Religion

Model Case – Yes, Religion is compatible with Secularism

The line separating secularism and religion is becoming thinner and thinner each day. Justin wondered whether secularism would at one time become a religion or if religions have any meaning in today’s secular life. In a conversation with his friend, Kelly, Justin appeared concerned about the ever-thinning line separating religion and secularism. “Nowadays people live with little regard to religious doctrines, there is increasing pressure for separation of religion from state; moreover, atheism is becoming a common thing, what happened to the times when religion used to be the people’s way of life” Justin wondered and lamented.

Kelly, noting the pessimism in her friend, responded, “it is not like that Justin, religion is still most people’s way of life and atheism is different from secularism in many ways”. She continued, “Secularism, unlike atheism, is a life philosophy, which tries to explain the role that religion plays in governance and public life”. Still unsatisfied, Justin queried “how can secularism be important in public life and yet it cannot explain the origin of life?”

Although secularism cannot explain where life came from, what life means or what people should do with their lives like Christians, Muslims, Judaists or Buddhists do, it nevertheless, explains the role of religion in public life and governance. Secularism, much like any religion, has prohibitions against drinking, smoking, or any unhealthy activities, which are important teachings in many religious faiths.

Intending to learn more, Justin asked again, “If secularism serves to promote religion in governance and in public life, isn’t in itself a religion and how is it different from the other religious faiths?” Kelly responded, “Inasmuch as secularism tries to describe the role of religion in governments and public life, secular doctrines are not religious, hence secularism is different from religion”. “In addition, secularism unlike religion, has no belief in deity and therefore not a religion.”

In most cases, religious beliefs enhance stereotyping and prejudices, which make religion a divisive factor in today’s society. However, secularism is not part of any religion but serves to protect all religions. “In this way, secularism protects people’s right of expressing their religious beliefs publicly”, Kelly, explained. “In other words, she continued, “secularism protects religious symbols; however, it also provides limits; for instance, a judge is not expected to wear a religious outfit while in court.” “Is like secularism protects religion while at the same time controls expression of religion in public life and in governance”, Justin concurred. “This makes religion compatible with secularism”, Kelly concluded.

Justin believes secularism is the same as atheism founded on anti-religious beliefs:

• Stereotyping and prejudices among different religious faiths
• Secularism does not believe in a supreme deity and eternal life
• Protection of freedom of expression and religious symbols

Contrary Case: No, Religion is not Compatible with Secularism

Grace was convinced that secularism is a religion in itself. She believed that religion is a defined system of beliefs and practices. “Secularism just like religion also is defined by some set of values and beliefs regarding public display of religious symbols and in governance”, she told Mark one evening. Mark had a contrary opinion, “But all religions have gods while secularism does not and therefore, not a religion”.

Grace, unconvinced, explained that most mainstream religious faiths like Buddhism also do not believe in a supernatural being. In addition, she believed that secularism, just like other religions, focuses on moral commandments that would enhance good physical health. Further, she believed, secularism sets limits for public expression of religious faiths in an effort to enhance religious tolerance. It describes the role of religion in governance and public life.

In states that have established one state religion, public expression of faiths and religious symbols are done in accordance with doctrinal teachings of the religion. In secular states, pop-cultural focus defines the public expression of faiths and politics.

From Grace’s reasoning, pop-culture and humanism, which define secular life, are either philosophies or religions that conflict with religious faiths. Pointing to an example of how secularism attempts to limit the public expression of religious faiths, Grace told Mark that religion and secularism are two contrasting doctrines, each with a set of beliefs and principles. In addition, secularism is also faced with certain flaws and problems such as universal acceptance and fundamentalism, which are common problems that face religious faiths.

Secularism attempts to unify religions and establish a common standard for public expression of faith. For example, secularism restricts judges from wearing religious garments when in courts and Muslim women from wearing veils in public. From these common experiences in many countries, Grace believed that secularism is trying to establish itself as a religion competing with religion for converts. In this way, she believed that religion and secularism have many contrasting aspects, which make them incompatible with one another.

Grace believes that a religion is defined by a system of beliefs, religious symbols, and practices:

• Many religions have no gods or supernatural being.
• Pop culture and humanism as aspects of secularism.
• Religion and secularism have contrasting doctrines, exhibit fundamentalism, and compete for converts.

Borderline Case: Yes/No

Jackson had mixed feelings about the whole issue of separating religion from the state. He was of the opinion that religion, being a way of life for most people, should also define how people wish to be governed. However, he noted that there have to be limited to the expression of religious practices and symbols in public. He felt that to promote religious tolerance among the many religious faiths, there has to be some sort of regulation of religions. He admitted that religion and secularism could coexist not as contrasting religions, but as independent philosophies each with its own set of beliefs and practices.

Secularism, just like religion, focuses on good physical health and general well-being. Secularism, for example, discourages unhealthy habits such as smoking or drinking to promote good health. In this aspect, religion and secularism tend to concur. In addition, secularism defines how one should live as a global citizen, free from suppression. Many religious faiths also promote healthy social and spiritual living. In these two aspects, religion and secularism seem to complement each other and thus compatible.

However, in many other aspects, religion and secularism tend to differ. Jackson felt that inasmuch as religion and secularism agree on matters of physical wellbeing, they present two contrasting views. Secularism is a philosophy based on the desire to put in place an autonomous socio-political system independent of religious beliefs. It is also naturalistic and more materialistic as opposed to religion that is based on faith and belief in a supernatural being.

In this way, religion and secularism appear to conflict with each other. In addition, secularism sets limits for public expression of religion; for example, it restricts Muslim women from wearing veils or judges from wearing religious outfits. The rationale is that religious neutrality in public places or in courts is important to promote religious tolerance. However, this appears to conflict with religious faiths because religious teachings advise followers to express their religion publicly. Therefore, by restricting public expression of faith, religion and secularism tend to conflict and therefore incompatible.

In secularism, the disconnection with religion may be mainly opportunistic intended to serve the political class at the expense of the religious beliefs of the citizens of a given country. The secular states tend to focus on wealth and power at the expense of peace, individual rights, and equality. However, secular states also have some level of tolerance and exercise neutrality towards different religious denominations. Nevertheless, such is expected as capitalistic states are mostly interested in labor productivity, not religious beliefs or practices of the citizens.

Yes

• Religion and secularism both provide for physical wellbeing and good health and discourage unhealthy habits.
• Secularism promotes tolerance, neutrality, and globalization.

No

• Secularism is based on naturalistic principles and is more materialistic
• Limitation of public expression of religious symbols conflicts with religious beliefs

Yes

No

Invented Case: The liberal democratic state of Mognis

In the seventeenth-century state of Mognis, the majority of the citizens were religious but not orthodox. Nevertheless, religion had a major influence in their everyday life making it difficult for their religion, Hinduism, from the state. Even in their cultural practices involving the various ethnic groups, religious doctrines were important. Secularism lacking atheist notions was also rife in public life. The majority of the people of this country were either Hindu or Bengali.

The country also had many religious communities and indigenous minorities. The ruler of Magnolias at that time wanted to entrench secularism in the constitution despite the majority of the people being highly religious. He reasoned that secularism would allow the citizens to practice their various religious faiths and at the same time protect the interests and the rights of the minority groups. Furthermore, secularism would lead to a more pluralist society accommodating varied religious and cultural aspects. His idea of a secular state involved a value-based secular state that promotes religious equality, individual liberties, and peace.

In this state, after implementing the secular law, people had the right to criticize a particular religion and were at liberty to reject or denounce their religion and adopt a different religion. The state also promoted inter-religious dialogues and deliberations to prevent religious extremism. Individuals were also at liberty to embrace any religious denomination or choose to remain without one. Furthermore, in this state, civil rights were protected including rights to vote or vie for any public office. Discrimination based on religion was not allowed, instead, religious tolerance was encouraged.

Under this model, religion and secularism had mutual exclusion with the religious and political institutions having a clear line of separation. In this sense, Mognolis was not a religious state but all religions were privatized as a way of promoting democratic development. At the same time, the state was not anti-religious but undertook to protect religious liberty and equality among all citizens.

Mongolia supported individual liberties, religious equality, and peace, which represents a perfect way secularism can be implemented in a dominantly religious country:

• No religion was a state religion but all religions were equal.
• Individual rights and rights of citizens were recognized irrespective of their religious beliefs or practices.
• The secular law promoted inter-religious dialogue and religious tolerance an important element of peace.

Social Context: Politicians and religious leader’s role in Secular states

Politicians and religious leaders

Secularism is highly contested particularly by the religious leaders. Most religious leaders are opposed to secularism terming it incompatible with the religious beliefs of the majority. For instance, opposition to secularism in India was mostly from the academic and religious leaders who argued that secularism in itself as a concept was seriously flawed. According to religious leaders, secularism was a form of flawed modernization, which demanded the removal of religious practices from public life. They further argued that secularism underestimated the importance of religion in people’s lives and challenged the fundamental framework of secularism.

Politicians on the other hand, when criticizing secularism, focus on two fundamental issues. Firstly, both secularism and religion are important in most countries because politicians in most states cannot justify their political decisions by entirely relying on their religious beliefs. Secondly, citizens cannot make their decisions by relying exclusively on secular considerations but have to invoke religious reasons. In addition, most decisions including secular or public decisions are based on religious rationale. Political decisions and their justifications also rely mostly on the religious rationale.

Religious leaders argue that by discouraging public expression of faith or religious practices in a secular state, secularism becomes hostile to religion. Other religious clerics argue that secularism purports to promote inter-religious harmony while at the same time attempting to establish itself as a central doctrine for public life. Others claim that the secular law does not recognize community rights and therefore cannot adequately protect religious minority groups from discrimination.

In the implementation of secular law, clerics and politicians play a vital role in adopting an appropriate model of secularism that can accommodate religion.

• Most political decisions are based on religious rationale even in secular states and therefore dialogue between political leaders and clerics is important
• Religion can only become compatible with religion when religious establishments and secular organizations thrive independently
• Secular decisions are based on religious reasons, which shows that religion and secularism are interdependent

Results in Language

Religion

• Individual rights.
• Basis for political and public decisions.
• Religious tolerance.

Religion has a major influence on people’s daily lives. Most political decisions affecting public lives usually have a religious rationale. Religion also protects the individual rights of the citizens by teaching equality among all people. Religious doctrines offer guidance on how people should conduct themselves in public and encourages them to be tolerant of each other’s beliefs thus promoting peaceful co-existence.

Secularism

• Inter-religious harmony.
• Democratic development.
• Economic development.

Secularism acts as a central doctrine that promotes inter-religious harmony among religions. In addition, secular organizations including civil societies contribute to democratic development by protecting minority religious groups. Secular organizations are driven by wealth creation not religious beliefs; therefore, they contribute to the economic development of a country particularly when implemented at the policy level.

Yes, Secularism is compatible with religion. Secularism encourages inter-religious harmony and promotes religious tolerance among different religions. Secularism protects the individual rights of the minority religious groups allowing them to exercise their faith freely. Secularism provides for equality among the citizens by acting as a basis for public and political decisions.

Interior Dialogue

After reading the notes that I have compiled, I am still strongly convinced that secularism is compatible with religion. Considering that theocratic states often turn out to abuse individual rights and deter democratic development, does secularism provide an alternative to religious states? Indeed secularism provides a clear separation between religion and the state, which promotes democratic development. Furthermore, in a multi-religious state, secularism promotes equality among all the religious groups including the minorities, which promotes peaceful co-existence.

Is secularism alone in states effective?

A secular state is often disconnected from religion including disconnection between religious and secular institutions. Secular states do not support the establishment of religious institutions and can even withdraw certain privileges accorded to religions. Furthermore, secular states do not recognize any particular religion and therefore give no grants to religious institutions. In this way, democratic development, individual rights, and religious freedom are hampered in secular states

Is the separation of the state from religion worthy than the union of the state and religion?

Indeed the separation of the state from religion is more beneficial than an alliance between the state and religion. States with an alliance with the major religions usually experience connection at the policy level. The policies affect the minority religious groups and may hamper economic and democratic development. Whenever a dominant religion is firmly established within a state, persecution of the minority groups is common.

About secularism

Secularism refers to the ideology that particular practices and organizations should exist independently of religion. Essentially, secularism supports political decisions based on evidence and logic rather than religious doctrines. Most arguments in favor of secularism claim that secularism is a movement towards modernization, a break from religion. Secularism is deeply rooted in the doctrine of religious tolerance.

In this respect, secularism establishes a clear separation between the church and politics, and by so doing, secularism promotes religious freedom. Modern secularism arose in the seventeenth century as a solution to political problems and religious wars in Europe by establishing a political ideology independent of the religious doctrines (Larmore, 1996, p.71). Secularism provides the best socio-political arrangement that allows individual freedoms and religious practices to thrive.

Secularism as a Religion

Secularism aims at removing religion from the public domain and offering a solution to solving interreligious strife. Secularism shapes the various aspects of religion including religious practices and beliefs. It supports mutual dependence between religious beliefs and political power (Perry, 1991, p.156). In addition, secularism is usually neutral to any political ethic. Without secularism, the dominant religion in a country enjoys immense privileges while the minority religious groups face discrimination (Mohsin, 1999, p.29).). Among the important doctrines of secularism is that it advocates for the complete separation of the church from the state. In addition, the doctrine grants religious freedom and influences public religious practices.

To promote religious tolerance and interreligious dialogue, secularism forces religious groups or extremists to comply with a liberal democratic rule. Secularism allows an individual to evaluate and examine particular religious doctrines and beliefs before making a free choice regarding his/her religion (Sheth, & Gurpreet, 1997, p.115). Religious groups demand minimal intervention by the state on their practices and beliefs.

Therefore, secularism, which claims neutrality to all religions and the rest of the society, provides an ideal environment for these religions to thrive. The increased demand for noninterference made by religious groups is based on the argument that the law forces religious groups to comply with certain provisions contrary to their religious beliefs or the law prevents them from exercising their religious practices.

Contrary to the belief that secularism does not protect religious minorities, a practice that is widely regulated can be permitted in a minority group because of the significance it has to the members of the religious group (Tambiah, 1998, p.98). Minority religious groups usually claim non-interference but sometimes require special assistance to acquire certain privileges enjoyed by the other groups (Madan, 1998, p.67).

Some secular states are guided by values such as religious equality, peace, and liberty to all citizens. Weithman (1997) notes, in these value-based states, individuals have the right to criticize any religion and can freely embrace any religion or remain without any religion (p.45). In addition, these states protect individual rights to vote in an election or contest in any public office without discrimination based on one’s religion.

Conclusion

Despite most religious groups demanding non-interference in their religious practices by the state, they need assistance to acquire certain privileges. Secularism promotes religious tolerance, religious freedom, and individual rights, which are the fundamental principles of any democracy. Secularism also protects the minority groups from discrimination by allowing free exercising of their faith. More importantly, secularism, through the principle of equal distance, ensures there is no state religion, which contributes to religious harmony and peace. In addition, secularism contributes to the separation of the state from religion as compared to theocratic nations, which is important for democratic development. By protecting individual rights and religious practices, secularism is compatible with religion.

Reference List

Larmore, C. (1996). The Morals of Modernity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Madan, T. (1998). Secularism in its place. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Mohsin, A. (1999). National Security and the Minorities: The Bangladesh case. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Perry, J. (1991). Love & Power: The Role of Religion and Morality in American Politics, New York: Oxford University Press.

Sheth, D., & Gurpreet, M. (1997) Minority Identities and the Nation-State, New Delhi: Oxford: University Press.

Tambiah, S. (1998). Secularism and Its Critics. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Weithman, P. (1997). Religion and Contemporary Liberalism. Notre Dame: University Of Notre Dame Press.

The Importance of the Book of Romans

The Epistle of Romans and all it fulfills has one motivation; to glorify God. It is the very reason for which humanity was created. The author, Apostle Paul, strongly asserts that he is not embarrassed by the Gospel since it is God’s power to save everyone who trusts in Him. Bart indicates that Paul’s letter to the Romans had a central theme; Good News. It presents God’s grace fulfilled through His only Son; Jesus Christ. Undoubtedly, it is a Gospel. Romans purposed at laying the foundation for the faithful in the truth presented by the Gospel with the motive to glorify God. The course or motive of the author is to make someone get stronger in his or her faith (Bart 89).

The Epistle to the Romans is a guide for the Kingdom of Heaven’s citizenship. It explains the way to attain heaven’s citizenship that is justified by faith in Christ. The Book of Romans outlines the blessings bequeathed to an individual on becoming a citizen of the Kingdom of Heaven, being born again, or saved. Furthermore, the book teaches the citizens of heaven in the expected manner of life. It also presents citizens of heaven as sojourners here on earth. An emphasis is laid on the repentance of sinners (Bart 100).

The Epistle to the Romans provides a complete primary theological framework to the rest of Paul’s works. It lays down the basics of the Gospels and God’s plan, both of which are fundamentally essential to the new era; Church Age. Romans has indeed played a central role in the life and history of the church over the years.

Women in Paul’s Churches

The relationship between Apostle Paul and women forms an important aspect in the theological discussion about the place of women in Christianity. Paul wrote the first directives on women’s role in the church. At the time Paul started his missionary work, women were vital agents in different cities. Paul’s letters and casual greetings to female acquaintances provide concrete information on women’s prominence in his ministry.

Various women carried out missionary work in the churches founded by Paul and in his movement at large. Paul’s salutations to some of his followers show that people preached in pairs, either with their brothers or husbands. Priscilla was Aquila’s wife, and she decided to work with Paul, which made her a missionary as well. Also, they worked together in tent making. Some women were also church-planters and evangelists. Paul praised Junia for being a prominent apostle (Bart 124). Women such as Phoebe acted as deacons in the early church. Paul describes Phoebe as a supportive woman or benefactor. Paul’s works had solid information on the role of women in the church as apostles, missionaries, deacons, informants, and partners in evangelism.

The issue of the status of women, as exemplified in Paul’s works and advice to the various churches he established arouses heated debates. Paul presents women as subordinates to their husbands but also advances egalitarian views. In particular, Ephesians 5: 22-24 has been at the center of the debate on women’s subordinate position (Bart 98). Both traditionalists and Christian egalitarians agree that Paul’s assertion was divinely inspired.

Nevertheless, the traditionalists emphasize male leadership in the church and marriage. Christian egalitarians point out that both men and women are equals in all spheres of life. Paul’s traditional approach to some issues is a precursor to the Jewish cultural influence in his works. Nevertheless, Paul also presents a robust unrestricted position in Galatians 3: 28, where he asserts that all people are united in Christ irrespective of their background.

The Apocalyptic World View of the Book of Revelation

The book of Revelation was authored by Apostle John. It is one of the difficult books regarding understanding Christian literary works. The work, also known as the Apocalypse of John, arouses a pool of questions and competing interpretations. The work falls under the category of apocalyptic writings; it employs images, symbols, and numbers to transmit its message. The work is characteristic of the persecution era, where it equates the emperor of Rome with Satan as well as showing the ancient Roman administration as the final evil (Bart 105).

Often, a majority of the people never understand Revelation. Therefore, there is a need to understand the basic foundation under which the book was written. This includes the features of the writings, the history possessed by the early Christians, persecutions, and their way of life, which makes it easier to comprehend the book of revelation. In the work, several symbols and images were connected to events, people, and places that were familiar to Asia Minor Christians during the 1^st century (Bart 53).

A wide range of interpretations has been fronted to explain the imagery and symbolism used in Revelation. The content of the book presents an apocalypse of the present and future world views. The cataclysmic images used in Revelation relate to global occurrences and predict how or when the end times will ultimately come. The book of Revelation, like most of the other apocalyptic writings in the Bible, presents a world view characterized by a sharp contrast between the good and evil powers. The two fronts are presented to be rallying themselves against each other in an ultimate global conflict that is succeeded by the overthrow or supremacy by God (George 81).

Works Cited

Bart D. Ehrman. A Brief Introduction to the New Testament. Oxford University Press, 2010. Print.

Bart D. Ehrman, Peter Paul and Mary Magdalene. The Followers Of Jesus In History And Legend. Oxford University Press, 2008. Print.

Bart D. Ehrman. Lost Christianities, The Battle for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew. Oxford University Press, 2005. Print.

George T. Montague. The Apocalypse: Understanding the Book of Revelation and the End of the World. Harper & Row Publisher, 1991. Print.

Introduction

At times, I wonder if religion can be placed deep down a human being or outside of human beings. In other words, is religion an external force or an innate force in human beings? Views on religion differ, but two schools of thought seem to arise strongly (Johnstone, 13). One school looks at religion based on the substance of religion, i.e., what is religion composed of, what is the core of religion.

Does the other school look at what religion helps achieve (Johnstone, 7) what is the role of religion in society? At this point, I try to think about what role religion plays in society when negative things like earthquakes, floods, and droughts happen. Does religion bring answers to many questions running through the minds of people affected by such phenomena? I answer yes. Many people will attribute the happenings to the will of a supreme being and take consolation in the fact that such things were bound to happen anyway.

I further intend to reflect on the concept and importance of Sociology of Religion as well as the rational choice theory.

Sociology of Religion

Sociology is the study of how people interact in society. Sociology aims at deciphering how groups in society operate and how such groups affect an individual as well as collective behavior. Religion is the totality of beliefs and practices that a certain group embraces to assist them to focus on the Supreme Being or beings (Johnstone, 7). As such, religion must be practiced by a group of people and not a single individual.

Religion exhibits several characteristics. One, religion applies or is practiced by groups, which are commonly called denominations (Ronald, 9). I do not intend to imply that religion is not an individual happening. I mean, an individual can only practice religion within a certain group. Of course, the individual members make up the group, and the conviction must start with an individual (Putnam and Campbell, 35).

Secondly, religion must necessarily have a belief system to which individual members subscribe collectively but practice individually. Over, religion involves a set of practices such as rites for different occasions like baptism in Christianity. For the sake of society, religion must give moral prescriptions like respect for parents, avoidance of sexual immorality, among others. Prescriptions indicate what should be done or not done based on certain convictions. Lastly, religion involves the sacred. By this, I mean they believe in a Supreme Being or Beings (Johnstone, 11). Muslims, for instance, will cleanse themselves before going before Allah in prayers. Allah here is the Sacred.

Sociology of Religion, being a science, demands that Religion and any other subject should be approached with a lot of neutrality but I must say that it is impossible to be neutral when tackling such a value-laden subject as religion (Johnstone, 5). It is a science in the sense that it employs the scientific method of data collection and verification backed by evidence. It is the study of how religion influences society.

The question that immediately comes into my mind ‘to what extent can a sociologist in religion go to verify such concepts as the Supreme Being yet the human person is so limited (Johnstone, 6)?” Is it possible to verify issues such as the sacred, the supernatural, the opposing evil forces? It is a challenge to the aspect of the study being a science. I tend to think that where religion is concerned, the sociologist can only be content by depending on the views and observations obtained from the individuals in any religious group. Beyond that, it might prove hard.

All in all, it is worth noting that religion also embraces nonspiritual practices like education, health, and commerce. In this regard, an objective study on such aspects of religion can be carried out empirically since beneficiaries of such practices as well as the professionals involved are human beings, not unless such healing involves the spiritual realms.

Importance of Sociology of Religion

The study of how religion influences members of a society have its significance. The study allows people to understand how diversified the concept of religion is (Putnam and Campbell, 37). We have major religious groupings like Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Islam in the world. Even in a grouping like Christianity, there exist several groupings like the Roman Catholics, Anglicans, Lutherans, and Baptists, and so on. It is only through Sociology of Religion that one can grasp the diversity implied in religion.

Secondly, the Sociology of Religion assists the researcher to grasp, how culture affects religious views (Putnam and Campbell, 34). Culture is a people’s way of life, which is not static but dynamic. For instance, in my interaction with Muslims, I realize how the Middle East culture influences the religion called Islam. Islam is one religion whose practices like polygamy are a direct consequence of cultural practices. The use of water in sanitation, as opposed to paper, has a lot to do with culture than any other thing.

Much as culture affects and/or influences religion, it has also been known to affect certain cultures. Christianity in Africa is responsible for the change in way of life since it brought with it the European Culture. As such, practices such as worship of different deities have been overtaken by events. The missionaries condemned most of the African traditional aspects like polygamy, female genital mutilation, killing of twins among others.

Rational Choice Theory

This theory has to do with wanting more rather than less from a certain good or service. It is commonly applied to economics. When applied to religion, I would think of it as the choice a person makes regarding what satisfaction one can get from religion or a particular religion (Putnam and Campbell, 36).

Such deliberate choice is based on various assumptions. First of all, as a human being, my choice is based on rational calculations. If I belong to this religion, how am I to benefit, for instance? Secondly, I am a rational being, and in that regard, my choices must be based on reasoning. Lastly, I must choose what will grant me maximum pleasure or benefit (Johnstone, 9).

Conclusion

Religion can be best understood by people who are inside it more than those who are outside a religion. The outsider can only interpret the sensible, but the insider knows what they have since it has to do with the sacred, the supernatural forces which are not quantifiable. Sociology of Religion is significant since it explains how religion influences society and vice versa. Religion is a part and a parcel of our daily life and affords members some benefits. If one has to belong to a certain religion, deliberate and informed choice is inevitable. The reason has to prevail so that one can know how much benefit to expect from religion.

Works Cited

Johnstone, Ronald, L. Religion in Society: A Sociology or Religion. Pearson: Prentice- Hall, 2007.

Putnam, Robert D. and David E. Campbell. American Grace: How Religion Divides and Unites Us. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2010.

Introduction

The most important chapter in this context is chapter one. Apparently, all people have some familiarity with the religion, although they may not be affiliated with any religious group in particular. However, religion plays a crucial role when it comes to the field of politics (Dawson, 2011). Probably, terrorism has some indirect links to politics; for instance, the event that took place on 11^th of September 2001 led to the emerging concerns and fame of the Islamic religion (Putnam & Campbell, 2010).

The actual perpetrators and players involved in the attack were linked to this religion, and this sparks my concern for the role of religion in preserving human life and dignity. Religion is rampant, and most people are for the recognition of God as the Supreme Being. Moreover, the strong presence of religion prevails even among people who claim not to be affiliated to any religion or even to recognize God, but in one way or another, from their expression, they tend to recognize the existence of a supreme being.

The aspect of religion exists to uphold some beliefs and practices (Blasi, 2007). Principles such as recognition of human rights, justice to all people, equity, and freedom from oppression prevail among all religions despite their differences in faith. Despite many religions in the world today, upholding these principles shows that human beings are not defined by religion, rather religion is a basis of a person’s faith while at the same time in respect of one another by virtue of being human (Dillon, 2003). This paper reflects on various issues in connection to sociology and the study of religion, as highlighted in chapter one of this book by Ronald Johnstone.

Roles of sociology in connection to religion

Sociology aims at defining the way people interact, especially when in groups, and how the two parties get to influence each other as they keep on interacting. In my opinion, this aspect depicts that a sociologist is in a position to explain the different behavior of different individuals in a group. Sociology is quite crucial in finding solutions to problems that may arise in an organization or even a small group of people (Johnstone, 2007).

This assertion holds because different people behave in a different way and human beings are subject to influence each other if care is not taken during socialization. This same case happens with religion, which is usually organized in groups. For instance, there are Muslims, Christians, Buddhists, and many other religious groups currently existing globally. The strong influence exerted upon people by a particular religion makes him or her remain or join a particular religious group (Dawson, 2011).

The influence is derived from individuals’ perceptions of the group’s doctrines and teachings that lead to strong beliefs and faith in the religious group. Religious groups have such a strong influence, as they are likely to determine a member’s behavior at his or her place of work, home, and other social places. This aspect holds because that member tends to behave in a way to obey the group’s teachings and doctrines (Johnstone, 2007). The displayed behavior is likely to attract others into joining or rejecting a particular religious group.

Sociologists’ assumptions on religion

Just like many other theories and concepts, sociological concepts and views on religion have assumptions behind them. By virtue of being a biological organism, human beings are subject to a variety of needs, potentials, and limitations, and this aspect makes us prone to influence, although limited by biological factors. Religion is one of the agents through which human beings tend to socialize (Johnstone, 2007).

For instance, people from different households meet for a common purpose on a certain day as long as they share a common religious group and faith. This element is not limited to households, but the socialization of this kind can extend to people from different regions globally. Religion plays a crucial role in defining how the mode of behavior, especially when it comes to sexuality (Dawson, 2011).

Different religious groups have different views when dealing with human sexuality; however, there exists a common aspect that all of them regard and concur that it should be treated with the dignity of high caliber. For instance, Christianity is for the view that sexual intercourse is only a preserve for the married and polygamy is not allowed as God created one man and a woman; therefore, marriage should be preserved for two people. However, this belief is not the case with Muslims who allow polygamy, although they strictly discourage sexual activities before marriage. In both religious groups, sex before marriage qualifies for fornication, which is sinful before God. This aspect depicts the fact that religion has a strong influence on this biological aspect of human beings (Dawson, 2011).

Human beings have the ability to attach some meaning to objects, sounds, and symbols, among others. Arguably, the creation of consensus on the intrinsic meanings has helped members of a group to communicate and gain adequate knowledge (Johnstone, 2007). Different symbols and words are used to denote different things or pass a variety of knowledge and ideas among different religious groups.

The religious aspect for some people claims that a divine message has been revealed to them. However, if this message is not expressed in a way that can be understood by people, then that message tends to lose meaning and become useless. This assertion is an issue that needs to be addressed as it seems to be recurrent and religious leaders involved do not seem to take any step to correct the issue (Furseth & Repstad, 2007).

For instance, in a prayer meeting, people tend to deliver messages in tongues that cannot be understood by the people present. The message loses meaning since the intended recipients cannot understand. Arguably, people become human when in groups. I agree with sociologists to some extent for a human being cannot exist on his or her own. Human beings are dependent on each other, and thus can hardly survive independently. However, I challenge this point for courtesy of biological makeup, people are human beings. For instance, they are human for they have higher brain capacity than all animals, and they are organized in a unique way when it comes to the body structure.

The assumption that all actions by human beings are directed towards solving a problem stands to be challenged (Blasi, 2007). Sociologists believe that human beings are presented with problems that they choose to present a solution either immediately or in the future. However, it depends on a person’s discretion to solve the problem or leave it as presented. They also believe that religious behavior aims at solving some forms of problems through prayers, attending church services, and many other ways. Currently, religion has failed to address some contentious issues, and it seems to complicate issues the more.

For instance, it is not biblical to terminate the life of another person. Medically, do the Bible and other religions come in to provide a solution in termination of pregnancy when the mother’s life is at risk? Currently, some people are being sentenced to death by courts for various crimes depending on the magnitude of the crime committed. Does this decision depict a conflict between religious principles and those depicted by systems of justice? Apparently, the same religion advocates justice to all human beings. These issues depict some of the problems that religion has failed to provide a solution.

The concept of religion

Sociologists have offered different definitions of religion. However, there is no clear and concise definition of religion, although it can be based on the role depicted by religion upon the lives of different individuals. The difficulty relies on the fact that there are many mysteries lying behind a religion, most of which are natural and can hardly be explained (Dillon, 2003); for instance, where people go after death and causes of death, floods, fires, and thunderstorms among others.

From these occurrences, people believe a strong force behind them, hence laying a basis of religion. Religion is a phenomenon on a group of people who have similar believes (Dawson, 2011). However, religion is a group phenomenon, although it begins with an individual who has a vision and insights that he or she feels should be shared with other people. Based on this argument, sociologists can derive characteristics depicted by a certain group of individuals who share a common goal (Dawson, 2011).

Currently, there has been the emergence of differences among the member of a certain religion, which has led to divisions being experienced among members of a certain religious group (Putnam & Campbell, 2010). This aspect has resulted in the emergence of several protestant religious groups, especially among Christians. Sometimes, religious practices, beliefs, and doctrines should go hand in hand with logic.

Some religious groups with weird teachings and practices have been on the rise, and to my surprise, people are following them blindly, which shows the extent at which religion has had influence on human beings beyond logic and common sense. However, a religious group should be organized in a way where every member has a role to play with respect to the norms of the group. In addition, as a sign and symbol of unity, group members should work together, as it is also a way of expressing unity and a sense of belonging.

All religious groups have a body of beliefs and set of practices, which they are entitled to in their existence; for instance, holy books, readings and scriptures, in addition to universally accepted principles and practices. These set of practices are upheld on behavior, especially when it comes to performance of some rituals (Blasi, 2007). However, people should be warned against following certain religions blindly.

People should be at a position to evaluate the intrinsic meaning behind some practices by some religious groups, especially with the current emergence of different religious groups, some with religious practices that need close scrutiny. There have even been allegations that some religious groups are linked to devil worshiping. These allegations have gone to the extent of claiming that currently, the practice has been very rampant and are associated with top class people in the society (Putnam & Campbell, 2010).

With the application of common sense and logic, people should be at a position to study the behavior depicted by such groups and make an informed decision before taking any action. Some of these groups tend to lack moral prescriptions as displayed by other religious groups. They have no dignity for human life as depicted by the fact that they make human sacrifices in order to fulfill certain missions. This practice is against universal Christian religion that shuns this kind of practice (Furseth & Repstad, 2007).

Religion and magic

The practice of magic entails exercise of powers that are likely to have control over people. However, this practice happens out of consciousness and is a deliberate practice to interfere with certain events expected to occur in the future (Blasi, 2007). Magic can also be applied to have a change on some events that are deemed inevitable. However, it is only among primitive societies that such practices are prevalent, although some people are ignorant when distinguishing religion from magic.

However, this scenario happens as both involve some faith and beliefs, practices, and tend to provide solutions to problems faced by some individuals. Although there are some similarities between the two, religion supersedes magic in various ways (Blasi, 2007). While religion goes beyond providing a solution to a problem, magic is typically geared towards a problem after which the powers cease to function. Religion is a group affair that involves believing in unseen super natural being whereas magic is an individual affair involving a magician- a fellow human being (Dawson, 2011).

Conclusion

There lays various roles played by the religion in the lives of people as stipulated in chapter one of this book. Religion is crucial in upholding human dignity through promotion of virtues such as equality among others. Currently, there has been the emergence of various religious groups with varying practices. However, every human being has the responsibility of studying the group carefully before making an informed decision.

Reference List

Blasi, A. J. (2007). American sociology of religion: Histories. Leiden, Holland: Brill.

Dawson, A. (2011). Sociology of religion. London, UK: SCM Press.

Dillon, M. (2003). Handbook of the sociology of religion. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Furseth, I., & Repstad, P. (2007). An introduction to the sociology of religion: Classical and contemporary perspectives. Aldershot, UK : Ashgate.

Johnstone, R. (2007). Religion in Society: A Sociology of Religion (8th Edition). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Putnam, R., & Campbell, D. (2010). American grace: How religion divides and unites us. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.

How important has the institution of the church been for African-Americans?

African-American churches are churches whose ministry is predominantly done to African-American people living in the United States. The institution of the church has a significant role for the African-American people. The African-American churches were established after the abolition of the slave trade. They developed their ways of worship that were culturally distinct from those of white Americans. I will highlight some of the reasons why the church is an important institution for African-American people.

Social cohesion

The most important role played by the African-American church is the provision of cohesion. The church has been able to bind together the black people living in America, thus making it easier for them to achieve their aspirations. Black people in America must work hand in hand to achieve their targets.

Creation of awareness

The African-American church has provided its congregation with a forum for enlightenment. Church leaders have developed various forums to enlighten their people about various issues that touch on different aspects of the black American people. These issues include political issues, social issues, and economic issues. The church makes the congregation aware of its rights as American citizens.

Social institution

The church is a very important institution in the social lives of African-American people. The church provides a forum for which the African-Americans can meet and interact. It gives them the voice to raise issues that they face and provides them with a forum to discuss their issues and find amicable solutions. The church is an important institution that these people can run to seek support, especially when other institutions fail to provide them.

Reduction of crime

The African-American church has been able to impact morals and virtues to the members of the society, and this has helped to reduce crime rates. The high levels of unemployment for black Americans has resulted in increased crime. The church has taken an active role in trying to reform criminals by giving them teachings on good morals and Christian virtues. Crime, especially among black youths is a major concern for Americans, and the church has had to step up to ensure that this trend changes by teaching the youth honest ways of making a living.

Social welfare

The church institution has taken an active role in providing its people with social amenities. These social amenities include schools, health facilities, recreation centers, and orphanages. It has helped to build the community by improving the living standards of people. The church has sponsored various projects which are aimed at improving the quality of life of its people.

What do you think the future of religion is in America?

America is one of the world’s most religious countries. The greater population of America engages in private and organized spiritual practices. However, I believe that in the coming years, the future of religion in America will be transformed. I believe that religious practices will decline shortly. I will provide several reasons why I believe religion will decline in America.

Scientific advancements

I believe this is the main reason why religion will lose its meaning in America. Many people are beginning to have doubts regarding various spiritual beliefs, especially, because man has proved to have the capability of developing things that God could. Technological advancements that are discovered daily make it more convincing to believe in science due to the presence of physical evidence, unlike with religion where we know God exists, but nobody has seen him.

Religious diversity

The diversity of religion is on the rise in America. I believe that the religious landscape will change in the coming years. Jewish, Catholic, and Protestant religions are the most dominant religions in America. I think the main reason for religious diversity is due to the presence of immigrants in America. As people moved into this country, they carried along with them their religious practices. The Muslim religion is an example of the growing religions in America. The presence of Sikhs, Muslims, and Buddhists in America is evidence of diversity. This diversity is going to be experienced in the future as people believe in change.

Religious conservatives

Religious conservativeness is a growing trend in American society. Conservativeness arises as a way of trying to deal with religious diversity. I believe that in a decade to come, many religions in America will have lost their identities, and this will necessitate the presence of religious conservatives to defend fundamental truths. The conservative movements are established to deal with threats posed due to religious diversity.

Changes in society are the main reason why the rates of religious practices are bound to decline shortly in America. Sexuality, contraception, and biotechnology are some of the reasons why religion is taking a deep change. People tend to believe in science more than in God. People also want to be associated with groups that are open to new trends, and religions that have strict rules will lose followers.

Theism or atheism?

The belief held by theists is that God’s existence can be proven by rational argument. It is true that God’s character is understood to be all-powerful (omnipotent), a God who is all-knowing (omniscient), unchanging (immutable), incapable of suffering (impassable), eternal and perfect righteousness (Peterson, et. al, 2002). Thus, it is essential to understand that if religion is meaningful or not, then man must commit to an enterprise, which considers the grounds for belief in God. The philosophy of theism involves a consideration of the tenets of philosophical theism. The limitation with the approach of the philosophy of theism is that it tends to focus on a limited perspective of religious practices.

Religion involves a fundamental faith commitment to a set of beliefs that are aimed at transforming the lives of individuals and society. When religion is considered in a historical context the study of religion results in various attitudes to religion, as well as, the conception of the existence of God. Theism is the most common doctrine held by those who believe in the existence of God as an individual being.

Contrary to this, atheists support the doctrine of those who oppose the idea of an existence of God or a supreme deity. Atheism is a doctrine that rejects theists’ ideas (Peterson, et. al, 2002). Atheists do not believe in God and reject the notion that God exists. It is a concept that is considered as a personal conviction concerning religion. If an individual does not practice religious faith or does not have any feelings or knowledge of God’s existence, this may have implications for the thought of many.

How an individual perceives his or her life and the moral attitudes and principles, or how an individual relates to others in the society varies largely from a theist and an atheist. Human being understands the existence of cultural variation for different religions, as the idea of the existence of a supreme deity also varies with different religious groups. Different categories of atheists can also differ in their attitudes of rejection towards the existence of God. Many factors influence the reason why people understand certain concepts differently which leads to variations in reasoning. The differences are evident across cultural diversity as well as philosophical and spiritual contexts.

These are challenges that should be viewed as great to the thinking and reasoning of man (Peterson, et. al, 2002). In the cultural context, these variations are a challenge to human reasoning and feelings. Culture may assert individualism as well as liberty. For instance, human rationality can be influenced by geographical factors on human reasoning capacity, mentality, as well as, feelings. These factors determine the manner in which man perceives God.

On the other, a theist and an atheist are influenced by philosophical reasoning that prevails within the cultural and the intellectual context and determines how individuals perceive the existence of God. These philosophical ideologies demonstrate a new perspective in which the critical question of God’s existence can influence the future of religion. Thus, atheists may question the usefulness of God in a society that is substantially under the influence of pragmatism.

Moreover, an atheist may seek to inquire about the role of God in society. When a particular group of people is influenced by idealism, it becomes more probable to seek to understand God’s existence and how to interact with Him in order to understand Him. Thus, an important question to ask is what GOD is being rejected by the atheists, and what would be the possible consequence of this rejection? It is necessary to keep religious considerations in mind since different religions perceive and explain the existence of God in different ways. These religions have distinct thoughts and feelings.

Even though individuals may argue that there is only one God, the existence of God is perceived in the same way by different people. Atheism rejects the existence of God, this practice may attract the attention of people to ask, what kind of God is rejected? Some people may decide to reject God when they perceive that He is a God of intolerance and suffering. The logical consequence of theism is that it is the rejection of the presence of a Supreme Being or God.

The definition of an atheist is an inbuilt and inherent rejection of the existence of a supreme being. There exists a secular consequence of the perception of the existence of a supreme deity and a rejection of the idea that God exists. These are evident in other aspects of human life. The major reason for this consequence is the nature in which man perceives and conceives God that also has a direct link to how an individual perceives oneself as well as others.

However, according to the concept of agnosticism, it is not easy for a human being to attain the knowledge of God (Peterson, et. al, 2002). Other people may use their intellectual ability to agree to the non-existence of a supreme deity or, maybe emotionally chosen to reject the existence of God.

Developing what I regard as the sharpest problem facing a traditional Christian or Muslim or Hindu, or Buddhist, by providing the facts of religious diversity and explaining how an appeal to religious experience may be made in an attempt to defuse the problem

The most pressing problem in understanding religious traditions is the different traditional cultural perceptions of world religions. Historically, there are claims that all religions represent different ideas, which are directed to the same route. Despite the fact that each religion may choose its own direction, the diversity in religious belief and practices are different from Christians, Muslims, Buddhists, Hindus, as well as, other religions of the world.

The pressing problem to the traditional religions is the intolerance and the assertion that one religion is the only true religion. This type of intolerance among the traditional religions has ignited much suffering to the human race (Peterson, et. al, 2002). Thus, it leads to more problems since there is a lack of tentative proof that one religion is genuine, and others are false religions. Therefore, it explains that there is no religion that has the ultimate truth. However, the main purpose of religion is destined to the same direction that may be emphasized by the pluralistic hypothesis (Hick, 1970).

According to Hick, the hypothesis he presented fourth tries to explain the fact that human beings are inherently religious, hence leading to some substantial diversity that exists in the actual meaning of a religious belief. This supports the assumption that belief in a supreme deity or God is an illusion and the fact that most religions have a tradition that seeks to transform a believer’s life. According Hick (1970) he asserted that there is an ultimate reality that all the religious traditions suffering from Kantian Blindness do not have any direct link or perception of the ultimate reality.

He also posits that different traditions of diverse religious groups indicate an authentic way in the perception of reality and religious experience (Hick, 1970). There are various religious traditions with conflicting beliefs on various crucial aspects of religion. Each traditional religion enhances a positive moral change referred to as the liberation in the behavior of the followers (Hick, 1970). Thus, it is not proper to conclude that one religion is more genuine than others. Such a pluralistic interpretation of religion portrays a strong appeal but is finally unacceptable. For instance, it does not consider the conflicting truth claims among diverse religious groups.

All religions have truth claims, which may contradict the claims made by other religions. The contradiction based on the truth claim needs to be taken into account with regard to the nature of reality. Moreover, reality also embodies the nature of God’s existence. Furthermore, the difference between monotheism and atheistic religion is quite clear. For instance, Muslims believe that there exists only one supreme deity, Allah. The Muslims believe that Allah created the universe from nonentity (Hick, 1970). On the other hand, the Hindu’s religious view is parallel to the Muslims because they believe in an absolute reality that oversees everything.

The Hindu’s also believe in numerous deities, which are the manifestations of absolute reality (Brahman). In addition, traditional religions are also influenced by opposing views on life after death. This contradiction relates to the fate of the dead. The Muslims believe that an individual dies once and later on faces judgment by their God (Allah). According to the Muslim’s Supreme Deity, Allah, an individual is present in eternity either in hell or in heaven depending on the judgment made by Allah.

The Hindu religious tradition believes that the life of man is cyclic from the time of birth to rebirth after death. They also believe that the existence of man is controlled by influential cosmic laws; these laws control the past life of an individual, the present life, as well as, the future life. The Hindu religious belief states that an individual is reincarnated and may be transformed into any creature including man. These religious traditions are identified by the same problems that have implications to humanity. Consequently, this takes us to the next level of argument by the Hindu, that man faces a universal problem characterized by a continuous cycle of birth, death, and rebirth which traps all.

This condition can be unrestricted when man undergoes religious commitment through devotion and a close relationship with the Supreme Deity. The other religious group with a distinct ideology believes that man faces a problem of separation between him and God. This separation occurs when man sins and rebels by violating Gods commands. These are Christians who also believe that man is not able to solve these problems. However, through salvation, sin can be overcome.

Christians also believe that Jesus is the Savior who died to save mankind from sin. This is seen as a covenant to restore the bondage between man and God. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the religious contradictions about reality, the fate of people after death, and the universal problem facing humanity which are some of the problems facing the traditional religions. If different religions make claims that are contradicting, then none of them can be right. Therefore, this principle of contradiction leads to a misunderstanding of the true nature of religious language.

The area of philosophy of religion that has changed my views the most because of taking this course

The discipline of philosophy of religion is quite beneficial in this course because it leads to an understanding of the concepts involved in religious traditions. The field has been tremendously beneficial since it provides an opportunity to explore various religious beliefs of the world. According to the philosophical reflection of God, the reasons of faith were initially not considered as part of philosophy of religion.

However, philosophy of religion forms a vital component among philosophical disciplines. The interactions of various philosophical themes including debates about God’s existence, importance of religious pluralism and the nature of good and evil in relation to God’s existence as well as the purpose that led to the origins of terms such as theism, materialism, consciousness and many more. An important area that changed my views in learning philosophy of religion is the existence of God.

Most arguments on the subject are presented as unjustifiable proofs and demonstrated as infallible. For example, the debate that the concept of the role of the cosmos is not practical on the grounds that there is an intelligent work done by the cosmos, undermines the argument on the existence of God who is characterized by his omnipotent, omnipresent, and benevolent nature. Various comments and conclusions can distort the views of the scientific naturalists who do not support the notion of the transcendence forces and intelligence. Therefore, it is important to don further research by initiating a comprehensive inquiry on the increasing common philosophies that include theism.

Foundationalism is another concept that is very controversial concerning the philosophy of religion because it focuses on arguments based on the beliefs that seems to be true to some extent. On the basis of justifying an extensive belief about oneself and the existence of the universe, most philosophers have taken interest to consider the justification more complex. Thus, an emerging way of conducting a study on philosophy of religion is based on the non-foundationalist line that depends on a comparative rationality of various religious views.

Another means of conducting studies on philosophy of religion on the non-foundationalist line depends on the logical truth on the various worldwide religious views that can be demonstrated to be less rational than other options, but requires obtaining logical equality. The notion of the existence of God may be considered as basic and fully warranted without any justification related to a standard argument for God in his design as well as miracles; hence, this argument can be based on the integrity of religious views of the world as a holistic, internally coherent, as well as open to criticisms along different forces.

The study on the existence of God has led to various factions of theists and atheists as well as the deists. Fideism is another branch that maintains an argument that there is no proof on God’s existence. However, this is not a practical argument to understand the existence of God due to its minimal contribution to the debate. Therefore, philosophy of religion is beneficial because it introduces man to the nature, scope, and distinction between what is right or wrong. Moreover, it is concerned with human and personal activities; hence making the discipline to be of more concern in practical matters (Peterson, et. al, 2002).

The other pertinent issue to this field of study is its broad context. The field explains various religious traditions in the world; hence, various aspects of religion can be understood through the study of philosophy of religion. Furthermore, philosophy of religion touches on historical ideas in addressing religious issues. Therefore, the discipline is beneficial because it helps man to understand the impact of religion and the extent of religious experience among individuals and the society. Philosophy of religion is an important field of study because it exposes an individual to the religious experiences from the existing conflicting claims concerning reality based on the religious experiences.

Various religious experiences need to be addressed in order to obtain a detailed interpretation of the accounts by invoking the concepts in the respective religious traditions. Furthermore, the discipline is very crucial in comparing different religious beliefs and tenets. The analysis of various religions is beneficial because it contributes to the flourishing of religious ideas. Thus, its significance is particularly valuable in understanding the views of various religious groups. For instance, the views held byte Buddhists of the idea of knowledge and the self that has been significantly crucial to understanding the existence of a supernatural being, or the relevant themes in the theological works that involve the transcendence of God and his divine characters (Peterson, et. al, 2002).

References

Hick, J. (ed.), (1970). Classical and Contemporary Readings in the Philosophy of Religion. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Peterson, M., Hasker, W., Bruce, R., and Basinger, D. (2002). Reason and Religious Belief: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Religion, 3rd edition. USA: Oxford University Press.

Introduction

What is wisdom? Even humble attempts to explore the concept—for example, by asking one’s friends to define it—will reveal quite a variety of interpretations. However, all of them will revolve around understanding the way things are, knowing the way they work, making the right decisions, and advising others what the right thing to do is. Webster’s dictionary contains six definitions of the word: “accumulated philosophical or scientific learning,” “ability to discern inner qualities and relationships,” “good sense,” “generally accepted belief,” “a wise attitude, belief, or course of action,” and “the teachings of the ancient wise men” (Merriam-Webster’s, 2008, p. 1437). In different contexts, the word is connected to knowledge, insight, and judgment. Oxford dictionary (2010) offers three definitions: “the quality of having experience, knowledge, and good judgment; the quality of being wise,” “the fact of being based on sensible or wise thinking,” and “the body of knowledge and experience that develops within a specified society or period” (p. 2036). It cannot pass unnoticed that the word has strong positive connotations.

Concerning wisdom as the quality of a person, it has been regarded as a virtue by many religions. In fact, in Hinduism and Buddhism, achieving enlightenment, which can be regarded as the ultimate degree of wisdom, is the goal of all spiritual practices developed by those religions. For Christians, being wise is important, too. However, the exploration of this concept from the Christian perspective should not be limited to dictionary definitions, and analysis of Scripture is required to gain insight into what is meant by wisdom. To address the initial biblical (i.e. original Christian) understanding of wisdom, three examples from the Old Testament and three examples from the New Testament will be examined and compared.

Old Testament

Definition

The Old Testament uses different words that can be translated into English as “wisdom;” however, the one that is used the most is “chokhmah” (Shapiro, 1971). The word is strongly connected to knowledge and can be defined as proficient knowledge or being very well-learned and educated in a particular subject or in general. Until today, the word can be found in Hebrew titles for rabbis who have dedicated many years of their lives to studying Scripture and are recognized as experts in it. However, the word can refer to skillfulness, too (which is the case for its English counterpart as well). Another word in the Old Testament that can be translated as “wisdom” is “Binah”; in some contexts, however, it is translated as “understanding” to avoid confusion with “chokhmah” because they are used in the same verses. This suggests that the original text differentiates between the meanings of the two worlds, and they are not synonyms, although both can mean “wisdom” in certain contexts. One more Hebrew word for “wisdom” that can be found in the Old Testament is “sakhal;” it primarily refers to a person’s behavior that helps him or her manage practical affairs successfully and avoid trouble. Therefore, it can be referred to as wisdom, too, and possible synonyms for the word are caution, discretion, prudence, and circumspection.

Verses

To examine the specific features of the words’ meanings, it is necessary to turn to particular verses in which they are used. A verse that demonstrates one of the aspects of the word “chokhmah” is Exodus 28:3 (New International Version) that reads, “Tell all the skilled workers to whom I have given wisdom in such matters that they are to make garments for Aaron, for his consecration, so he may serve me as a priest.” Wisdom in this context refers to a certain set of knowledge and skills that allow a certain degree of proficiency in performing particular tasks.

There is also a verse that demonstrates the difference between “chokhmah” (wisdom) and “Binah” (in this context, understanding): “The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom, and knowledge of the Holy One is understanding” (Proverbs 9:10, New International Version). This verse reveals a specific difference between various aspects of wisdom in terms of the Christian understanding of God. Finally, a verse that shows an example of the use of the word “sakhal” is Joshua 1:8 (New International Version): “Keep this Book of the Law always on your lips; meditate on it day and night, so that you may be careful to do everything written in it. Then you will be prosperous and successful.” The idea of succeeding in life is closely connected in this context to discretion and prudence and conveyed by the use of the word “sakhal.”

Analysis

Although only three verses were shown above, more than three distinct visions of wisdom have been presented. In the case of “chokhmah,” wisdom can refer both to proficient knowledge and skillfulness. The former is theoretical, and the latter is practical; however, what they have in common, is that “chokhmah” is something one should learn and try to master. From this perspective, wisdom is an achievement; it requires substantial effort. If someone is granted “chokhmah,” this can rather be seen as a miraculous event because most people need to work hard to achieve it, albeit a skill or a body of knowledge. Therefore, this notion, which is the leader in the Old Testament in terms of being translated into English as “wisdom,” means knowing how to do something better than others and being capable of more meaningful judgments based on the expertise one has earned. It is noteworthy that, from this perspective, one cannot be born wise; wisdom is rather a quality on which one should work.

The second word, “Binah,” is translated as “wisdom” in some contexts, but not in the context presented above. It is a different aspect of being wise that is not equal to “chokhmah,” and the verse from the Book of Proverbs illustrates the difference. This verse shows the way of a Christian’s cognition of God. First, the fear of death and supernatural forces that humans cannot control prompts them to study the word of God—“[t]he fears of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom”—and this training further allows gaining insight into the God’s intention for creation—“knowledge of the Holy One is understanding” (Proverbs 9:10, New International Version).

In this context, wisdom is not merely knowledge and skills one acquires during his or her life but the enlightenment he or she achieves as a result of this hard learning process. Therefore, “Binah” can be regarded as the next step in developing wisdom; upon accumulating a body of knowledge, one manages to comprehend it profoundly, and this is how the wisdom of a new level is achieved. The differentiation can be confusing, but it should not be disregarded that the English language has different definitions for the word “wisdom,” too (see Introduction). To illustrate this gradation, one can refer to the idea that a smart person is one who knows a lot (or a skillful person is one who can do something better than others), while a wise person is one who understands what he or she knows (or brings meaningfulness to the skill in which he or she is proficient).

Finally, the concept of “sakhal” is beyond this gradation. It refers to wisdom as the ability to be practical and to achieve benefits. At the same time, “sakhal” does not necessarily refer to selfishness; instead, it suggests that it is the wisest strategy for a person to adopt behaviors that will ultimately prevent the person from harming himself or herself. By using the term that is associated with success, the Bible suggests that the life of a Christian is not necessarily a series of sacrifices or a period of never-ceasing suffering. On the contrary: if a person is committed to certain moral values, it will bring him or her prosperity and success, and this is why it is wise for Christians to follow the word of God because the reward will come not only after death but before it, too: living the life of a committed believer is hard in this regard but wise from the perspective of a Christian. It is prudent to live according to the way God wants humans to live—not only because going to heaven or hell will depend on the compliance with God’s commandments but also because rewards for the period of one’s earthly life exist, and the verse seems to support this idea.

New Testament

Definition

In the New Testament, the variations in meanings are somewhat less confusing for the concept of wisdom, and what is translated into English as “wisdom” is the word “Sophia” in most cases (Schroer, 2000). This word is still present in English—not only as a popular female name but also as root in such words as sophisticated or philosophy (the latter means love for wisdom). However, a closer examination reveals that there are Greek words used in different parts of the New Testament that can be associated with the notion of wisdom, too, and two prominent ones are “Epignosis” and “sunesis.” The former word’s root refers to knowledge and can be seen in such English words as “cognition” and “recognize;” however, it should be acknowledged that “gnosis” is not knowledge as such but something that can be described as primary knowledge, i.e. achieved by empirical or organoleptic methods—by trying or sensing—or revealed to someone by supreme forces.

It is not something that someone tells a person; it is something a person gets to know through experience. The prefix of the word “Epignosis” suggests that it is something above knowledge and can designate “true knowledge” (as opposed to superficial knowledge) or a higher level of knowing something, e.g. by intuition. However, the meanings may vary in different contexts. The other word—“sunesis”—can be translated as “understanding”, i.e. gaining insight into the knowledge one possesses. “Sunesis” refers to the result of reasoning and examining facts and designates the transition of mind from knowing what things are to understanding the way they work.

Verses

Many verses in the New Testament use the word “Sophia;” a major one is Mark 6:2 which reads, “What’s this wisdom that has been given him [Jesus]? What are these remarkable miracles he is performing?” (New International Version). This verse refers to Jesus Christ’s teaching in the synagogue and people’s reaction to it. It shows that wisdom (“Sophia”) is something evident in one’s words: what he or she says and perhaps how it is said. A verse that uses the word “Epignosis” is Romans 1:28, and it is translated as “knowledge” there, although it can be understood as wisdom, too; the verse reads, “Furthermore, just as they [people, who suppress the truth by their wickedness] did not think it worthwhile to retain the knowledge of God, so God gave them over to a depraved mind so that they do what ought not to be done” (New International Version). It should be noted that, according to the definition of “epignosis,” this knowledge had been granted to people but refused or neglected, and this led them to shameful deeds. Finally, the word “sunesis” is used in Luke 2:47 that reads, “Everyone who heard him [Jesus] was amazed at his understanding and his answers” (New International Version). It means that the listeners of Jesus Christ’s teachings noted not only his “Sophia” but also his insight into issues of which he spoke, and this is what “sunesis”—translated as “understanding” in this version—designates.

Analysis

An important aspect of the use of the word “Sophia” in the New Testament is that it is presented as a quality of a person that can be recognized from hearing the person speak. There is a persisting question in the analysis of the concept of wisdom: how can one who is not wise recognize wisdom? If wisdom is understood as a particularly high level of perceiving and understanding things, how can one who is not on this level make judgments as per whether certain statements are wise or not? However, the Bible shows that people called some other people wise (and they still do); does it mean that those people implied that there were wise, too (since a wise person only can tell a wise person from non-wise)? Different answers can be given, but the mechanism of recognizing someone as a wise person seems to be driven by the power of impression: when one hears a statement that makes things connect in his or her head in a meaningful way, this person feels impressed and can say that the statement is wise or that the one from whom he or she heard the statement is wise. This is what seems to have happened to the listeners of Jesus Christ’s teaching when they said “What’s this wisdom that has been given him” (Mark 6:2, New International Version). In this context, wisdom is something that causes amazement in the listeners.

Concerning the word “epignosis,” Jesus Christ uses it to designate a specific internal feeling of God and the translation of this feeling and faith into knowledge. Therefore, wisdom from this perspective can be regarded as a form of transformed knowledge: one is wise if he or she knows God and knows what God wants him or her to do, and those who lose this knowledge or suppress it engage in shameful activities. Both “Sophia” and “Epignosis” are something that develops in a person as a result of either experience or divine revelation. When it is said that “many who heard him [Jesus] were amazed” (Mark 6:2, New International Version), what is meant is that they doubted that such wisdom could have developed from experience and that it could be of divine origin. When Jesus Christ says that there are people who suppressed their “Epignosis” of God, what he means is that this knowledge had been in them already but they somehow drifted away from it. Therefore, wisdom as the knowledge of God may not necessarily be something achieved as a result of experience but something granted by God to humans as part of creating them in His image.

Finally, the meaning of the word “sunesis” is similar to that of “Sophia” but it is more specific in a way. The listeners of Jesus Christ’s teachings were amazed not at how much he knew but at his vision and interpretation of things. In this context, wisdom can be interpreted as the ability to answer questions in a way that makes sense to many people and brings them insight. It is noteworthy that Jesus Christ was just a child at the time to which Luke refers; therefore, “sunesis” cannot mean accumulated knowledge of life that is usually attributed to experienced people; instead, it is something that even a child can display in case his or her perspective and speech are appealing to the listeners and make them enlightened. When Jesus Christ’s mother tells him that she had been looking for him and was worried, he replies, “Didn’t you know I had to be in my Father’s house?” (Luke 2:49, New International Version); it can be interpreted as the recognition of the temple as exactly the place in which a person’s wisdom, whether “Sophia” or “sunesis,” is to be displayed.

Comparison

In both Testaments, the understandings of wisdom can be generally divided into two groups: wisdom that comes from experience and wisdom that does not. In the former sense, “chokhmah” and “Sophia” are something that can be achieved by a person in case he or she learns a lot or manages to make sense of his or her experiences. Unlike “Sophia,” “chokhmah” also designates skillfulness and knowing how to do something. Interestingly, the meanings of the three words chosen from the New Testament seem to overlook the concept of skillfulness; a skillful person can possess wisdom, high knowledge, and understanding, but skillfulness itself is not something that makes him or her wise. Also, the New Testament’s words do not seem to reflect the Old Testament’s concept of “sakhal,” i.e. practical wisdom and ability to achieve success.

However, both Testaments recognize the difference between knowing and understanding (Deen & Caldwell, 2003). Although “chokhmah” is the most frequently used word for wisdom in the Old Testament, it seems to refer more to knowledge than understanding, and understanding is described by the word “Binah.” Similarly, in the New Testament, “sunesis” is different from “epignosis,” but the most frequently used word for wisdom in the New Testament—”Sophia”—unlike “chokhmah,” seems to encompass both. Finally, it is noteworthy that, in both Testaments, the notion of wisdom is connected to divine revelation in some contexts, i.e. wise people may be wise not from experience but from being granted wisdom, either from birth or from revelation.

References

Deen, E., & Caldwell, E. (2003). Wisdom from women in the Bible. San Francisco, CA: Harper.

Merriam-Webster’s collegiate dictionary (11th ed.). (2008). Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster.

Oxford dictionary of English (3rd ed.). (2010). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Schroer, S. (2000). Wisdom has built her house: Studies on the figure of Sophia in the Bible. New York, NY: Liturgical Press.

Shapiro, D. S. (1971). Wisdom and knowledge of God in Biblical and Talmudic thought. Tradition: A Journal of Orthodox Jewish Thought, 12(2), 70-89.