprofessional roles and duties be assessed to ensure that paraprofessionals do not extend beyond their primary job description (Barrios ;amp; Perlas, 2010). If paraprofessionals are utilized, proper training and supervision are imperative. Both training and supervision should be conducted with counselors taking an active role in both.

Training methods could include individual one-on-one trainings, small group trainings, or an in-service training to the greater college community in order to differentiate the goals and responsibilities between counselors and paraprofessionals. Trainings and supervision should include clearly defined responsibilities and a counselor referral process. Identification badges, that include name and position, should be provided along with ethical and confidentiality regulations. Closing Crisis Intervention Counseling plays an important role and benefits many people in their time of need.

With the direction of society and the numerous budget cuts that are implemented each year, the affected organizations that provide these services must find the best way to survive. In hiring counseling center paraprofessionals the group takes some of the pressure off of the professionals and spread the work out more evenly. This move also saves the organization money on a tight budget. There are many issues that face the human service field and counseling in the future but one major is the funding. CCP’s can do a lot to solve this issue now and in the future as budgets for these services get cut even more.

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Leadership Theory essay

Bass’ Transformational Leadership Theory – Transformational theory was developed by Bernard M Bass relatively late in his professional career. Bass along with his colleagues developed the model of transformational leadership and the means to measure it. According to Bass and Stogdill, transformational leader’s influence is based on the leader’s ability to inspire and raise consciousness of the followers by appealing to their higher ideals and values. According to these theorists, this occurs because transformational leader has charisma and engages in particular behavior as well.

They motivate their subordinates to do more than what they originally intended, set challenging expectations and typically achieve higher performances. Such leaders also tend to have more committed and satisfied followers. Transformational leadership has four components. The first component is the individualized consideration where the leader shows interest in subordinate’s personal and professional development, acts as a mentor or coach and listens to followers’ needs and concerns. The second component is the intellectual stimulation where the leader challenges the assumptions, takes risks and solicits followers’ ideas.

He also stimulates and encourages the subordinates to be more creative and innovative. The thirds component is where the leader inspires the followers towards goals and provides meaning, optimism and enthusiasm, articulates a vision that is appealing and inspiring to others. The fourth components is the idealized influence where the leader inspires confidence and is perceived as charismatic, behaves in admirable ways that cause the follower to identify with the leader (Antonakis, Cianciolo, Sternberg, 2004, p. 159).

Bass provided much empirical support for the effectives of transformational leadership across a range of organizational and individual outcomes, including productivity, job satisfaction and commitment. In his book Transformational Leadership, Bass examined the effects of transformational leadership on performance and found that such type of leadership had positive effects in almost all of the situations. The book also suggested using transformational leadership as an organizational culture, and advocated use of the theory for organizations looking to be successful in the rapidly changing industrial environment.

The leadership style can also be adopted into training, as this type of leadership is considered to be the most effective for making followers into leaders (Bass, Riggio, 2006, p. 244). ii. Burns’ Transformational Leadership Theory – Transformational leadership theory is credited to James MacGregor Burns. His research on political leaders laid the groundwork for his leadership theory, which came to be known as transformational leadership theory. Burns proposed that leadership is indistinguishable from followers’ needs and goals and is a result of the interaction between the leaders and followers.

He distinguished two forms of leadership: transactional used by traditional mangers in day-to-day work and transformational where the leader is committed to a vision to which empowers others. Both of these theories have been described in the previous sections. Burns’ theory hence is said to distinguish between morality of ends and morality of means. According to him transformational theory is “a process in which leaders and followers raise one another to higher levels of motivation and morality” (Burns, 2004, p. 21).

Burns asserted that transformational leadership is needed to solve the world’s most critical problems such as global poverty. His work reacquainted people with the work of German Sociologist Mark Weber who first highlighted the difference between economic and non-economic sources of authority. Burns amplified this theory by using illustrations such as that of Franklin D Roosevelt and Mohandas Gandhi, which made the distinction between leaders and managers so striking that it could not be ignored. According to him this needs leadership that is not top-down but starts at the grassroots level.

He further assets that transformational leadership can be used by anyone in any level of the organization and involves influencing peers, subordinates and superiors (Bass, Riggio, 2006, p. 244). iii. Kouzes and Posner’s Leadership Challenge theory – James Kouzes and Barry Posner are considered to be the best thinkers of leadership theory in modern times. In their book, The Leadership Challenge, which was based upon their research into leadership practices of effective managers, they introduced what is known as the Kouzes and Posner model.

They collected data from several thousand people, at various levels in organizations, who had been identified as successful in the way they lead others. In determining what practices and behaviors were common among those effective managerial leaders, Kouzes and Posner came up with five competencies which they considered as necessary for effective leadership. These five competencies are: inspiring a shared vision, enabling others to act, challenging the process, encouraging the heart and modeling the way.

They further split these five competencies into 10 commitments of leadership, which are simple the behaviors that extraordinary leader exhibit. These include building trust, practicing what you preach, and ensuring that people are competent to do the job in the hand (Topping, 2001, p. 10). Kouzes and Posner developed the popular concept of a 360 degree feedback system designed to assess an individual’s effectiveness as a leader, as perceived by his peers, superiors and subordinates. Also, Kouzes and Posner say that leadership is practiced by every individual at some point in time.

According to them a good leader is one who most people admire and would willingly follow. They tried and were successful in operationally defining an exemplary leader by consistent consensus on the practices of leaders from business, community, government, churches and schools (Chemers, 1997, p. 83). Clinical psychologists may work in many different employment settings such as hospitals, medical schools, outpatients’ clinics, colleges and universities, businesses and industry, and private or group practices.

The leadership traits to be analyzed depend on both the profession they are in as well as the employment setting where they work. This paper concentrates on the clinical psychologists in a private practice, which is either single or group based. The psychologists in private practices may provide clinical services in their solo practice or in conjunction with other mental health or health care practitioners in a multidisciplinary setting. However, clinical psychologists who offer psychotherapy service tend to do so in private practice environments.

Some clinical psychologists even provide direct clinical consultation and other professional services to their own patients and clients (Plante, 2005, p. 16). Licensed clinical social workers commonly known as CSW or LCSW are trained clinicians with at least a Master’s degree like MSW, MSSW DSW, or PhD and additional training and expertise in their specialty. Clinical social workers practice in a variety of ways such as hospitals, counseling, or mental health centers and private practice. They interact with other managed care practices to give their clients complete medical attention.

Most private practitioners are clinical social workers who provide psychotherapy usually paid through health insurance or by client themselves. Many private practitioners split their time between working for an agency or hospital and working in a private practice (Rosenberg, Clarke, 1987, p. 9). The marriage and family therapists’ occupation developed as a result of societal changes and demand for expert assistance. While the professional started with the severe damage cause during World War II, family and marriage therapy began to be recognized as a popular profession only in the 1960s.

Informal marriage counseling however began more than 70 years ago. By 1950s, the marriage and family therapy became more refined with the start of group therapy. The revolution however happened in 1960s, where patients were regarded as normal people with problems instead of the extremely ill and hospitalized patients. Now, the goal became changing the structure and interaction of the family rather than changing the individual to adjust to the family setting. By 1970s, family and marriage therapy became a full-fledged profession having separate accredited graduate programs (Prescott, 2000, p. 4).

Many people assume that majority of the marriage and family therapists work in private practice. This is not a correct assumption. Marriage and family therapists work in many settings and fill a variety of roles. They work in outpatients and in patient settings in both public and private programs, private practice settings and universities. They serve as therapists, clinical supervisors, program administrators, educators and trainers and researchers. Family therapists also provide consultation to a variety of public and private agencies in how to implement a family centered approach in their services (Snyder, 1996, p. 7).

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Are Clinical Psychologists Simply Expensive Therapists?

Are Clinical Psychologists simply expensive therapists? Discuss. Clinical Psychology is a combination of science, knowledge and theories which together formulate a scientific approach which enables a clinical psychologist to ask questions about the human experience and life and how these experiences affect people in order to treat them (Plante, 2010). The services of clinical psychologists and therapists are required when individuals are suffering with anxiety, depression, trauma, relationship and marital issues and deeper mental health issues which alter and have a negative effect on psychological well-being (Hunsley & Lee, 2010).

Mental health statistics show that one in four people will experience a mental health problem at some course in a year with anxiety and depression being the most common in the UK so it is therefore no wonder that waiting lists for therapists and clinical psychologists are very long (Foundation, 2011). There are many debates as to whether clinical psychologists are simply expensive therapists because it has been argued that therapists and clinical psychologists offer very similar treatments, both of which are successful but with the only different being the price.

This essay will investigate and aim to answer the question as to whether clinical psychologists are simply expensive therapists. This essay will look at what clinical psychologists do and who they work with and also what therapists do. It will focus on key differences between the two and the reasons why clinical psychology is more expensive and whether this cost is justified. What do Clinical Psychologists do?

Clinical psychologists as with many psychologists aim to reduce, prevent and alleviate psychological distress and dysfunction in order to promote psychological well-being and to improve people’s lives. Clinical psychologists can work with a number of people across the lifep including those suffering from anxiety problems, depression learning disabilities and also deeper routed mental illnesses. They can work with very young children suffering with emotional or physical trauma or the elderly coming to terms with a terminal illness.

They diagnose these illnesses or disorders that people are suffering with and decide on the best course of treatment. They then work alongside a medical team of Doctors so that the Doctors can then prescribe the treatment and medication that a clinical psychologist recommends (BPS, 2011). Due to the vast amount of knowledge that Clinical Psychologists have from years and years of training, they are able to carry out research which can be very important to science and change the way we view and treat certain illnesses or disorders (Allpsychologyschools, 2011).

What do therapists do? Therapists also aim to reduce psychological distress and increase wellbeing. The term therapist is a very broad term for trained people to offer treatment in order to help people feel better. As with clinical psychologists they help people to make decisions and problem solve by offering support, guidance and clarification (Allpsychologyschools, 2011). There are many different types of therapists and they tend to work with adults with those suffering with marital and relationships problems and life problems in general (recomparison, 2011).

Examples of different therapies available are; behavioural therapies which look at thought processes and behaviours, Psychodynamic therapies which investigate the unconscious and link current behaviour to traumas and events during childhood and humanistic therapies which look at the person in the current situation and how they can develop (Counsellingdirectory, 2011). Similarities and differences between clinical psychologists and therapists.

From the above examples of what clinical psychologists and therapists do it is clear to see that they are very similar. In fact many people believe the terms clinical psychologist and therapist are interchangeable and therefore this essay will now look at how they are different and answer the question of whether clinical psychologists are simply expensive therapists (Tarren, 2010). One difference between clinical psychologists and therapists is the academic qualifications and training they have undergone.

Clinical psychologists have a very advanced degree, usually having studied at undergraduate level, master’s level and then PhD or Doctorate level. This therefore means they have a very deep knowledge and understand of the human mind and ways to help treat people. The training they undergo enables them to function as scientist practitioners in the NHS focusing on evidence based practises unlike therapists which focus on theory based practices.

Also, Therapists only have only a general degree or in some disciples no degree at all (Allpsychologyschools, 2011). It could therefore be said that clinical psychologists ought to be more expensive as they are more advanced than the typical therapist, they are able to contribute their knowledge and understanding at a number of different levels within the healthcare system such as schools and organizations and they also contribute to a variety of roles within the healthcare system such as assessments, consultancy, intervention and treatment.

However it has been suggested that clinical psychologist are vastly over priced to the point that people cannot afford to pay for their services and now many services within the NHS are looking for opportunities to create therapy posts which will employ people from other professions who have the correct post-graduate training therefore causing implications for clinical psychologist places within the NHS.

The fact that many people cannot afford clinical psychologists and see them as too expensive in the current climate gives people a reason to seek therapy and help from elsewhere and therefore using therapists. Even when the economic climate returns to the way it was, people may still avoid using expensive clinical psychologists because using therapists and alternate therapies would have been a norm for quite a while and clinical psychologists may no longer seem a necessity.

To avoid this there needs to be an increase global emphasis on the importance of clinical psychologists and the unique skills and advantages that clinical psychologists supposedly have over other therapists to make them more expensive (Smith, 2006). Clinical psychologists are able to diagnose problems and why people feel certain ways, they are trained on how the mind works and therefore work very closely with doctors and psychiatrists in order to say what medications should be prescribed to help the person.

They can then refer the individual for treatment or therapy with a different person (multidisciplinary). Therapists on the other hand don’t tell the individual what the problem is but rather they listen and help the individual themselves discover why they feel the way they do. They are not as advanced on how the mind works but they are trained on the techniques involved in providing therapy. These are usually called ‘talking therapies’ and are promoted in the NHS (Talking Therapies, 2011). Due to the popularity of ‘talking therapies’ within the NHS, NICE believe that 10,000 ore therapists are needed, 5,000 of which should be clinical psychologists but their training should become more based on therapy, more specifically cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT). CBT is a treatment which looks at the thought processes and aims to change negative, irrational thinking into more positive, realistic though processes, therefore resulting in positive personality changes and outlook on life. CBT has been proven very successful with a success rate of over 50% for anxiety sufferers and just one course of CBT can lead to 12 months free of depression (Economics, 2006).

Practitioners of CBT can claim they are therefore offering NICE approved treatments and charge a lot more fees because of this whereas other general therapists and counsellors cannot despite the fact that there has been no sufficient evidence that CBT is more effective than other therapies even though some therapies are much more effective than others (Mollon, 2010). Clinical psychologists and therapy. Clinical psychologists seem to dislike being referred to as ‘therapists’ or those who provide therapy.

Eysenck (1940) was the first clinical psychologist in Britain and he attacked one form of therapy – psychotherapy; “It is our belief that training in therapy is not, and should not be, an essential part of the clinical psychologist’s training, that clinical psychology demands competence in the fields of diagnosis and/or research, but that therapy is something essentially alien to clinical psychology, and that if it is considered desirable on practical grounds that psychologists perform therapy, a separate discipline of Psychotherapist should be built up to take its place alongside that of Clinical Psychologist. Despite Eysenck’s view of this form of therapy, Smith (1977) carried out a study of clinical psychology looking at psychotherapy and found that it is effective, “someone chosen at random from the experimental group after therapy had a two-to-one chance of being better off on the measure examined than someone chosen at random from the control group”. However the study also brought about results that slightly devalue clinical psychologists by finding that the therapy was effective regardless of the therapists academic and previous experience (PhD, no degree etc) and also the type of therapy did not affect the effectiveness either.

Eysenck later developed behaviour therapy based on Pavlov’s Dog and from this cognitive behavioural therapy was formed to which clinical psychologists attacked. One clinical psychologist defined CBT as “virtually anything to anyone” therefore it is not individual specific and anyone can use it therefore devaluing clinical psychologists and also devalue the context of the patient’s experience. It has been stated that people need to be cared for and respected for and valued and not just pushed into compliant with models of ‘normality’ which are handed down by psychologists and cognitive behavioural therapists (Hussain, 2006).

Why clinical psychologists are expensive. If a person goes to a therapist for help then they will talk a lot more and actually help themselves through self discovery rather than the therapist helping them directly. A clinical psychologist however, you pay for help that is specific to your needs, you gain an accurate diagnosis which can help you understand your problems and also you can be prescribed medications because clinical psychologists work in tandem with doctors and psychiatrists (Allpsychologyschools, 2011).

Clinical psychologists are indeed very expensive and they are also paid a significant amount more than therapists, sometimes up to ? 100,000 they are paid if they are for example a consultant clinical psychologist. This different in salary has caused a vast amount of rivalry amongst the profession especially with those who offer psychological therapies whom believe that the pay difference is unjustified especially since a lot of the treatment and service is very similar (NIMHE, 2007).

Despite some people believing the two terms are interchangeable and therapists believing they offer a very similar service, it is not necessarily true. Indeed clinical psychologists aim to reduce psychological distress as with therapists, however clinical psychologists have been through a rigorous education system to gain a much deeper understanding and knowledge which gives them the ability to work in a multidisciplinary team and also the ability to operate across a variety of therapeutic models so that a patient receives individual specific treatment tailored to them.

Therapists however are trained in their specific therapy and will usually only offer this one therapy to patients. Turpin (2009) said that clinical psychologist service is dependent on a much high level of knowledge, skills and competences rather than the provision of good quality evidence based therapies and this is why they are more expensive because these skills and competences are part of the clinical psychology curriculum and training with other therapists will not come into contact with.

Overall there is great controversy as to whether clinical psychologists are simply expensive therapists. Nick Serieys, a CBT therapist argued against the NICE decision to employ 10,000 new therapists, 50% of which should be clinical psychologists. He argues that there is no sufficient evidence that clinical psychologists are more effective than CBT therapists who are counsellors, occupational therapists and so on and the only different being is that they are very expensive in comparison (Hussain, 2006).

In contrary, Jeremy Halstead, a lead consultant clinical Psychologist believes that clinical psychologists are rightly more expensive than other therapists, arguing that clinical psychologists offer a much better deal as therapists due to their ability to formulate problems from a variety of perspectives and theories therefore they are more flexible in their approach and can tailor more individual specific treatment (Hussain, 2006). I believe that clinical psychologists are simply just expensive therapists, but rightly so.

Clinical Psychologists go through years of extensive training as previously mentioned and have a significantly greater depth of knowledge in order to work in multidisciplinary teams and to link their knowledge for diagnosis and treatment across many topics, whereas therapists are trained in how to provide an individual therapist and do now have a greater knowledge of the underlying reasons why a person may need therapy. Clinical psychologists however do have this knowledge and work with doctors in order to ensure they are prescribed the right medicines.

Therefore although clinical psychologists and therapists may appear to do very similar work, clinical psychologists have a greater depth of knowledge in order to treat, diagnose and also the skills to carry out research and are very flexible compared to therapists who do have a vast amount of knowledge but in the area of just therapy. References Allpsychologyschools. (2011). Therapist vs. Psychologist. Retrieved 04 05, 2011, from All Psychology Schools: www. allpsychologyschools. com/psychology-careers/article/therapist-psychologis

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The Apa Ethical Principles for Psychologists and Code of Conduct

The APA Ethical Principles for Psychologists and Code of Conduct: Cultural Sensitivity and Diversity – is the code culturally encapsulated and biased? Emmanuel Mueke Author Note Emmanuel Mueke. Independent Researcher. Correspondence regarding this article should be addressed to Emmanuel Mueke, P. O. Box 44935 – 00100. Nairobi, Kenya. Contact: emmanuelmueke@gmail. com Abstract This paper explores the American Psychological Association (APA) Ethical Principles for Psychologists and Code of Conduct as regards the issue of multicultural and diverse professional practise.

Its aim is to establish whether diversity and cultural variety and differences are adequately provided for in the body of the document. Psychologists are mandated to provide services to a multitude of culturally diverse and varied clients in a manner that is both professional and ethical. In such situations cultural sensitivity is fundamental and has been elevated to best practice. The code has been questioned as to the efficacy of its cultural sensitivity; firstly in terms of whether the code itself is culturally encapsulated and secondly whether there exists an explicit or implicit cultural bias.

To address this issue we shall undertake a look at the code; its inherent limitations and shortcomings. Secondly the issue of the importance of cultural sensitivity and its translated application in matters of ethical service delivery shall be addressed. Keywords: APA Ethical Principles for Psychologists and Code of Conduct, ethics, multicultural, diversity, bias. The APA Ethical Principles for Psychologists and Code of Conduct: Cultural Sensitivity and Diversity – is the code culturally encapsulated and biased?

Cultural sensitivity and professional ethics are central to the provision of psychologists’ services; this has led to the APA issuing guidelines in an effort to ensure that best practice is not only aspired to but more importantly achieved. This paper examines the Code of Conduct and the pursuant Guidelines on Multicultural Education, Training, Research, Practice, and Organizational Change for Psychologists (APA, 2002). Analysis of these documents will establish the existence of mechanisms to ensure protection against cultural bias and effective promotion of cultural sensitivity.

Literature Review In the 2002 APA Ethical Principles for Psychologists and Code of Conduct several principles were outlined to ensure that cultural sensitivity was adopted as the guiding policy for practicing psychologists. The first mention of the issue of diversity and its effect on professional practice is in Principle E, which engenders awareness of and respect for cultural differences and admonishes the practitioners to try and eliminate the effect of biases upon their work and not to condone any activities of others based on prejudice. Further under Section 3. 1, unfair discrimination on any basis including culture is prohibited, combined with Section 3. 03 which admonishes the practitioners from engaging in any behaviour that would be demeaning to a person of different culture. The issue of ethical provision of services is not just about preventing discrimination or harassment to persons of different cultures but it is also about ensuring that they are provided with adequate and competent services as they well deserve; to this effect Section 2. 01 provides what has been termed a boundary of competence.

The boundary is intended to ensure that the services provided are effective in the specific circumstances faced; to this effect first it limits a psychologist to only undertake to provide services within the boundary of his expertise, education and experience and secondly it mandates that a psychologist must undertake the training or education necessary to provide the requisite services to the target populace, this training or education taking into account all factors that have a bearing on effective service delivery such as age, gender, ethnicity et cetera.

Lastly under Section 9. 06 (APA, 2002) when interpreting assessment results a psychologist is mandated to take into account all the factors relevant, including the cultural differences of the assessment subject, that might nuance the results in any way. To translate these into effective practice the APA published the Guidelines on Multicultural Education, Training, Research, Practice, and Organizational Change for Psychologists (APA, 2002); which was meant to embody diversity aspirations for professionals.

This document built on the precedent established by the Guidelines for providers of psychological services to ethnic, linguistic, and culturally diverse populations (APA, 1990). It translated the Principles previously outlined into six different guideline rules with the appropriate commentary on the way to best achieve such targets. The guidelines are; 1. Psychologists are encouraged to recognize that, as cultural beings, they may hold attitudes and beliefs that can detrimentally influence their perceptions of and interactions with individuals who are ethnically and racially different from themselves 2.

Psychologists are encouraged to recognize the importance of multicultural sensitivity/responsiveness, knowledge, and understanding about ethnically and racially different individuals 3. As educators, psychologists are encouraged to employ the constructs of multiculturalism and diversity in psychological education 4. Culturally sensitive psychological researchers are encouraged to recognize the importance of conducting culture-centred and ethical psychological research among persons from ethnic, linguistic, and racial minority backgrounds 5.

Psychologists strive to apply culturally-appropriate skills in clinical and other applied psychological practices 6. Psychologists are encouraged to use organizational change processes to support culturally informed organizational (policy) development and practices Discussion The Guidelines admit the existence of a Eurocentric bias in the psychological profession and posit themselves as an ever-evolving solution; changing as further empirical research on the issue is undertaken.

Moreover the document places a time limit on its validity in order to spur further research on the issue of multicultural practice. In order to ensure its efficacy the APA set up a task force whose sole purpose was to look into the implementation of the guidelines with a view to providing proper feedback by identifying pertinent implementation and infusion recommendations. The task force produced a report on the infusion of the paradigm shift in service delivery outlining how this should be undertaken; Report of the APA Task Force on the Implementation of the Multicultural Guidelines (APA, 2008).

The report split the guidelines into two categories the first being those whose implementation fell unto the practitioners and into this category they placed the first and second guidelines. The rest were in the category of those whose implementation required facilitation by the APA both in terms of administrative structures and funding; for example the APA was tasked with establishing an Office of Diversity Enhancement and hiring a Chief Diversity Officer to run it. The Office’s purpose is ensuring that there is diversity across the organization which helps with the ethical provision of services across multicultural diversity.

Conclusion Having gone through the Code of Conduct, the pursuant Guidelines and the Implementation Report there is no evidence of cultural bias and encapsulation; rather there is incontrovertible evidence of contrived and concerted efforts to address the bias existent in the profession and its philosophy. References American Psychological Association. (1990). Guidelines for providers of psychological services to ethnic, linguistic, and culturally diverse populations. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved from www. apa. org/pi/oema/guide. html American Psychological Association. (2002).

Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct. American Psychologist, 57, 1060-1073. Retrieved from www. apa. org/ethics. code. html American Psychological Association. (2003). Guidelines on multicultural education, training, research, practice, and organizational change for psychologists. American Psychologist, 58, 377-402. (See www. apa. org/pi/multiculturalguidelines/homepage. html) American Psychological Association. (2008). Report of the Task Force on the Implementation of the Multicultural Guidelines. Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved from http://www. apa. org/pi/

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One offers a sliding fee and charges $110 to $119 per session

As a very concerned friend and one that has the background to realize that what my friend is undergoing is bordering on severe depression, I  know that she should really seek professional help. Although therapy is expensive, there are certain measures that could be used as an alternative to therapy, but I would be more comfortable if she will go to counseling.

This is why I researched a number of internet resources to really identify the best sources for reputable and accredited psychologists, as much as possible I would want her to not be under medication because in counseling she would have a better chance of developing the skills she would need for healthy adjustment to life’s challenges.

In psychotherapy, she would be given anti-depression drugs and sometimes it is not as helpful as it is meant to be, and I fear that she may only become dependent on the drugs instead of really learning and realizing her problems and issues.

I found the Psych Central website very informative and helpful. It has a list of help centers where the fees are not that expensive and some of the sessions can be done online, on the other hand, it also has a list of accredited psychologists and psychiatrists and their contact and office numbers as well as descriptions of their fields of expertise and work experience.

I simply went online to find the resources, aside from Psych Central, I also found that San Jose, CA has a list of psychiatrists and psychologists on the yellow pages, but unless I have someone who can refer them, it is not much help.

From the Psych Central resource list, I found two probable psychologists that are within the San Jose area, they both offer the first session free of charge and present a very comprehensive introduction to their practice. I feel comfortable with the approaches that the psychologists have on treatment and they have outstanding credentials.

One offers a sliding fee and charges $110 to $119 per session and can be bargained if financially incapable, likewise there is no need to pay for the sessions in advance which would suit my friend’s needs. The other site however does not indicate the schedule of fees.

They both work with individuals in counseling and specialize in depression and adjustment problems. The first psychologist however accepts payment sessions through health insurance and she says that the client just have to contact the insurance provider before arranging the first session. This could be advantageous to my friend if she decides to use her insurance plan but I doubt that she would, but it is good to have options.

The second therapist however requires that a personal call or an email be sent to her to settle the business side of the counseling sessions, which is basically positive in the sense that my friend would get to communicate with the therapist before she commits to visiting her and her practice is also within the San Jose area and can be checked out anytime if the need arises.

I think that my friend would really benefit with the first counselor, she would be given the counseling that she very much needs within her own budget constraints, as well as be able to stay in her apartment and job for the psychologists are within her residence and job. If there is a need for her to be institutionalized, or if she thinks that she might be safer there, and then there are some available institutions in the area, but as for now, I am confident that she would work well with counseling.

Resources:

Psych Central.com for list of therapy centers found at: http://psychcentral.com/resources/Psychotherapy/Treatment_Centers/

Dr. Lisa Shields

http://cms.psychologytoday.com/usnews/prof_detail.php?profid=40512&sid=1178634615.479_19565&city=San+Jose&county=Santa+Clara&state=California

San Jose Therapy and Counseling.org with Maria Lloyd, MFT Therapist License #38399 check:

http://www.sanjosetherapy.org/#depression

 

Writing Quality

Grammar mistakes

F (43%)

Synonyms

A (100%)

Redundant words

C (75%)

Originality

100%

Readability

F (48%)

Total mark

C

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Psychologists and Psychiatrist

Psychology is a fascinating subject that carries a lot room for interpretation. Psychology being a relatively new scientific arena continues to grow due to exploring of experts into studies of the mind and behaviors directed by the brain. Psychologists and Psychiatrist continue to discover new methods of therapy to treat psychological disorders. Cognitive therapy is the fastest growing and most extensively studied form of psychotherapy in America. ” Cognitive therapy emphasis focuses on present thinking problems.

The website I chose is: www. nytimes. com/library/national/science/health/011100hth-behavior-beck. html. I chose this website because it contains an article about Dr. Aaron Beck, who is the founder of cognitive therapy. Dr. Beck’s perception of psychological difficulties lies within “thinking problems. ” Unlike behavioristic, psychoanalytic, humanistic, and trait theorists, cognitive theorists believe that psychological problems lie within current thoughts. Disorders are a result of a patients desire to relish in self-deprecating thoughts.

This article explains how Dr. Beck discovered cognitive therapy and decided to leave Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic approach behind. Dr. Beck attended the Philadelphia institute in 1958. There he begin to conquer his fears of blood and pain due to a staph infection from surgery on his broken arm developed due to his mothers overprotective behavior which caused him to restrict his activities as he also developed a phobia of getting hurt. Dr. Beck conquered his fears by teaching himself to recondition his thoughts.

Dr. Beck’s cognitive therapy intent is to correct distorted thinking patterns by challenging patients to explore positive and beneficial thoughts. “He encourages patients to test their perceptions of themselves and others, as if they were scientists testing hypotheses. ” The idea of cognitive therapy is to help patients to first realize their how their thoughts can be self-deprecating and then he aims to condition their present thoughts to new thinking. Dr. Beck is methodical about his cognitive therapy. First Dr.

Beck listens to the patient and then he asks questions to help them conquer irrational thinking. There are some behaviorist psychologists who appose Dr. Beck’s cognitive theory. These critics feel that thought can not be measured objectively. One Dr. Klein’s position is that cognitive therapy is just a morale booster, and not the therapeutic solutions it promises. My overall evaluation of this website is how well rounded the information covered the subject. It provided an in depth analysis of the cognitive theory; how it was conceived, who will benefit most from it, and the methodology used.

I find it fascinating that a person can perform psych therapy on themselves just by simple reconditioning their thoughts. Sometimes I find myself obsessing over small things, and now I can practice to condition myself to refrain from obsessive thoughts. I would really like to learn more about the methodology used to treat cognitively and more details about the results shown with patients. I plan on conducting more research on cognitive theory to find other cognitive theorists and their methodologies.

This article has taught me more about myself and how I can improve my relationships by positive thinking. This article has shown me how to identify certain thoughts that I would prefer to refrain from thinking, and how to correct them. | Definitions Deprecate means to deplore something, depreciate means to belittle something or to treat it as unimportant. However, self-deprecating, in the sense ‘disparaging oneself’, ‘modestly understating one’s own abilities’ has become firmly established, although some people deprecate this usage.

Berate to rebuke or scold angrily and at length. Prosaic commonplace or dull; unimaginative Precept a commandment or direction given as a rule of action or conduct, an injunction as to moral conduct Pragmatist a person who is oriented toward the success or failure of a particular line of action, thought, etc Works Cited Goode, E. “A Pragmatic Man and His No-Nonsense Therapy. ” www. nytimes. com/library/national/science/health/011100hth-behavior-beck. html 11 Jan. 2000.

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Developmental Psychologist: Neal Krause

He was born in Mineola, New York in 1948 and grew up in New Jersey with his family. He has spent most of his adult life teaching others about development during the aging process. He graduated with his bachelor’s degree from the University of Oklahoma, received a master’s degree from Sam Houston State University and a Ph. D from Akron University and Kent State University. He teaches at the University on Michigan and has written numerous articles about the topic of relieving stress during the final phase of life’s development. Neal Krause Developmental psychology is the study of human growth and development.

It focuses on the ways in which humans grow, learn and increase in knowledge throughout the average life p. Most developmental psychologists focus on the early years of the life cycle because this is the time in which development and learning occurs the most rapidly. In the first few years of life a person goes from being a completely helpless creature dependent upon others for nutrition, safety basic cares and comfort to being a somewhat autonomous individual. What many of these psychologists fail to realize or focus on however, Dr. Neal Krause makes up for.

He shows the world that although the early years are important development does not end at the age of five. The speed of development and learning does slow down as the person matures into adulthood, but it does not stop. Each new experience or challenge brings new information and changes the developmental process. Just as everything has a beginning, it also has an ending and human development is no exception. It often appears that as human beings age and get closer to the end of life, the development reverses and they revert back to the beginning stages. This factor in itself creates an entire field of developmental psychology.

It can be a very frightening and frustrating time in which people who have cared for others realize they need to be cared for. The loss of independence during these years can make this phase of development one of the most stressful. This development of the aging population is the area in which Dr. Neal Krause has found his specialty. Neal Krause is currently a major influence in the field of developmental psychology focusing on the process and development at the end of the life cycle. He is on the teaching staff at the University of Michigan’s School of Gerontology, where he has taught and conducted studies since 1986.

He specializes in the study of the effects of stress on the aging process and finding ways to better cope with this stress. By studying the ways aging populations of different cultures, gender and social groups deal with the stresses at the end of life; he can help provide better coping methods for these people and the people who often help care for them in the later years. Dr. Krause’s personal journey through life’s development began humbly, like that of most post World War II babies, on December 14, 1948 in Mineola, New York. He was the second child born to blue collar working class parents (N.

Krause, personal communication, September, 10, 2007). His father left school during his second year of high school to join the work force (N. Krause, personal communication, September, 10, 2007). He spent most of his early childhood years in New Jersey along the north shore, where he and his parents settled along with his older brother and younger sister (N. Krause, personal communication, September, 10, 2007). His teenage years were just as modest as his early childhood. He attended public high school in a very overcrowded school building (N.

Krause, personal communication, September, 10, 2007). The building was too crowded to accommodate all of the district’s students at the same time; therefore the school operated on a split session schedule. Neal Krause attended school from 6:30 am. until 12:30 pm. The second half of the student body attended from 1:00 pm until evening (N. Krause, personal communication, September, 10, 2007). In order to save money for college, Neal worked thirty-five hours per week after school and on weekends at a shoe store as a stock boy (N. Krause, personal communication, September, 10, 2007).

He attended college at the University of Oklahoma where he received his first degree a Bachelor’s in Business Administration in Marketing and Management (umicpeople, 2005). He chose this school, because the tuition was only fourteen dollars per credit hour for out of state tuition and since he was paying for it himself this was his most reasonable choice (N. Krause, personal communication, September, 10, 2007). In order to help pay for his college tuition he worked forty hours each week in a mental institution that he stated resembled the one from the movie “One Flew over the Coo- Coo’s Nest” (N.

Krause, personal communication, September, 10, 2007). His full time job at this facility led to a low grade point average at school, but an interest in human behavior and his future career (N. Krause, personal communication, September, 10, 2007). After his graduation from University of Oklahoma, he decided to pursue his education in human behavior. This decision led him to Sam Houston State University where he received a Masters degree in psychology and sociology. He then went on to receive a PhD. from a combined program between Akron University and Kent State University in sociology.

He graduated from this program in 1978. His paid professional career began in 1978 in his area of interest human behavior and coping mechanisms. He spent the next twenty-nine years dealing with the topic of stress and continues to do so. Stress is a factor that affects every human on the planet in some way at some point during the life p. Stress can have both positive and negative effects on the body. In positive ways it can motivate a person to strive towards his best ability or flee an area of danger. In the negative aspect it can cause serious health issues to manifest (high blood pressure, heart attack, ulcers).

Dr. Krause realized that although stress occurs in everyone’s life, not everyone develops the negative effects of stress. He has made it his mission to discover why some people find effective and healthy ways to cope with stress and others succumb to the negative health factors that can result. From 1978 to 1981, he took a postdoctoral fellowship at Indiana University. This was where he met his wife (N. Krause, personal communication, September, 10, 2007). The fellowship led him to Yale for a year where he worked on a large community survey for the elderly (N.

Krause, personal communication, September, 10, 2007). The offer of a better salary led him to Galveston, Texas and the medical branch of University of Texas (N. Krause, personal communication, September, 10, 2007). While employed by the University of Texas, his work focused a great deal on the stress of women of various cultures who chose to work outside of the home as opposed to those who chose to be homemakers. Most of these studies and articles occurred in the late 1970’s and early 1980’s (umicpeople, 2005).

At this time in history the issue of women in the workplace was very relevant to society as this was the generation of the “super mom”, who wanted to do every aspect of life to perfection. The study of stress levels in this population was quite significant at the time. One study conducted in 1983 was proposed on over the debate about whether a woman’s marital and child rearing stress was relieved by working outside of the home. One side of the argument stated that by working outside the home, women would have a break from marital and care giving responsibilities, thus relieving stress.

The opposing side stated that the stress would in turn be increased due to the fact that the responsibilities would still be present when she returned home, thus multiplying the stress. The study indicated that although some of the stress of homemaking and marital responsibilities were somewhat decreased no significant difference appeared in the child rearing responsibilities ( Krause, 1983) He left Texas to move to Michigan in the mid 1980’s. He began his teaching career at the University of Michigan in 1986, where he received his tenure in 1989 and became a full professor in 1992 (N.

Krause, personal communication, September, 10, 2007). He has remained there since that time. He currently is an instructor and researcher in the School of Gerontology at the University of Michigan. After moving to Michigan he changed the focus of his research to the elderly and the rapid aging of the “baby boom generation”. He has studied the aging population in different cultures and genders to find the differences in the aging processes in the various populations. Since the end of life brings about major changes in independence and security, stress becomes a significant issue.

This can be a frightening time and one of the most stressful during the life p. Continuing on his theory that some people cope with stress more effectively than others, he has focused on how various elderly people deal with stress in different ways and what factors make the differences for those who age with less stress. One of his studies involved over eight hundred elderly people (over age sixty-five) from mixed cultural backgrounds and both genders. They were asked what roles in life were most important to them.

The study determined that most elderly people mentioned a parenting, grand parenting, other relative, or community role. Those with control over this kind of role in their lives had a tendency to live longer and have more value in their lives (Krause and Shaw, 2000). This study also determined that the reason for this longevity and quality may be partly due to the habits of the people. Those with well defined roles were less likely to participate in unhealthy habits such as smoking and consuming excessive alcohol than did the people without these roles, thus leading to longer and often healthier lives (Krause and Shaw, 2000).

In addition to this study, he conducted one along the same lines with the elderly population and their perceived role of security (that if they need help or support from someone it is available). This study concluded that as age increases this feeling of having needed support tends to decline and thus the security with it (Krause, 2007). These studies led to studies on the social relationships of the elderly. Most of the studies determined that the people with healthy social relationships had less negative effects from stress and appeared to live more fulfilling lives.

The studies went from the basic study of roles in life to determine differences in other populations. He began to focus more on the differences between aging people from different cultural backgrounds. During his studies of people from different cultures he noticed that some cultures were more effective in coping with the factors of stress during aging in spite of having healthy values and roles in life. One of these cultural differences was between elderly Caucasians and elderly African Americans. He determined that the African Americans on average had fewer negative effects of stress than did the same age population among Caucasians.

He added the aspect of spiritual beliefs and religion to the list of possible coping mechanisms. One of these studies found that African Americans tend to read the Bible more and pray more. The study also indicated that because of the traits of culture, African Americans tend to develop a closer more personal relationship with God (pray as if God is literally in the room with them and talk more personally) and therefore may be able to find this relationship helpful in coping with the stresses of daily life (Krause and Chatters, 2005).

He went on to study the same effects in Mexican Americans. The culture is different and the ways in which they practice religion is often different. He also conducted studies on people from Japanese backgrounds. In addition to the cultural differences in the ways elderly people cope with stress, Dr. Krause went on to explore the reasons that people within the same culture often dealt differently with the aging process. He continued to study the religious aspect after noting that it had played a significant role in cultural studies.

He studied the differences in gender in relation to religion and coping. He noted that in general women attended church more regularly and sometimes had a deeper spiritual devotion than men. He continued the studies with some studies on religion with respect to developing a positive relationship with the clergy and social relationships within the church. In all of the studies the overall indication was that the more healthy relationships, the more positive experiences and the deeper religious devotion, the better equipped the better the person tended to be at positive coping.

Dr. Krause studied the effects that negative experiences such as traumatic events can have on coping as well as negative experiences in social and religious situations. The results of these studies provided support for the studies of the positive effects of religion and relationships on a person’s longevity and quality of life in later years. People with negative experiences in religion were less likely to attend church regularly or develop positive relationships within the church and less likely to cope effectively with stress.

People who claimed to be deeply religious, but claimed to have doubts about their religion had a tendency to develop stress during the aging years. Those who had suffered multiple traumatic events during their lives or within recent years had less effective coping mechanisms especially if they did not have strong family support. He has added a sense of self-esteem to the studies and has found that people with very high self –esteem and very low self-esteem both have negative effects on coping, but a comfortably positive self-esteem is a healthy balance.

An additional factor that was determined to make a difference in coping mechanisms focused on social and economic status of the individual. With the cost of healthcare and nursing facilities for the elderly, having a lack of financial means had a strong negative effect on the individual’s ability to cope with stress in the final phase of life. In addition to knowing they have nothing left to leave their children. Throughout the past three decades Dr. Neal Kruse has explored the extensive topic of stress and how people cope. He has studied the difficulty of aging and has found how some people make the aging process easier.

His studies have concluded that the people with well defined positive roles and a strong support (family or social) system tend to develop positive coping skills in all cultures. Deep religious conviction and involvement in a church community can act as a positive support system and help a person develop positive coping skills. People with a healthy sense of self and value of self worth in various cultures developed coping mechanisms. African Americans had a tendency to develop more healthy skills than Caucasians, possibly due to religious beliefs and practices.

His studies demonstrate that financial planning in early years would help alleviate stress in later life. Dr. Krause has an appreciation for the elderly and development at the end of the life p. He has demonstrated that there are ways to make this phase of life better and continues to study ways in which the stress and anxiety of the aging process can be alleviated. His study of this last phase of the life cycle helps younger people know steps they can take to minimize their level of stress during these years.

If they develop strong family, spiritual and social relationships and have a financial plan for the aging years, they can hope to reduce the negative effects of stress during the aging years. Dr. Krause currently teaches doctorate classes to other researchers in the field to help them gain a better appreciation of the value of the final phase of the human life cycle. It is no mystery to anyone that stress can have a negative impact on people’s lives. As the computer and electronic age make life easier, it also seems to make it move faster and instead of stress being reduced the stress increases as people struggle to keep up with society. Dr.

Krause has shown that a big part of psychology and human development is finding a healthy balance in the stress levels of life. He has dedicated his life to helping people find this balance. He has chosen to focus on a population that many in the field of psychology have chosen to ignore, the elderly. He believes that although progression and learning slow during these years and in many cases reverts back to child hood, this is still a very important phase of human development and must not be forgotten. This regression to childlike behavior means a loss of independence and security. It brings about a fear of the unknown and eventual death.

It includes a loss of dignity and privacy. Elderly people face losing the ability to make their own decisions and care for others. They have to face the reality that instead of being the care giver they have to be the one being cared for. In many cases they can no longer live alone and have to decide if they will stay with family or go to a care center. If they go to a care center, they may not have enough money to cover the incredible expenses involved in elderly care. With a large portion of the nation’s population rapidly reaching retirement age, these concerns are becoming a reality for increasing numbers of people everyday.

This phase of life is one of the most frightening and stressful phases of life. If properly planned for however, it can be one of the most enjoyable and fulfilling. Dr. Krause has spent nearly thirty years studying and attempting to find ways to help people age with more dignity and less stress. He has studied the coping mechanisms that work effectively and those that lead to premature aging and even death. He has published his findings to help those who care for the aging populations and those who are looking at retirement age find the most effective coping mechanism possible for what can be one of the most stressful times of life.

Most people will go through this phase of life and many of the nation’s population is either currently going through this phase or soon will be. With this realization the focus of psychology is rapidly changing to what Dr. Krause has known all along. They are beginning to realize that the aging process of human development is a vital part of the life cycle. There are more studies being made all of the time and the government is beginning to realize that the elderly need assistance in funding the mounting cost of care.

Most employers now offer retirement plans to help their employees prepare for the retirement years. Home health is becoming an option to help elderly people maintain independence for longer periods of time. This involves care givers providing support to elderly people in their own homes. Many of these changes are taking place in society because of studies conducted such as the ones Dr. Krause has conducted throughout his career. These studies have helped many people be more prepared for retirement and aging. It helps to have this valuable information to help make the “golden years more golden”.

References:

Krause Neal. (2007)Age and Decline in Role-Specific Feelings of Control

University of Michigan. Retrieved September 11, 2007 from:

Age and Decline in Role-Specific Feelings of Control — Krause 62 (1): S28 — Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences

Krause, Neal. (1983) Employment Outside the Home and Women’s Psychological

Well-Being Retrieved September 11, 2007 from: SpringerLink – Journal Article

Krause Neal and Chatters, Linda. (2005) Exploring Race Differences in a

Multidimensional Battery of Prayer Measures Among Older Adults.

Retrieved September 12, 2007 from:

http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0SOR/is_1_66/ai_n13807640/pg_2

Krause, Neal and Shaw, B. A.(2000) Aging is Improved by Personal Control of Life

Roles.  Retrieved September 11, 2007 from: Aging & Aging Parents: Aging is Improved by Personal Control of Life Roles

University of Michigan people (2005) Retrieved September 10, 2007 from:

http://www.psc.isr.umich.edu/people/cv/krause_neal_cv.pdf

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