Motivation and Performance Theories in Relation to New Zealand Post

A simple game of bingo, if analysed closely, can be shown to be a tedious task consisting of a repetitive action that occurs after being prompted by a repetitive stimulus. The skill level needed to make that action is low, and the variability in the rules of the game rarely changes. This game is not unlike many of the jobs that can be classified as having low motivational performance. So why do people not only enjoy playing games like bingo, but actually pay money to have the pleasure?

The answer directly points to the motivating factors of monetary rewards, which is the stimulus for the individual”s performance. In this essay I will discuss the theory behind “Motivation” and “Performance” in relation to New Zealand Post and the theoretical ideals that their management should adopt with employees. There are many theories regarding motivation with the most prevalent being the theories of Abraham Maslow and Frederick Herzberg. It is important to understand these theories and their implications to accurately comment on reinforcement theories of motivation.

According to Maslow”s hierarchy of needs, there are five classes:

1) physiological,

2) safety,

3) social,

4) esteem,

5) self-actualisation. (Karen. P. Harlos Lecture Notes) each lower level need must be satisfied before an individual experiences higher level needs. Also, as Hall, Batley, Elkin, Geare, Johnston, Jones, Selsky and Sibbald (1999) found that Maslow hypothesized that as physiological, safety, social, and esteem needs were satisfied, they ceased to motivate, while the self-actualisation needs actually motivate an individual more as they are satisfied (Hall et al. 999).

Herzberg used this theory as a base to build his motivation-hygiene theory, which ties Maslow”s needs to on the job achievement. The hygiene elements relate to low needs (physiological, safety, and social)(Harlos 2000). For an individual, hygiene conditions include company policy and administration, supervision, relationships with peers and supervisors, work conditions, salary, status, and security. These, according to Herzberg account for 69% of the factors that cause employee dissatisfaction or lack of motivation.

The motivation conditions, which include achievement, the job itself, recognition, responsibilities, and personal growth, accounted for 81% of the factors that contributed to job satisfaction. The hygiene conditions are extrinsic factors (behaviour that is performed for material or social rewards as defined by Harlos 2000) while the motivation conditions are intrinsic factors (behaviour that is performed for its own sake not for material or social rewards as defined by Harlos 2000), and the only way to sustain motivation toward organizational goals is through the achievement of intrinsic outcomes.

Each of these theories has proven to contain ideas consistent with human nature, but each also has its limitations within organizational settings. Because lower order needs are generally satisfied in the workplace today, managers have to deal with how to provide esteem and self-actualisation to their employees, and that can be a vague concept to a manager who demands results immediately.

Also, studies demonstrate that different workers are motivated by different factors be them intrinsic or extrinsic. In relation to New Zealand Post the above theories can be applied to achieve an excellent level of motivation within the organization, however there are potential disadvantages also, where the employees may get over-motivated or become too empowered and thus create divisions within the organization.

In terms of Maslow”s theory, the five levels of needs could be ensured by mangers of NZ Post and overall by the corporate planners of NZ Post by the following; in terms of physiological needs, money is the driving factor here as it provides the a means of achieve food, shelter, warmth and sleep, thus that management role is very limited, as it is controlled to a degree by relevant laws of the country. However those above the management who set wages must be careful not to set wages too low, otherwise workers will become grossly dissatisfied and look elsewhere to achieve their basic needs (Hall et al. 999).

At the safety level NZ Post can provide their employees with agreeable contracts and work benefits such as health care. A work environment that is considered safe as well as adequate ongoing training is another aspect, also assurances of long-term employment (Hall et al. 1999). Social level issues can be resolved by NZ Post by organising teams maybe by regions and encouraging group satisfaction, or perhaps even making sure contact is established by way of team sports days, or annual picnic”s etc, any activity that ensures worker contact (Hall et al. 999).

The next level is perhaps the most crucial in terms of how much NZ Post management is concerned, management may be able to fill esteem needs of the employee by showing recognition of a job well done, which may lead to a internal structure whereby levels of achievement are reached, and as the employee reaches these levels they may gain more responsibility within the organisation (Hall et al. 1999).

Self actualisation needs in terms of what management can do for employees to reach this stage, entirely depend on the individual, and the previous stage, as itself esteem is realised then self actualisation becomes of more importance, and so the employee is self-motivated and the role of the NZ Management is merely one of maintenance (Hall et al. 1999). The above are all very good in theory, but in practice the implications of some of these theories for an individual and for the organisation can be crucial.

NZ Post Management couldn”t be blamed if they felt the offering of money to an employee over and above what the individual needs to satisfy there needs would result in that individual working harder, however what is more likely to happen is the individual isn”t motivated anymore by that factor, and is instead motivated by esteem needs, as cited in Hall et al. 2000) “A satisfied need is not a motivator” The application of the Herzberg two-factor model is in practice much more involved that I first thought, there seems to be a large amount of criticism about Herzberg, which I will attempt to briefly outline, and thus if NZ Post was to adapt this theory it may not provide the right answer to any problems they may be facing.

Firstly there has been research done into the methodology of Herzberg’s research, it seems that by asking the questions in the way that they did it was only natural that individuals would attribute the good things about the job to themselves and the bad things to the organisation (as suggested by Vroom 1964 cited in Thomson 1989). So the good things simply became meting challenges, getting promoted and assuming responsibility, whereas bad things were in affect always the fault of the organisation.

Thus it was reasonable for individuals to attribute their lack of performance as being a result of poor organisational structure or communication, or poor wages or bad working conditions, therefore Herzberg”s findings were more a result of the way the questions were asked and not altogether an indication of what motivated individuals at work. The second criticism that arises is whether or not it is possible to clearly “distinguish between motivator and hygiene variables in the way that two factor theory does. ” (Thomson 1989 pg 164).

At times factors like the gender of the worker and the structure of the organisation tends to influence whether or not a job characteristics acts as a motivator or a hygiene, thus the distinction is not as clear cut as Herzberg”s theory would suggest. Finally the two-factor theory just doesn”t take into consideration the differences between individuals, its just known that individuals do not always react in a similar fashion, for the same work characteristics which will motivate one individual may not necessary motivate another.

I suggest for NZ Post to be able to maintain the calibre of people they strive for, and to provide tools to develop and grow, the best way to create the desired environment and create the best management would be to adopt Maslow”s theories, as it allows for more of an individual touch to individual situations. McGregor developed an additional theory on human behaviour, motivation, and especially performance in the late 1950″s. His theories X and Y and were based on assumptions made regarding the “system” and individuals.

In short, in Theory X (the most common management practice) management organizes all elements of production, motivates and controls employee behaviour to fit the needs of the organization, and without this intervention, employees would be indifferent to changing organizational needs. McGregor further assumes that managers believe that the average employee is by nature are lazy, dislike work, want security and dislike responsibility (as cited by Harlos 2000). McGregor”s alternative to Theory X was Theory Y.

This theory made the assumptions that management has the responsibility for organizing the elements of production, people are not by nature passive, but become so as a result of experiences, management should enable employees to develop their motivational characteristics, and that it is essential for management to arrange organizational conditions in a manner where employees can achieve their own goals by directing their personal effort towards organizational objectives.

The contrast between X and Y solely relates to who controls human behaviour. Theory X touts external control, and Theory Y promotes a self-fulfilling prophecy and that Theory Y management will breed Theory Y employees and vice-versa. In the application of McGregor”s theories an obvious pitfall is that obviously given the choice management will opt for Theory Y, however the application can result in a very different outcome.

Theory Y places an unrealistic amount of burden on the management, and thus they have to sometimes resort to Theory X as no matter how much nurturing or inspiration managers give to employees, there will always be some who just have no desire to work, and show little or no initiative. So NZ Post may run many seminars to attempt to increase performance, or empower those who management feel need a performance boost, yet inevitably those who have no desire to perform better will just not respond to any of these performance motivators and hence management will have to resort to Theory X management to get these employees to work as they should be.

Another problem may be with those employees who have been part of the organisation for a number of years, and a new fresh inspirational manager comes along who has been to all the courses and seminars and has used all the theories, and yet these employees are so used to old school Theory X management, they will just simply not be able to conform to this new Theory Y management style, as suggested in Hall et al. (1999)

In conclusion I have outlines both Maslow”s and Herzberg”s theories in relation to motivation and McGregor”s theories in relation to performance. I also have suggested ways in which NZ Post could apply these theories to enable them to better fulfil their corporate profile statement. I suggested that perhaps Herzberg”s theory would not be best suited to NZ Post due to the many flaws in the application of his theory and that Maslow”s theory in practice would enable a better fufilment of the corperate profile statement.

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Is it possible that management theory can ever be as precise as theories in the fields

In the world today theory has become a fundamental part of academics and is becoming increasingly apparent in studies of the formation of society. Theoretical approaches are widely accepted and in some cases depended upon by scholars in most major fields of study including, Law, Accounting, Mathematics, Management, Sociology and Experimental Psychology and more. This essay will analyse some popular management theories in order to identify the fact that management theories as a whole cannot be compared to those of another field of study due to their lack of precision and vagueness. It will provide an example of a precise theory, whilst discussing the importance of having management theory. ‘“Nothing is quite so practical as a good and original theory” in this way: good theory is practical precisely because it advances knowledge in a scientific discipline, guide research toward crucial questions, and enlightens the profession of management’ (Gioia & Corley 2011).

Prior to addressing Management theory it is perhaps helpful to explain briefly what is meant by theory. Theory is a statement of concepts and their relationships that shows how and/or why a phenomenon occurs (Gioia & Corley 2011). As a result there can be numerous theories, perspectives and concepts surrounding any one thing. It has been generally approved that management theory is a multidisciplinary area of study that expansively draws from other foundational disciplines such as Engineering, Sociology, Mathematics, Economics etc. (Oswick, Fleming & Hanlon 2011). It also borrows ideas and concepts from these other fields of study. Looking first of all at Scientific Management whose founding father (Frederick Taylor), became renowned for his strongest positive legacy. This legacy was the concept of breaking a complex task down into numbers of small subtasks and focusing on improving the performance of the subtasks. Tasks were homogenised as much as possible, workers were rewarded and punished. This approach has been recognised for its effectiveness in organisation of assembly lines and other mechanistic, routinized activities. Apart from the fact that he borrowed a large percentage of his work from the field of engineering the theory has been largely criticised, by both historical and contemporary critics, pointing out that Taylor’s theories tend to “dehumanize” the workers. Workers become bored easily when they are doing the same thing every day, in addition it leads to low employee creativity. (Mc Namara 2011).

This theory of scientific management can therefore be mentioned as one of the theories which is not precise because its original thought was taken from the school of engineering. Fred Fiedler is one of the leading specialists on the study of leadership and organizational performance consequently he had a profound impact on social organisation, and industrial psychology. In 1976 he introduced the famous contingency theory or contingency model of leadership, a concept he originally borrowed from the field of “industrial psychology and general management”, it was not his own. The Contingency Theory refers to the Manager’s response to the key identified variables in an organisation and it began with the theme of “it depends,” arguing that the solution to any one managerial problem is contingent on the factors that occur in the situation.

For example, a consultant should consider the factors before recommending the “management-by-objective” (MBO) system. This would prevent mistakes being made for example in the past the same MBO for a school system was recommended to a manufacturing firm because of its former success however what the contingency view tells us that what works in one setting might not work in another. Management’s role is therefore to search for the right contingencies that will fit or solve a particular challenge that the organisation is experiencing (Daft 2006). However due to the fact that the Contingency theory attempts to provide a perspective on organizations and management based on the integration of prior theories, it can not in its entirety be called a precise theory.

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Understanding Theories

In addition, this essay examines different stakeholder perspectives in relation to the harries and their issues, and it concluded by focusing on what type of knowledge, capability, and skills a manager requires in order to deal with these specific issues. Coca Cola was founded during the year 1887, by Doctor John Phenomenon, a pharmacist from Atlanta. John established a company which immediately began building its global network, he was known as the man who achieved a “global success through an intelligent risk”.

Over the years, the company’s success rate continuously increased, and the deep emotional bond between Coca-Cola and its consumers grew even more powerful and more global (Coca Cola, 2014). In 2014, Coca-Cola advised that the previous year $2. 8 billion in stock was purchased, however they had planned to increase that amount to between $3. 0 billion and $3. 5 billion for the full year, due to positive sales, this is a clear indication of the company’s success (Reuters, 2013).

The Coca-Cola Company, is the world’s largest beverage company, operating in more than 200 countries, across America, Europe, Eurasia, Africa and the Pacific. This multinational beverage corporation and manufacturer, retailer and marketer of non- alcoholic beverage concentrates and syrups, is headquartered in Atlanta, Georgia (Coca Cola, 2014). The secondary sector, international organization, has not been owned by a single individual in almost 100 years. It is a public company that trades its shares on the New York stock exchange – meaning it is ‘owned’ by thousands of shareholders and investors worldwide (Coca Cola, 2014).

Coca Cola is known as one of the world most successful beverage companies to date, currently operating with over 700 000 employees across the globe, including Mutter Kent; the chairman of the board and chief executive officer (Coca Cola, 2014). The agency and contingency theory are both of significance to Coca Cola. The Contingency theory is a class of behavioral theory that claims that there is no “one best way’ to lead an organization, organize a corporation or make a decision. Instead, the appropriate organizational structure depends on the contingencies facing the organization (Travis Spread, 2012).

Coca cola does not have control over the contingencies that are continuously arising within its internal and external environment; this includes political changes, such as the increased health standards for bottling. The contingency theory was chosen as it typifies that implementation of the appropriate organizational structures, depending on the contingencies the organization is facing, will result in business success. The managers at Coca Cola are aware that companies whose characteristics fit with the contingencies in the current situation will perform more effectively compared to an organization whose characteristics do not.

Hence, implementation of this theory has allowed managers to adopt certain characteristics of the organization, such as the structure, to suit contingencies within their environment. The agency theory is concerned with resolving problems that can exist in agency relationships; that is, between principals and agents of the principals (Investigated, 2013). Generally, in large companies, with managers acting on behalf of their owners, many issues will arise in relation to the principle and the agent. Managers tend to misbehave if the interests of them and the company owners diverge (Eisenhower, K.

M, 1989, page 58). The agency theory is of crucial importance to this study, as it highlights ethical and commercial issues which arise from an agent/principal relationship. As seen with Coca Cola, 2013 entailed substantial pay cuts to most top executives, due to over one fourth of the shareholders voting against them. As a result, many executives became denominated to work in favor of shareholders, who they believed were only acting in their own self-interests. In the article “Theory of the Firm: Managerial Behavior, Agency Costs and Ownership Structure” Jensen, M.

C & Neckline state that if both parties to the relationship are utility maximizes, it is almost certain that the agent will not act in the best interests of the principal Nonsense, M. C & Neckline. W. H, 1976, Page 5). The authors propose that many complications can arise as a result of a number of costs, including monitoring costs, in such a relationship. Jensen and Neckline then typify, that the principal may limit these divergences by implementing appropriate incentives for the agents and “and by incurring monitoring costs designed to limit the aberrant activities of the agent” Nonsense, M.

C & Neckline. W. H, 1976). “The Academy of Management Review’ by Kathleen M. Eisenhower, is a second study on agency theory, which states that there are two main problems that the agency heron is concerned with resolving. The first problem is the problem of risk sharing, which is the problems that arise when the principal and agent have different attitudes towards taking risk (Eisenhower, K. M, 1989, page 64). Due to different risk tolerances, the principal and agent may each be inclined to take different actions, which will result in the “agency problem”.

The second problem, known as the agency problem, is the problems which arise, when the goals of the principle and the agent are not aligned. These problems both arise as a result of ‘information asymmetry. Eisenhower highlights these problems in order to remind us that regardless of what we think, organizational life is based on individuals acting in their own self-interest (Eisenhower, K. M, 1989, page 64). Leg Donaldson, in his 2001 paper ‘The contingency theory of organizational design’, provides a comprehensive, in depth analysis of the contingency theory.

He states that a successful organization is not one that adopts the maximum level, but instead, the appropriate level of structural variables, that depend on some level of the contingency variable (Donaldson, 2001). He then proceeds with explaining that a company may only increase its performance levels by adopting strategies depending on the contingencies the organization is facing (Donaldson, 2001). Similarly, in his paper, ‘Complex Organizations: A critical essay, Charles Proper also stresses the importance of the contingency theory within organizations.

According to Proper, organizations should adopt organic structures, based on the internal and external contingencies the company is faced with (Proper, 1979). He states that business structures should be developed according to each individual organization, rather than upon some universal principles or procedures (Proper, 1979). Proper strongly believes that complying with the contingency theory will result in the business achieving utmost success. A number of issues in relation to management and the organization have been raised, as a result of the agency and contingency theories.

The agency theory was initially designed in order to assist in the understanding of the agent/principle relationship. Williamson (1985) identified opportunistic behavior as a norm within organizations, stating that agency problems are more than likely to occur. He specified that managers often act opportunistically, and that trustworthiness is no longer common. Jensen and Neckline (1976), supported Williamson claim, they believe it is generally impossible that management will act in favor of the principle, as their main focus is to maximize their own wealth.

Coca Cola proved this to be true in 2013, when Californian managers were sued for underpaying their employees in order to reduce expenses (D. Blackburn. 2013). Jensen and Neckline (1976) also believe that the agency theory may also initiate moral issues between the agent and other takeovers, such as the public. As seen with Coca Cola, India, 2002 entailed an agency issue between management and the public. Communities across India living around Coca-Cola’s bottling plants experienced severe water shortages, as a result of Coca-Cola’s massive extraction of water from the common groundwater resource.

The public criticized the company, stating that Coca Cola is willing to damage the nation, for their own “self-interest” of cost cutting. The company refused to amend their procedures until they were forced to by government. (Blackburn, 2013 ) Drain and Van De Even (1985) believe that environmental uncertainty can occur as a result of the contingency theory. They believe that an issue with the theory is that there are no pre-developed structures that an organization can adopt if internal and external contingencies, unexpectedly occur.

In order to avoid these issues, Drain and Van De Even (1985) state that an organization must develop structures that it can quickly implement if internal and external contingencies, unexpectedly occur. In 1981, Coca cola began to lose market share to Pepsi, as the company had developed a new racketing procedure, which did not appeal to the public. Coca Cola failed to develop alternate plans if contingencies within the external market, such as increased competition occur. As a result, by 1983, Coca Cola’s market shared, decreased to an all-time low of Just below 24%.

Due to this disastrous situation, Roberto Goutiest, Coca Cola’s chairman at the time, decided that in the future, the company will rule out all contingencies and possibilities, and have further plans, if their current procedures fail. In his article “Contingency theory: Science or Technology’ Stephen C. Beets insinuates that over the years, many criticisms/limitations of the contingency theory have developed. He states that one criticism of the contingency theory is that “the causation of certain contingencies are assumed, but not explained” (Beets, 2011).

The assumption is that because a set of environmental conditions and organizational design characteristics were found to be correlated that this is the best fit (Beets, 2011). Stephen (2011) then continues to explain that decisions should not be made based on this assumption, instead informed decisions must be made, based on glacial reasoning of each unique situation. Morehouse (2007), believes that the theory fails to explain why some people are more effective leaders in some situations than others.

Shah (1979) adds on to Northerners claim, he states that the theory has not identified what an organization should do, when there is a mismatch between the managers and the current situation within the workplace. Similarly, in his text ‘Management and organizational theory, Jeffery A. Miles makes aware many limitations of the agency theory. Miles suggests that empirical research as failed to support basic tenets of the theory, including ways to mitigate the agency problem (Miles, 2012). Hence, researchers are now asking for re-examination of the theory so that research can move into new and different directions.

Miles (2012), made reference to Proper (1986) who claimed that the agency theory does not clearly address any organizational problems, as well as Hirsch and Friedman (1986) who invited agency theory as excessively narrow, focusing primarily on organizational stock price. Different stakeholders have different views regarding the contingency ND agency theories. Assassinates (1989), highlights that perspectives will differ amongst all stakeholders, regarding risk sharing, which is one of the main problems within the agency theory.

Assassinates (1989) stated that managers tend to avoid taking risks, as they fear the possibility of failure, which may result in damaging the organization. On the other hand, other stakeholders, such as shareholders of the company, may support the idea of ‘risk sharing, as certain risks may result in increased profits for the company, hence, maximizing their shares. As stated prior, Jensen, M. C and Neckline (1976) believe that managers (agent) tend to make decisions that will result in maximizing their own utility. In doing this, agents will significantly benefit, as their own wealth may substantially increase.

On the other hand, shareholders of the company (principles) will generally oppose these decisions, as they fear that they aren’t receiving a fair share and getting the best possible investment from the company. Similarly, Woolworth, being the agent of Coca Cola, attempted to boost its own profit margin, by decreasing Coca Cola’s prices, before lacing them on the shelves. Woolworth attempted to maximize their own utility, by decreasing costs of Coca Cola, with the intention of gaining more customers, hence improving their market share.

Coca Cola felt as though Woolworth breached their contract terms, as they were gaining an unfair leverage http://www. Afar. Com/p/ business/companies/clash_of_the_titans_woolies_coke_KJLlpFFlJfabEGgdeAnswO . Similarly to the agency theory, stakeholders also have opposing views in relation to the contingency theory and its issue of ‘environmental uncertainty. Managers may appreciate the idea of environmental uncertainty, as it creates a spontaneous environment, which may work in their favor. Managers are able to adopt the business strategies that they know will be effective, due to past experiences.

On the other hand, other stakeholders, such as employees may not appreciate environmental uncertainty, as continuously changing management structures, may require employees to attain new skills. Hence, employees will be required to spend more time in the training and development process, thus, resulting in increased costs for the business, meaning less pay and/ or benefits for employees. In earlier years, Coca Cola in India saw that environmental contingencies, such as economic decline, were forcing other Indian companies to change their employee pay rates.

As a result, Coca Cola changed their employee pay rates, in line with the other Indian companies. The Indian companies’ success rates began to increase due to cost cutting, however Coca cola experienced a significant level of employee’s voluntarily leaving the company, as they became denominated and felt mistreated (Coca Cola, 2012). Managers/leaders must ensure that prior to managing an organization; they have an understating that perspectives will differ, amongst all stakeholders within the company.

Managers must ensure that they reason logically and fairly rather than emotionally, this will guarantee that they do not act in their own “self-interest’. Therefore, they must pay attention to his/her personal as well as other people’s assumptions, perspectives, and biases. This process should be approached with integrity, open-mindedness, honesty, and accuracy. It is also important for a leader/ manager to uphold ethical and moral standards, in doing so employees with feel as Hough they are being treated Justly.

As a result, managers are not only increasing efficiency, but also nurturing skills, developing talent, inspiring results, and erasing all employee concerns regarding any issues of mistreatment, such as underpay. Further to this, managers must not only treat employees fairly, but also, all other stakeholders within their company, such as shareholders, customers, suppliers, and so on. In doing so, leaders will ensure that they gain positive relationships, which will result in improving the market share of the company, hence, gaining a significant nominative advantage.

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Theories of Secession

Liberalism predominantly will dominate the Theories of secession an emphasis on individual rights and nationalism. They are concerned with the challenges of secession and deal with cases of complete secession of specific nationalist regions from a nation-state. Buchanan (1998) identified two types of secession theories;

Remedial right only theories which claim that the people have the right to overthrow the government if their fundamental rights will violate and other peaceful alternatives have failed. Another type is the theory of primary right which claims that groups with non-political characteristics have the right to secede; and that no inscriptive features are necessary for the right to secede, it’s a voluntary political choice. Therefore, political legitimacy rests on the people’s consent.

Regulation TheoryThis theory claims that under the modern conditions of globalised urbanization, states are being restructured to meet the needs of reregulation and rescaling of governance. According to Brenner (1999), globalization has viewed as reterritorialization. Rescaling of urbanization leads to the rescaling of the state which consequently leads to a regional organization as a productive force and social relations will concentrated within geographical boundaries.

Boudreau and Keil, “Secession of a political Right,” 1710.Theories of State RescalingThe issue of rescaling, reregulation, and reterritorialization has been viewed from a structuralist perspective. Structural change has been the primary focus here. The recent debate on rescaling and governance has concentrated on state-regional and state-local relationships.

The focus of these two links has been economic development policies. The part that has not been focused on is the emergence of a new sub-local scale of government as part of the regional state of large urban centers. Secession can be viewed a result of such sub-local institutionalization of rescaled governance. Boudreau and Keil, “Rescaling urban governance,” 1712.

Theories of Social MovementsAlways broken down into two; resource mobilization (RMT) and new social movements (NSM). Social Movement theories claim that collective action and social movements are usually related to resource mobilization (Eisinger 1973). That political opportunities and structures develop from existing political movements or camps and structural conditions.

They focus on the ability of political actors to reshape systems because of their internal solidarity/strength and outer profile to facilitate secession. Boudreau and Keil, “Social movements,” 1713.

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Niels Bohrs Theory Work Environmental Sciences Essay

Table of contents

Niels Henrik David Bohr was born on the 7th of October 1885 in Copenhagen and was boy of the Professor of physiology at the Copenhagen University Christian Bohr and married woman Ellen. Neil along with his small brother Harald who would in the hereafter go a Professor in Mathematics, grew up in an environment favourable to the development to his mastermind as his male parent was an high physiologist and so was chiefly responsible for Niels involvement in natural philosophies rousing while he was still at school every bit good his female parent came from a household that was distinguished in the work of instruction.

After inscribing at Gammelholm Grammar School during 1903, Niels entered The Copenhagen University where he was under the instruction of Professor C. Christiansen who was a profound original and extremely talented physicist. Niels took a Masterss degree in Physicss in 1909 and a Doctor ‘s grade in 1911.

While Niels was still a pupil an proclamation from the Academy of Sciences in Copenhagen of an award that would be given for the solution to a specific scientific job caused Niels to transport out a theoretical and experimental probe on the surface tenseness by manner of hovering unstable jets. His work that he carried out in his male parent ‘s research lab for which he was awarded a award of a gold decoration was released in the Transactions of the Royal Society during 1908.

However Bohr ‘s continual surveies became progressively more theoretical with his physician ‘s debate being a complete theoretical work of the history of the belongingss of the metals with the support of the negatron which to this twenty-four hours is still a authoritative subject. It was in this that Niels was first to be confronted together with the effects from Planck ‘s quantum theory of radiation.

During the fall of 1911 Niels Bohr made a stay at Cambridge, where he gained by following the practical work go oning in the Cavendish Laboratory under the counsel of Sir JJ. Thomson every bit good as this he pursued his ain theoretical surveies. During the spring of 1912 Niels worked at the research lab of Professor Rutherford in Manchester, where merely in these old ages such thorough scientific life and activity prevailed as a consequence of that research worker ‘s of import enquiries into the radioactive phenomena. Having carried out a theoretical work on the incorporation of alpha beams which was released in the Philosophical Magazine in 1913, Niels moved on to the construction of atoms on the foundation of happening the atomic karyon by Rutherford. By borrowing constructs from the Quantum Theory which was established by Planck, which increasingly came to busy an of import topographic point in scientific discipline of theoretical natural philosophies, Niels achieved in working out and so eventually showing a diagram of atomic construction that, with future accommodations ( chiefly from the consequence of Heisenberg ‘s thoughts in 1925 ) , and still serves as a light of the physical and chemical belongingss of all elements.

During the twelvemonth of 1913 into 1914 Bohr did talks on natural philosophies at Copenhagen University. During 1914-1916 he did the same at the Victoria University in Manchester. During the twelvemonth of 1916 he was made Professor of Theoretical Physics at the Copenhagen University and stayed therefore since 1920 Niels was the caput of this institute of Theoretical Physics that was established at the university for Bohr, ( until his decease during 1962 ) . Niels received acknowledgment for his work on the construction of atoms when he was awarded with the Baronial Prize in 1922.

Niels Bohr ‘s probes in his Institute from 1930 became progressively directed at the assemblage of information on the construction of atomic karyon, and of their transitions and atomizations. During 1936 Niels highlighted that in the atomic procedures, the smallness of the countries where interactions take topographic point warrant the passage processes in the instance of atoms to be talked about in a more classical manner.

Harmonizing to this position a really good image of a karyon would be a liquid bead. The comprehension of the method of atomic fission was permitted by the alleged liquid bead theory when the splitting of U was discovered subsequently by Hahn and Strassmann during 1939, and formed the base of valuable theoretical work in this subject among others by Frisch and Meitner.

Niels Bohr besides helped with the account of the troubles found in quantum natural philosophies in peculiarly when he developed the construct of complementarity. By this Bohr could demo how deeply the cardinal characteristics of scientific mentality was affected by the alterations in natural philosophies and as a effects of this alteration of attitude range much further past the range of atomic natural philosophies and touch on all the spheres of human cognition. In a figure of essays were written during 1933- 1962 discoursing these positions. These essays are available in the English linguistic communication and are collected in two volumes each with the rubric: “ Atomic Physics and Human Knowledge and Essays 1958- 1962 on Atomic Physics and Human Knowledge, edited by John Wiley and Sons, New York and London in 1958 and 1963 ” , severally.

While Nazi Germany held business of Denmark during the clip of the Second World War, Niels fled to Sweden where he so spent the last twosome of old ages of the war life in England and besides in America, this was where Bohr came a portion of the Atomic Energy Project. Niels committed his work to in his ulterior old ages to the usage of atomic natural philosophies for peaceable agencies and besides to political jobs that were emerging after the devising of atomic arms. Bohr offered the recommendation in peculiar of developing towards the complete openness between states. Niels sentiments were particularly laid frontward in an Open Letter to the United Nations he sent during June in 1950.

Bohr ‘s other accomplishments include being the President of the Royal Academy of Sciences of the Danish Cancer Committee, and the president of the Danish Atomic Energy Commission, he was besides a Foreign Member of the Royal Society in London. Niels was besides portion of the Royal Institution and Academies in the undermentioned Countries and States and Cities: Amsterdam, Berlin, Bologna, Boston, Budapest, Cracow, Dublin, Gottingen, Halle, Harlem, Helsingfors, Liege, Moscow, Munchen, Oslo, Paris, Rome, Stockholm, Trondhjem, Uppsala, Vienna, and Washington. Bohr was besides a Doctor, honoris lawsuit which means honour doctor’s degree at universities, colleges and establishments from 1923 to 1939 ; these were located in Cambridge, Liverpool, Manchester, Oxford, Copenhagen, Edinburgh, Kiel, Providence, California, Oslo, Birmingham and London. From 1945 to 1962 ; Paris, Montreal, Glasgow, Aberdeen, Athens, Lund, New York, Basel, Aarhus, Macalester, Minnesota, Chicago, Zagreb, Haifa, Bombay, Calcutta, Warsaw, Brussels, Harvard, Cambridge and ( New York ) .

Niels Bohr married during 1912 to Margrethe Norlund who was a perfect spouse for him. They had six boies but two died. The staying male childs made themselves celebrated businesss in assorted lines of work with Hans Henrik accomplishing a grade in medical specialty, Erik became a chemical applied scientist, Aage having a Ph.D. in theoretical physicist and so following in his male parent ‘s footfalls became the Director of the Institute for Theoretical Physics and Ernest became a attorney.

Niels ‘ encephalon stayed qui vive as of all time till his decease ( in November 1962 aged 77 old ages of age ) ; during his last few old ages of Bohr ‘s life he showed a big involvement in the new promotions of molecular biological science. The newest of Bohr ideas on the job of Life came into position in his last and incomplete work was released after he died was called: “ Light and Life revisited ” .

Atomic theory Bohr’s Contribution

The Atomic Theory is a theorem on the nature of affair it states that affair is made up of distinct units called atoms and that in the universe could be broken down to highly little atoms. The word “ atom ” comes from the Greek adjectival “ atomos ” intending ‘undivisible ‘ was used to the basic atom that made up a chemical component because the chemists at that clip believed that these were the basic pieces of affair.

The greatest valuable belongingss of atomic and molecular do up may be functioning as an illustration utilizing an easier made image of an atom that is referred to as the Bohr Model. This theoretical account was suggested by Bohr during the twelvemonth 1915 nevertheless it is non wholly right due to neutrons non being discovered yet but it has many features that are approximately right and it is equal plenty for much treatment. The right theorem of an atom is called quantum mechanics ; Niels Bohr ‘s theoretical account is unsmooth conjecture to quantum mechanics that has the unity of being much easier.

A Planetary Model of the Atom

Niels Bohr ‘s theoretical account is every bit good known as the “ planetal theoretical account ” of the atom as an illustration it is used as a symbol for atomic energy. In the Bohr Model the protons are in the Centre of an atom this is called the karyon and the negatrons orbit the nucleus rather likewise like the planets in our solar system orbit the Sun nevertheless the orbits are non contained to a plane as is comparatively right in our solar system.

This similitude between the planetal theoretical account and the theoretical account that Niels came up with of the atom in the terminal proceeded because the attractive gravitative force that is in a solar system and the attractive electrical force between the protons and negatrons in any atom are mathematically of the same. However even though the signifier is the same the strength of electrical interplay is much greater than the gravitative interaction in a solar system. In add-on to this there is ever a positive and negative electrical charge that causes the interactions to be drawing towards or forcing off nevertheless with gravitation it ever has an attractive force in our current existence.

Niels Bohr contribution to quantum mechanics

The basal characteristic of quantum mechanics that is used in the theoretical account that Bohr came up with was wholly distinguishable from the correspondent planetal theoretical account where the generated power of the atoms in Niels atom is confined to peculiar distinct values. One says that the generated power is quantized significance that merely peculiar orbits with peculiar radii are allowed and so orbits in between merely do n’t be.

These degrees are marked by an whole number ‘n ‘ which is called a quantum figure. The lowest generated power province is usually called the land province. The provinces with repeatedly increased generated power than the land province are called: ‘first excited province ‘ , ‘second excited province ‘ and continues on a similar. Past generated power is named the ‘ionization potency ‘ with the individual negatron of Hydrogen is no longer attached to the atom. The generated power degrees so organize a patterned advance. In the circumstance of Hydrogen the patterned advance starts at 13.6 electron volts above the land province ( “electron volt ” is short for “electron-Volt ” , a by and large know unit of generated power in atomic natural philosophies ) .

While this mode may look Wyrd to us that are educated from birth by watching phenomena in the macroscopic universe, it is the manner things act in the different universe of the quantum that grasps influence at the atomic degree.

Bohr’s engagement with the Atomic Bomb

Bohr ‘s cognition and ideas of fission were put to utilize in the creative activity of a concatenation reaction procedure that led to the development of the atomic bomb. Bohr used his “ Liquid Drop ” theoretical account to assist grok the fission procedure. During the Second World War, Niels and his household left Denmark in order to get away the menace against the Judaic people. Because Bohr himself was half Judaic ; his household and him escaped by taking a fishing boat to Sweden. After this Niels Bohr traveled to England where he was portion of treatments sing the atomic bomb undertaking. Bohr once more traveled during 1943, to Los Alamos, New Mexico to work with other Danish workers and other scientists on the Manhattan Project. It is to an extent cryptic with the sum of aid by Bohr, but it is known that he was a portion of many treatments about the right usage and bid of the atomic bomb or with any other signifier of this freshly discovered energy beginning. Bohr was really disquieted with the atomic bomb and seemed to see it as something that could unite states, because it had the possible to do awful harm. As portion of Bohr ‘s work to advance the proper usage of the new atomic bomb Niels sent a missive during the twelvemonth 1950 to the United Nations to discourse peaceable policies with atomic arms. Bohr besides conversed with Roosevelt and Churchill about his sentiments about the topic of atomic energy.

Other achievements by Bohr

  • 1920-Bohr made descriptions of the periodic tabular array.
  • 1936-Bohr described the karyon as a compound construction.
  • 1939-Uranium isotope fission.

This theory was proposed based on experiments to acknowledge the fission mechanism, by his co-worker O.R. Frisch in Bohr ‘s lab. The base thought for Frisch ‘s experiment came from the determination of decay merchandises by Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassman. Bohr was on his manner over to the United States when Frisch was undergoing his experiment nevertheless Bohr found out the consequences while on his manner and straight off came up with a theory. Bohr ‘s ideas deduced that the uncommon U isotope 235 was fissile by slow neutrons while the common isotope 238 was n’t. This comprehension of unstable fission fragments straight off triggered the idea of using a concatenation reaction to make big sums of generated power. This was to be important to the devising of the atomic bomb in the old ages that followed. “ Correspondence Principle ” -Bohr stated that anticipations in quantum mechanics and classical mechanics should fit for the most energetic instances. Two theories were offered by Bohr and his fellow workers at the Niels Bohr Institute in Copenhagen. Copenhagen reading of quantum mechanics.

Complementary Bohr described as how two things can be as two distinguishable phenomena, each every bit of import and each defined under different fortunes. An illustration would be how an negatron can act like a atom and a moving ridge. Both are every bit of import.

Awards and positions

  • 1916-Bohr returned to the University of Copenhagen to learn Physicss
  • 1916-He was appointed Chair of Theoretical Physics at U. or Copenhagen
  • Appointed Director of the Niels Bohr Institute
  • 1922-Won the Nobel Prize in Physics for his atomic construction
  • 1957-Received the first U.S. Atoms for Peace Award

 

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Critical theory of hegemony

“A critical theory of hegemony directs attention to questioning the prevailing order of the world. ”(Bieler, Morton, pg 82) One of the most famous theorists of Neo Gramscanism is Robert Fox. His contribution towards the formation of conceptual frame work is immense. According to his ideological frame work “Hegemony a form of dominance but it refers more to a consensual order. ”(Bieler, Morton, pg 82)According to him society, economy, physical environment, cultural background ideological frame work develops the thoughts and actions and their dominance.

Hegemony is the concept developed by Gramsci and followed by many like Cox.

INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY AND SECURITY: The domain of International relations that is best defined by the concept of critical theory is security. According to Hoffman “Critical Theory provides the next step for development of International relations theory. ”(Hoffman, 244)The major focus of critical theorist is military in terms of security but it is comprehensive.

The three main areas of concern in critical theory for security studies are security, strategy and practice. The focus on security in critical thinking is an attempt towards counter hegemony measures and contribution toward emancipative movements. EMANCIPATION: The concept of emancipation is the prime focus of critical thinking. ” Emancipation is arguably the one common concern of all critical theorists. It is the sine qua non of their thought.

”(Jones, pg 56) Despite the fact of various differences in critical theorist, it is fact that emancipation and release from social, political, cultural boundaries have general consensus. According to Brooner, “Critical Theory is cluster of themes inspired by emancipation. ” It gives coherence and purpose to the theme of critical theory. It is also mention worthy that emancipation is the process of lessening the restrictions those we imposed on ourselves and sometimes these restrictions are imposed by society, culture and society.

RADICAL DEMOCRACY: Radical democracy and democratic constitutional achievement is no the mean of social transformation. According toHabermass define democracy as the unfinished project of modernity. Role of democracy in relation with public delibralization is among important concerns of critical inquiry. Critical theory and globalization are the concern of modern researchers. The concept of different theorist related to democracy and globalization varies like Cox “emphasizes the paucity and fragility of a globalize liberal democracy.

David Held’s concern is with its territorial and national form which other aspects of globalization may be rendering anachronistic. ” (Eschle, 2000).

FEMINISM: Feminism believes in the fact that women see the realities, miseries, facts and social actors differently in a unique social context than men and therefore have a different vision and their definition of reality is far different than men’s definition of reality and consequences and forces that shape those realities. Feminism desires to create a better world for females and for men too.

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Research on Behaviorist versus Cognitive Theories of Learning

Table of contents

What is larning? Are at that place different types of larning? What affects a pupils larning? Why do some learn otherwise than others? These are merely a few of the inquiries that pedagogues, parents, and pupils themselves have posed for centuries. It is without a uncertainty a really complicated subject. The writer of this paper attempts to relieve some of these inquiries by turn toing the differences between behavioural and societal acquisition theory along with the necessity of utilizing cognitive schemes to help in the acquisition procedure.

Name of Theorist

Name of Theory

Main Concepts

Research Conducted

Ivan Pavlov

Authoritative conditioning

Impersonal stimulations + innate stimulations = a erudite conditioned response ( Slavin, 2009 )

How it may look in a schoolroom: pupils should be given many chances to get the hang a undertaking before traveling on to another undertaking. For illustration, if they are larning to multiply individual digit math jobs, a pupil must get the hang this before traveling on to generation of two-digit jobs.

Research was conducted in 3 phases

Phase one: An innate stimulation ( US ) ( nutrient ) solicited an innate response ( UR ) from the Canis familiaris ( salivation ) ( Slavin, 2009 ) .

This phase farther showed that a impersonal stimulation ( NS ) ( bell ) would arouse no response from the Canis familiaris. ( Slavin, 2009 )

Phase 2: A learned stimulation ( CS ) ( bell ) was paired with the Canis familiaris nutrient ( US ) which caused the Canis familiariss to salivate ( UR ) ( Slavin, 2009 ) .

Phase 3: The Canis familiaris was trained to salivate ( CR, conditioned response ) at the sound of a bell tintinnabulation ( CS ) ( Slavin, 2009 ) .

E. L. Thorndike

Law of Effectss

Favorable effects to behavior elicit request of this behaviour ( Slavin, 2005 )

Unfavorable effects similarly will ensue in the behaviour less likely being repeated ( Slavin, 2005 )

How it may look in a schoolroom: instructors should utilize real-life experiences to learn and link constructs for pupils. For illustration, life accomplishments pupils will larn buy really take parting in buying things from peddling machines and shops.

This can besides use to science constructs. Students can break connect with it through experiential activities ( Slavin, 2005 ) .

Cats were placed in mystifier boxes ; on accident the cats learned how to get away ( Slavin, 2005 ) .

After repeatedly acquiring out they learned that if they went through the mystifier boxes, they gained freedom ( Slavin, 2005 ) .

B. F. Skinner

Operant Conditioning

Support of behavior = frequent repeat of this behaviour ( Slavin, 2009 )

Unrewarded ( punished ) behaviour = lessening in repeat of the behaviour ( Slavin, 2009 ) .

How it may look in a schoolroom: pupils that are on clip to category receive category vaulting horses ; belated pupils do non. I have found that those pupils that receive the category bucks that they can pass on things like free clip, prep buyouts, and public toilet base on ballss, strive to gain more vaulting horses.

Skinner boxes used to develop animate beings. The boxes consisted of a saloon that the animate beings had to press to distribute nutrient ( Slavin, 2009 ) .

What are the differences between the behavioural acquisition theory and that of the societal acquisition theory? Which theory offers the best penetration into how underdeveloped kids larn? To find replies to these inquiries, the factors of behavioural larning theories must be weighed against those of societal larning theories.

Behavior acquisition theories are centered on the thought that larning takes topographic point because of legion chances to see a peculiar event. This event is believed to for good alter the said behaviour. Behavioral theories fall under one of two classs: classical or answering conditioning and operant conditioning.

The classical/respondent conditioning theory, as demonstrated and made celebrated by Pavlov ‘s experiment, believes the behaviours that we exhibit are one ‘s that are learned by tie ining one thing to another ( Cherry, 2005b ) . This thought of automatic conditioning was happened upon by Pavlov as he studied Canis familiaris ‘s digestion ( Cherry, 2005b ) . . Within his survey of how much a Canis familiaris salivated at the sight of assorted things, nutrient and non-food points, Pavlov and his helper noted the sum of spit that was produced ( Cherry, 2005b ) . . In making so they found that Canis familiariss automatically or reflexively responded to the point placed in forepart of them, nutrient or non-food, after being presented with them intermediately for some clip ( Cherry, 2005b ) . This response he believed was based on conditioning or automaticity, which made it strictly physiological ( Cherry, 2005b ) . . His thought of conditioning was extended to human conditioning by James B. Watson ( Cherry, 2005b ) . .

Watson and his associate Rosalie Rayner wanted to prove the theory of classical conditioning on worlds in respects to phobias, to see if they would arouse similar consequences. Watson ‘s experiment was based on a small male child name Albert ( Beck, 2001 ) . When Watson and Rayner, foremost met Albert he was non afraid of a white rat, after a short clip with them he was afraid of mice and other furred points ( Beck, 2001 ) . The experiment introduced a loud noise that startled the immature male child as he played with the rat. This sound scared the immature male child so much that he started to shout and later exhibit fright when he saw a rat or anything furred. This proved for them that Pavlov ‘s thought that an innate stimulation would do an innate response and eventually that this innate response paired with a learned stimulation would arouse a learned response, or a automatic action ( Beck, 2001 ) . They believed this made the Pavlovian theory of conditioning plausible and accurate for worlds every bit good.

The operant conditioning theory of B.F. Skinner focuses on larning based on the behaviour and the effects of the behaviour. Skinner ‘s beliefs were greatly influenced by E. L. Thorndike ‘s thought of Law of Effect. The Law of Effect, besides a conditioning theory, was based on the premiss that if an innate stimulation ‘s response is paired with a pleasant event than the response is stronger and more likely to be repeated. Likewise if the stimulation consequence is paired with a negative event, so the event is weaker and less likely to be repeated. Skinner found this a utile tool in understanding automatic behaviours that occurred and further strengthened his thought that behaviour was strengthened by a reinforcing stimulus or weakened by a punisher ( Cherry, 2005a ) .

Reinforcing stimuluss are either positive or negative. Positive reinforcing stimuluss occur after said behaviour and are positive results for the behaviour ; whereas negative reinforcing stimuluss are negative results as the consequence of a behaviour ( Cherry, 2005a ) . Whether negative or positive the behaviour will increase. Punishers whether negative or positive will diminish a behaviour ( Cherry, 2005a ) . Positive punishers employ utilizing an unfavourable event to diminish behaviour ; negative punishers happens when the event is taken off in order to weaken the behaviour that has occurred ( Cherry, 2005a ) .

Social larning theories contrary to behavioural theories focuses on larning that takes topographic point due to the observation and mold of behaviours, attitudes, and emotions exhibit by others around them. Albert Bandura, considered one of the governments within this theory, believed that behavioural acquisition could non explicate all the types of acquisition ( Cherry, 2005c ) .He said, “ Learning would be extremely arduous, non to advert risky, if people had to trust entirely on the effects of their ain actions to inform them what to make ( Cherry, 2005c ) . ” . He farther argued that larning had to hold some societal component to it to be successful. He stated that, “ Fortunately, most human behaviour is learned observationally through mold: from detecting others one forms an thought of how new behaviours are performed, and subsequently occasions this coded information serves as a usher for action ( Cherry, 2005c ) . ” The ideals of Bandura and other societal theoreticians are broken down into three basic constructs that explain the assorted types of behaviour: experimental acquisition, patterning procedure, and intrinsic support ( Cherry, 2005c ) .

Observational acquisition provinces that larning takes topographic point through observation ( Cherry, 2005c ) .The writer ‘s three-year-old nephew learns much of his idiosyncrasy and behaviours by watching his household around the house and others at church. He has learned to work on a computing machine by watching her bash her work hebdomadally, to the point of copying precisely how she holds her custodies when typing and the tapping of her fingers at her desk when she is in deep concentration. This thought of experimental acquisition is so strong harmonizing to theoreticians that it can be achieved through unrecorded observation, verbally through direction, or symbolic ( displayed through another media ) means.

Intrinsic Reinforcement goes against the ideal that behaviour is reinforced by extrinsic support merely ( Cherry, 2005c ) .Social theoreticians believed that a great trade of behaviour and acquisition will be based on intrinsic factors, which give the scholar a sense of pride and achievement. Bandura believes this is one of the most of import factors that separates the societal acquisition theory from behavioural theories and makes it more of a cognitive societal attack ( Cherry, 2005c ) .

The Modeling Process hinges on the individual that is making the mold of a said behaviour and the perceiver and must follow certain stairss. First, in order for a individual to larn they must pay attending to the theoretical account otherwise there will be negative branchings. Therefore the mold must be memorable and keep the attending of the perceiver. Following, the perceiver must hold the ability to retain the information that is observed. Third, one must be able to draw the information from their memory in order to pattern the accomplishment further. Last, the scholar must be motivated plenty to utilize the behaviour they saw modeled ( Cherry, 2005c ) .This measure theoretical accounts show some similarities to behavior thoeries in that the usage of reinforcing stimuluss and punishers are cruicial to actuating the scholar. For illustration, if a pupils observes another pupil having category vaulting horses for engagement they are more likely to take part every bit good ( Cherry, 2005c ) .

Social theories and behavioural theories are similar yet different. Both of the theories believe that larning and behaviour are connected yet each feel otherwise about whether the acquisition that each elicit is lasting. Social theories disagree that all larning leads to a alteration in behaviour, in fact they believe that new things can be learned without organizing new behaviours ( Cherry, 2005c ) .

Before

During

After

Picture walks –

Students are guided by their instructors through a digest of images that illustrate the narrative line. This allows them to link to the text as they read.

Predicting

Students predict what they believe will go on in the narrative and read to prove the factuality of the anticipation ( Harvey & A ; Goudvis, 2000 ) .

Synthesize

Students take the new information that they have learned and unite it with their anterior cognition to come up with a new thought or new believing about the topic ( Harvey & A ; Goudvis, 2000 ) .

KWL charts

It allows they information to be organized earlier, during, and after reading

Making Inferences

Students are able to utilize their anterior cognition to believe outside the box and draw decisions about the text for deeper significance ( Harvey & A ; Goudvis, 2000 ) .

Making Connections

Students draw upon their ain scheme to understand the text they are reading ( Harvey & A ; Goudvis, 2000 ) .

Text-to-self allows the reader to link to their ain lives and experiences to pull significance

Text-to-text allows the reader to name upon their cognition from other text to demo apprehension of content

Text-to-world allows the reader to do a connexion with more planetary and bigger issues within the text and the existent universe

Overviewing

This scheme allows pupils to plane or scan the text when they are looking for specific information and are unsure if the text contains it ( Harvey, 1998 ) .

Imaging

Allows pupils to better understand the text or job solve by organizing a image in their heads.

Students are able to understand more of the text as they go along with the support of their instructor ( Chamot & A ; O’Malley, 1994 ) .

Alternate stoping

Students prove that they have comprehended the assorted parts of the narrative by composing an surrogate stoping which fits in with the remainder of the narrative nicely ( Harvey & A ; Goudvis, 2000 ) .

Brainstorming

This scheme is a relevantly merely one in that it allows pupils to compose down, name out or categorise the things that they know about a peculiar construct or thought.

The procedure allows all pupils of all degrees procedure clip to develop these thoughts.

Questioning

Readers are able to travel through the text and interact with it more as they search for replies to their inquiries ( Harvey & A ; Goudvis, 2000 ) .

Allows pupils to supervise their comprehension and concept significance ( Harvey & A ; Goudvis, 2000 ) .

Sum uping

Learning is a complex procedure by that requires much of the scholar. All of the scholars ‘ behaviours, attitudes, cognition and gained information factor into whether true acquisition has taken topographic point. The survey of knowledge purposes to assist us understand how learning takes topographic point and the assorted procedures that we go through to accomplish it. Students may non understand the how and why of knowledge, so it is the instructor ‘s occupation to learn them schemes to do certain that they have good cognitive accomplishments or accomplishments for believing about larning. The chart above has outlined the assorted schemes that pupils can utilize before, during, and after reading to beef up comprehension, but how does this cognitive schemes in general aid pupils larn?

In order for schemes to work for pupils they must be cognizant of why they need to believe about the thought that takes topographic point as they learn ( as cited in Purdue, n.d. , ch.7 ) . Simply put, it is the manner that they can take ownership of their ain acquisition and it is what makes them good and great scholars. Garner farther establishes that puting intents for acquisition, work outing jobs, self-acting, monitoring, and self-assessment of their acquisition are all ways in which pupils can demo that they have good cognitive accomplishments ( as cited in Purdue, n.d. , ch.7 ) .. The above schemes are merely some of the ways that Garner says that pupils are able to form, survey, reappraisal, pattern, and eventually master assorted accomplishments ( as cited in Purdue, n.d. , ch.7 ) . Teachers must demo them how to utilize these schemes to their advantage to larn. There are some things that pedagogues can make to assist them pupils develop these cognitive accomplishments, therefore assisting them go independent minds and scholars.

Garner believes that the first thing that they can make is to learn pupils to supervise their thought efficaciously ( as cited in Purdue, n.d. , ch.7 ) . This can be done through demoing them how to analyse the procedure of believing as they work. They teach them to inquiries themselves on ways that they can better upon their thought as they try to carry through their end or whether or non they need help to carry through these ends. Harmonizing to Garner, pupils must cognize when they are larning and when they are non larning ( as cited in Purdue, n.d. ) . Furthermore, Garner says that when they realize that they are non larning they should be able to take another cognitive scheme to assist them accomplish their end ( as cited in Purdue, n.d. , ch.7 ) .

Second, Garner believes pupils need to be taught to utilize more sophisticated schemes to demo that they are believing ( as cited in Purdue, n.d. , ch.7 ) . Teachers should non accept the merely reciting of the text, they should necessitate that pupil synthesise the information and are able to offer legitimate sum-ups of the stuff ( Purdue, n.d. ) .

Third, instructors must learn pupils the appropriate schemes to utilize with the assorted texts and content ( Purdue, n.d. ) . This is pertinent since it sets the phase for pupil acquisition. Think of it like constructing a house, if there is no foundation the house will non stand ; with a solid foundation the house could fire done, but the base from which to get down over is still at that place. Students might necessitate to reassess the schemes that they choose, but they can get down over if they have the foundational cognition of the schemes ( Purdue, n.d. ) .

Fourthly, pupils must be taught to put personal ends for their acquisition. When pupils set their ain ends they are more likely to transport through with the schemes to see the success with them. Borkowski, Carr, and Pressley say “ pupils with low self-prides who attribute success and failure to something other than attempt are improbable to originate or prevail in the usage of cognitive schemes ” ( cited in Purdue, n.d. , ch.7 ) . If they do so, they fall into non utilizing their metacognitive accomplishments to grok the constructs ( Purdue, n.d. ) .

Last, when instructors model for pupils how to utilize cognitive schemes they are assisting them develop higher order believing accomplishments. When they are taught to prosecute in higher order thought, they are taught how to place how they learn, think about textual jobs as they learn about them, figure out how to work out them, and eventually synthesise all the information at the terminal of the text.

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