Childhood

Mother’s have quite the dilemma when deciding when and if to return to work after giving birth to a child. Sometimes the choice is made for them due to financial reasons and sometimes they have the luxury of deciding on which is the best scenario for themselves and their families. In trying to make this decision, mothers may wonder if and how their absence and the choice of child care will affect their child. In all the years I have spend in early childhood education and child care, I think I have probably seen all of the “scenarios” and know that there is no one right answer.

Each situation is different and there are so many variables, even within each variable, but the evidence is so vast that there are certainly findings to please almost everyone . In my research on this delicate topic, I have come to the conclusion that the only two factors that can predict positive outcomes for children’s later development is the combination of child care quality and healthy family attachments and support. As you will see, there are so many variables and each plays into the other, but safe and secure relationships at home and in child care are the winning factors in this decades long debate.

There are two well-known pieces of data that have been gathered which researchers have utilized throughout the years to study the effects of maternal employment on later development. The first was conducted by the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY79) and began in 1979. The NLSY79 is a nationally representative sample of 12, 686 young men and women who were 12-22 years old when they were first surveyed in 1979. These individuals were interviewed annually through 1994 and are currently interviewed on a biennial basis”.

In 1986, the NLSY79 was used as “a separate survey of all children born to NLSY79 female respondents” to conduct more child-specific information”. Researchers such as Jay Belsky (1988) first utilized the NLSY79 data to study the effects of early and extensive maternal employment. Belsky, etc al. oncluded “that children who had initiated care for 30 or more hours per week in their first year and whose care at this level continued through their preschool years evinced poorer academic and social functioning than did children whose full-time care began sometime later – and that this was true whether one looked at teacher reports, parent reports, peer reports, or the children’s own self-reports” (Belsky & Eggebeen, 1991, p. 1084). There were some problems with this early research and the data that was used to interpret outcomes.

One of the problems was that the two groups studied (maternal employment and non-maternal employment) were too different in so many ways. “One of the most difficult methodological issues in studying this causal process is the fact that there are substantial differences between women who work soon after their child is born and women who do not” . Another problem with this wave of research was that “the effects of different features of the child-care experience, particularly the quality of the care, the amount or quality of care, and the type of care”  were not taken into account at the same time. Prior research “examined one or another feature of the child-care experience, but never all three” .

The second wave of research was based on more specific data “to examine the concurrent, long-term, and cumulative influences of variations in early child care experiences on the cognitive, linguistic, social, emotional, and physical development of infants and toddlers” (Friedman, NICHD, 1992, p. 1. . These researchers were interested not only in the effects of child-care, but the “endurance of effects” (Belsky, Vandell, & Burchinal, 2007, p. 682). They continued to follow up with children from 4  – 11 years of age. This goal of this study was “accomplished through the implementation of a study design that takes into account the complex concurrent, long-term and cumulative interactions among characteristics of the family and home, of the child care environments, and of the child” .

Researchers such as Jennifer Hill and Jane Waldfogel (2005) utilized the NICHD data to determine the effects of maternal employment with easier access to more varied situations. They broke up their results into four categories – Comparisons Between Worked After First Year and Never Worked, Comparisons Between Worked Part Time in the First Year and Did Not Work Until After the First Year, Comparisons Between Worked Full Time in the First Year Versus Did Not Work Until After the First Year, and Comparisons Between Worked Full Time in the First Year Versus Worked Part Time in the First Year .

These researchers concluded that “negative effects of maternal employment on children’s cognitive outcomes were found in our analyses primarily for children whose mothers were employed full time in the first year postbirth as compared with children whose mothers postponed work until after their child’s first year of life and also as compared with mothers who worked part time in the first year. Negative effects in terms of increased externalizing behavioral problems were evident in each of these comparisons involving mothers who worked full time in the first year” . Although the use of the NICHD study did allow researchers to analyze the data utilizing more correlations between diverse situations, there is even later research that delves even deeper into the mixed bag of maternal work situations, family dynamics, home-life, child-care situations, etc. Heather Joshi, et al. , extended the studies even further by including events such as, “additional information concerning the types of jobs that they return to: are these jobs routinized or do they provide a degree of autonomy” .

Also included in these studies is the “interactions between our maternal employment measures and additional maternal characteristics and behaviors” and the “differences by gender” (Joshi, Cooksey, Verropoulou, Menaghan, & Tzavidis, 2008, p. 2). The results of these more recent studies lend “only limited support to negative effect of mother’s employment per se during infancy and the pre-school years on later child well-being”. The extent and expansion of variables for research surrounding maternal employment continues to grow. Joshi, et al. , are currently working on expanding on their set of “both maternal employment and maternal/family background variables” Joshi, which should be completed sometime in 2009 (the results for which I have not yet been able to locate). There are four questions that have motivated current research on this topic.

They have been identified as: Does extensive child care in the first year of life disrupt attachment between mother and child, what is the influence of varying types of in child care quality on children’s development, do long hours spent in child-care add to later behavior problems, and what are the effects of the types of child-care that are available? Mother-Child Attachment The earliest studies surrounding maternal employment and attachment came up with many mixed results which is one of the main reasons that the NICHD decided to begin their own study . Assessment of the mother-child attachment relationship is made using various measures, including the Strange Situation” . The Strange Situation was a psychological study designed by Mary D. Ainsworth which consisted “of eight episodes presented in a standardized order for all subjects”  which tested the reactions of children, ages 12 – 18 months, whilst in the presence of mother only, mother-stranger, stranger only, and alone (including the return of mother during each separation from her).

According to the NICHD, “there were no significant main effects of child-care experience (quality, amount, age of entry, stability, or type of care) on attachment security or avoidance” and there were “significant main effects of maternal sensitivity and responsiveness” . These negative affects in attachment were also amplified when “combined with poor quality child care, more than minimal amounts of child care, or more than one care arrangement” . Child Care Quality The quality of the child-care of a child proves to be one of the most important factors when addressing the impact of child-care on child development. When assessing the impact of child-care quality, it is important to look at child-staff ratio, group size, and caregiver education and/or training. The quality of the interactions between caregivers and children, between peers, as well as how caregivers facilitate these interactions is also a tremendous indicator of child-care quality.

According to the NICHD, children who experience high-quality child-care have higher scores on achievement and language tests, show fewer behavioral issues and better social skills. Programs like the federally funded Head Start can also function as an intervention for children from at-risk families/situations. In 2007, Belsky conducted a study based on the NICHD findings and concluded “that quality and type of care remained associated with children’s vocabulary and problem behavior” .

In a 2002 study (also based on NICHD), researchers Hill, Waldfogel, & Brooks-Gunn concluded that children who participated in no non-maternal care and home-based, non-maternal care “would have gained the most from high quality center-based care and moreover, would have more consistently remained the bulk of these benefits overtime” (2002, p. 1). Hours Spent in Child Care Although the findings seem to be mixed, there is some evidence that the amount of hours spent in child care may be a cause for some behavior problems, namely aggressive behavior.

The NICHD researchers (Belsky, Hill), did conclude that “children with more experience in child-care centers were rated by their teachers as showing somewhat more disruptive behavior in sixth grade”, but more recent research (Joshi, Cooksey, et al. ) explored “various interactions between our maternal employment measures and additional maternal characteristics and behaviors” (2008, p. 2) to be added risk factors for behavioral issues. Type of Child Care There are also mixed findings in the effects of the type of child care situation a young child experiences.

I feel rather strongly that a primary caregiver relationship is best for the young infants entering child care (whether it be in a more formal, group care setting or a private situation). Unfortunately most group child care programs do not offer a primary caregiver model which definitely contributes to the disorganization and unpredictability of the care that a child receives. With a primary care model, caregivers can “promote a stronger attachment than might happen if attachment were left to chance or if all the caregivers relate to the whole group without differentiation”.

Penelope Leach, et al. also state that “children who experience greater caregiver stability while attending early years settings have been found to have more secure relationships with their caregivers and to show higher degrees of social competence” . When child care provider implement practices that support child development (whether it be group care of private care), the results are positive. What it all seems to come down to is that the effects of maternal employment are complex and vary from family to family, child care situation to child care situation, and parental style/characteristics.

The NICHD researchers clearly suggest that “we seek to move beyond the determination of possible risks that may be presented by child care as a unitary category. Rather, we want to find out how the effects of non-maternal care vary as a function of different variables such as child care quality, the extent of its use, characteristics of the children and of their family and home” . These factors combined with family income/education and child gender make for a very complicated study.

One factor seems to influence the other and there are so many variables. The one thing that does stand out in all of the research is that developmental outcomes are dependent upon the quality of child care and family dynamics. When a child is feeling supported by both his/her parents and the people that care for him/her, the outcomes are favorable. Quality child care programs support cognitive, physical, social-emotional development, but unfortunately so many families do not have access to these programs due to their lack of availability and the high cost of most quality programs.

A proof in point is that I am currently a private child care provider and due to my expertise, I am able to charge higher rates than others in my field, but only families that can afford these rates are able to hire me. The sad thing is that “a national study of 100 child care centers found that 92% of them provided inadequate care to infants” and “it was reported that two in five centers were rated less than minimal” . Keep in mind that these figures are based on child care centers with varied tuition rates in various parts of the county. Those numbers are just staggering and unacceptable, but make perfect sense when you take into account that child care providers are usually not professionally trained or minimally trained and receive very low wages. Teacher training and regulations on child care centers are getting stricter which is a good sign.

More and more mothers are returning to work and it is only cost effective that the investments we make in early child care practices will result in better adjusted and academically successful children in the years to come. References Ainsworth, M. (1978). Patterns of attachment: a psychological study of the strange situation Philadelphia: Laurence Earlbaum Associates, Inc. Belsky, J. & Eggebeen, D. (1991, January 1). Early and extensive maternal employment and young children’s socioemotional development: children of the national longitudinal survey of youth.

Psychosocial Development Erik Erikson describes psychosocial development as occurring in stages. He describes the different stages according to personality traits shown at the various stages. I have Interviewed and made my observations of persons at the different stages as follows: Infancy (birth to 18 months) Trust vs… Mistrust A one year old baby was observed during a session of breastfeeding. The baby is hungry and it is time for the mother to breastfeed him.

She picks up her son and holds him gently on her lap telling him she is going to give him some milk and etches him on to her breast. The baby immediately calms down and sucks for a few minutes. While the baby Is drinking, the mother looks at her son lovingly and the child fluctuates his attention from the mother to what his happening around him. The above behaviors show the affection and loving relationship between the baby and the mother who Is very patient and gentle towards her son. This renders breastfeeding to be a wonderful experience to both mother and child. According to Erikson, the first stage of trust vs…

Mistrust is shown in the above observations the baby fully trusts his mother who is caring for him with a lot of love, patience and predictability. This is shown in the fact that he calms down and is comfortable to look around him while he is feeding during the session. Early childhood (2 to areas) Autonomy vs… Shame and Doubt A boy of two and a half years who Is still undergoing toilet training has been observed. The mother asks her son every two hours If he needs to go potty. The child is still inconsistent in his response but sometimes out of his own free will go to the potty and points to it.

The mother pulls down the child’s pants and gently asks him to it down on the potty. She tells him that he is now growing into a big boy and that she will be very happy if he uses the potty. The boy sits down for a minute on the potty whilst his mother brings his blocks to play with him while he is sitting down on the potty. After a while the boy gets bored, stands up, runs into the kitchen and picks up a packet of biscuits. The mother explains to her son that as soon as he urinates in the potty she will give him a biscuit.

The child insists on eating the biscuits immediately and does not cooperate. The mother looks frustrated since she has been ring to potty train her son for the past few months without success. According to this stage of Erikson, the toddler becomes more mobile and assertive on his Independence. I think that this has been shown In the above observation. The toddler seems to try to please his mother initially by sitting down on the potty. Which he likes at the moment. When his mother refuses to give him a biscuit he protests and wants to have his own way.

On the other hand the mother seems to be at a loss on what to do next since she thinks that her son needs to be toilet trained in order to be accepted at his new school. The toddler does not seem certain of what he has to do yet. He still seems to be unprepared to be potty trained though he is showing first signs. He is showing he is bored and insecure when trying to use the potty. That is probably the reason why he went to fetch the biscuit so he will do something he likes instead of something which makes him feel less confident. The mother needs to be more patient and give more encouragement to her son regarding this issue.

Introducing stories of other toddlers/cartoon characters being potty trained, and maybe singing some songs might help her son be more motivated, calm ND patient in his training. Preschool (3 to 5 years) Initiative vs… Guilt A four year old girl was observed at play in a children’s playground whilst her mother looked on. Initially the girl clutches her mother and does not want to go to play with the other children whom she doesn’t know. The mother takes her daughter’s hand and walks around the playground slowly with her daughter showing her the various activities and what fun it is to play with the other children.

After sometime the little girl sees a little see-saw in the form of a bright colored snake. She moves towards it ND climbs onto it and starts playing. After sometime she climbs down and runs towards the slide. She climbed up the slide behind the other children and took turns for about ten minutes on the slide enjoying the activity and sometimes looking at her mother for approval. After some time she moves on towards the other activities and starts playing with the other children feeling happy and secure. The mother looks happy that her daughter is mixing with the other children and is enjoying herself.

From time to time she encourages and praises her. When the child is told that it is mime to go back home, she does not want to obey and throws a tantrum. The mother starts shouting at the child, the child continues to cry and lies on the ground. The girl seems to be insecure and shy when we arrive at the playground but then seems to gain confidence and starts playing with the other children. She enjoys the activities but still looks at her mother for approval. According to Erikson during this stage children need to find a healthy balance between initiative and guilt.

This girl seems to be going through this stage by not wanting to leave her mother on her own and by aging the initiative and going around the playground to have fun and play with the other kids. When it comes to leaving the playground the girl does not accept the fact that she has to go back home and tries to assert herself by throwing the tantrum in order to have her way. In my opinion, the mother should have prepared the girl better and warned her that they only have a few minutes left before going home. Industry vs… Inferiority I interviewed a nine year old boy for this stage.

The boy seems to be doing very well at school. He told me that he is one of the best boys in class especially in mathematics. He likes reading and doing his homework. In fact he asks his mother to buy him some workbooks to have work to do during the summer holidays. When asked if there is something he wants to improve on, he mentions that he would like to be better in football and art. He also mentions that he worries that he has not done his work perfectly as his teacher would like him to. He seems to like to please his teachers and be considered to be the ideal student.

He also says that he enjoys going to school to play with his friends during break time. Although this boy seems to be doing very well academically, he still seems to feel mom insecurity when it comes to pleasing his superiors. The boy seems to be competent and satisfied with his achievements. He likes learning new things and skills. According to Erikson the child’s peer group becomes more important and significant in the child’s life at this stage in fact this boy emphasizes the importance of having friends at school and at the football he attends.

Adolescence (12 to 18 years) Identity vs… Role confusion For this stage I have observed and interviewed a 17 year old girl. When asked who she feels she is, she says that she is happy about herself, feels that she is full of Lana and energy and she has a very promising future in front of her. She says she would like to become a teacher and later on have her own family. In my observations she seems to be confident and very sociable with different people. This adolescent seems to be secure and happy as she has the support of her family and friends.

She is motivated to continue studying in order to reach her goal of becoming a teacher as well as to make her parents proud of her achievements. She feels self confident as a result of the support she receives from those around her. According to Erikson, urine this stage, children become more independent and begin to look at the future. In fact this is shown by this adolescent during the interview when she talked with enthusiasm about her future plans in terms of career, relationships and families. Young Adulthood (19 to 40 years) Intimacy vs…

Isolation she is happily married and has two young children though she is kept very busy and hardly has time for herself, she feels very happy and satisfied with her life. She has also been qualified in a profession and she loves her work from which she has taken some time off for the moment to look after her young family. Besides her family, she has also kept contact with some friends and sometimes they call each other to meet. According to Erikson, this stage involves forming relationships and long term commitments with persons who are not family members.

This woman seems to have acquired this stage in that she has established her professional career and settled down in her own family with her husband and children. Middle Adulthood (40 to 65 years) Generatively vs… Stagnation For this stage, I interviewed and observed a 46 year old woman. This woman has a family made up of a husband and three children. She also has professional lubrications. In the past few years she has changed her career so she would be able to spend more time with her family.

She said she feels useful and accomplished in both her family life as well as at work. According to Erikson during middle adulthood we establish our careers, settle down within a relationship, and have our own families we also give back to society through raising our children and being productive at work. It seems that this woman has moved on in this regard. Maturity (65 to death) Ego Integrity vs… Despair For this stage I have observed and interviewed a 77 year old man. During the interview, this man seems to enjoy narrating his past experiences and how life was in the past.

Breastfeeding Module – HUG 2121 This essay will explore various factors within breastfeeding, it will focus on the long and short term health benefits of breastfeeding, for both the mother and baby it will also discuss the reasons why women chose not to breastfeed, especially within the western society. Contributory factors such as social, psychological, cultural and political all contribute to the reasons women chose to breastfeed or not.

WHO (2011), suggests that breast milk provides the necessary nutrients for up to the second half of the infants first year , and it also promotes sensory and cognitive development, and protection from infections and chronic illness. Breastfeeding has been also promoted by various studies and organisations and is said to be the healthiest and most effective way of feeding your baby, it not only increases bonding with the baby, but it also helps the mother to keep track of their babies health.

Dykes (2002:98) The world health organisation(WHO) recommends that “mothers worldwide to exclusively breastfeed infants for the child’s first six months in order to achieve optimal growth, development and health”. There are many advantages associated with breastfeeding your baby, such as low risk of child obesity, which in turn usually leads to type 2 diabetes in later life and a low risk of acquiring other health problems such as eczema. Miller (1991:76).

Breast milk also contains valuable antibodies from the mother that may help the baby resist infections, so this means the baby is not at a high risk of acquiring disease. There are various factors that influence the initiation and maintenance of breastfeeding, Earle (2002) recognises some of these factors, as the way the mother identifies herself, the fathers understanding on infant feeding, the personal factors involved and the sexualisation of breasts.

The politics of breastfeeding is explained in detail by, Counihan (2008:467) stating that political obstacles include the “marketing practices of instant formula manufacturers”, and how such factors appear to have a positive impact on the choice women make in order to breastfeed or not. The article goes on to reflect breastfeeding rates in the UK; and the health benefits of breastfeeding for the mother as well as the infant. Despite attempts to reiterate to general public that ‘breast is best’, breastfeeding is still very much low in the western society (UNICEF, 2005).

Protheroe et al (2003) discuss the issues behind this and explain the evidence that shows the health benefits of breastfeeding. Protheroe et al, (2003) also suggest that breastfeeding allows babies to have a better start in life than those who are formula fed. Due to both the short and long term health benefits associated with breastfeeding, Protheroe et al (2003) continues to argue that the main development of the infant is dependent on the nutrients breast milk provide. Breastmilk does not contain any extra ingredients that may cause the baby to have problems digesting it, so it is less strenuous for the baby.

According to Allen and Hector (2005:42), they suggest that breastmilk is “uniquely engineered” for babies and that, it is biologically and naturally the correct way to feed babies. They also, argue that unlike formula milk breastfeeding has a vast number of health benefits for both mother and baby. Alexander et al. (2009:158) supports this claim and explains that breastfeeding provides a vast number of health benefits, “including protection against many acute and chronic diseases as well as advantages for general health, growth and development. UNICEF suggest that babies who are fed using breast milk substitutes have an increased risk of acquiring infections and diseases such as gastroenteritis, urinary tract infections, respiratory or chest infections, ear infections, and even childhood leukaemia and possibly sudden infant death syndrome, or cot death. Allen and Hector (2005:44) support this, and explain that breastfeeding “has been shown to be protective against a large number of immediate and longer term health outcomes that are a significant burden on individuals, the health system and society. It is also suggested that babies who are breastfed are bound to have better neurological development. However, a study carried out by Holme et al (2010), aiming to establish the effect of breastfeeding on neurological development, does not support this study. They came to the conclusion that breastfeeding is not associated with intelligence quotient (IQ) and that “maternal and socio-economic characteristics” are particularly influential. Babies who are breastfed are also protected against diabetes mellitus. Whitney et al, ( 2010 ), breastfeeding is also associated with defending babies from long term ealth problems and disorders of the cardiovascular system as well as obesity, a very huge problem that most Western societies are finding difficult to control. Due to this factor alone, it is very important that breastfeeding is more widely promoted and advised, with sufficient support systems for mothers who are breastfeeding or considering it. This will not only reduce the health issues associated with breastfeeding, but it will promote the health benefits involved. UNICEF (2011) suggests that there may be a link between breastfeeding and protection against multiple sclerosis, acute appendicitis and tonsillectomy.

However, research within this area is still very limited, and nothing has been done to prove this may be true. Breastfeeding does not only benefit the health of the baby, but mothers who breastfeed have a reduced risk of multiple diseases and illnesses; such as, breast and ovarian cancer and osteoporosis. Breastfeeding also increases involution, whereby the mothers figure is most likely to return to normal, after pregnancy. Insel et al. (2009:538) support this, stating that breastfeeding stimulates uterine contractions, which aid in the uterus returning back to size.

This is a very important factor to recognise especially for many mothers, due to the pressures associated with body image. If mothers are made aware of such benefits of breastfeeding, they may be more likely to breastfeed in order to promote the health and wellbeing of their baby and themselves, and maintain their figure. In addition breastfeeding means that mother and child are able to bond effectively; Insel et al. (2009:538) also state that if the baby is placed onto the breast instantly after delivery, these uterine contractions are able to control the level of blood lost in birth.

Additionally by consuming a healthy diet, the mother is also able to understand and monitor any possible causes of any allergic reactions, infections or illnesses the baby develops. Lauwers and Swisher (2010:428) explain that exclusively breastfeeding, the breastmilk coats the baby’s intestinal tract with components in the breastmilk that ultimately prevent foreign proteins from entering the baby’s system and causing any allergic reactions. Pryor (2010:4) also suggests that the role of breastfeeding is very important especially if a mother and baby are bonding.

This study showed that babies that interacted more with their mothers, stayed warmer, and cried less. It was also found that, although there were some difficulties to measure, if there was early skin-to-skin contact, there is still a very high possibility that breastfed babies were more likely to have a good early relationship with their mothers. A study conducted by Riodarn et al, (1998 ), shows that, breastfeeding rates within the United Kingdom (UK) are the lowest in both the developed world and Europe.

Additionally the Infant Feeding Survey, from 2000 to 2005, found that the number of babies who were breastfed within the UK increased by 7 per cent and in both Scotland and Northern Ireland the initiation rates were raised by 8 per cent and only 7% in England and Wales. Although the statistics show a small rise in the number of breastfeeding mothers in the UK the number is still very low. Studies have found that most women, who do breastfeed, are usually from upper-class families whereas most economically disadvantaged women and teenagers continue to bottle feed their infants. Bryant et, al (1999:79).

Efforts to improve breastfeeding initiation and duration among low income women have been tried however no success has been met. Therefore, it is important that an effort must be made to address the reasons for this problem and to identify breastfeeding promotion strategies that will overcome the barriers that are negatively influencing breastfeeding decisions in these particular populations. A lot of the women from low socio economic backgrounds, who chose not to breastfeed, is not because they just don’t care, but mostly because they live in an unsupportive or work in a non supportive environment.

Other reasons why they do not breastfeed are that in low income women, their reasons not to breastfeed are closely related to social and cultural beliefs. Various studies have revealed that main issues that women from low income societies face, are that they are modest and embarrassed and the restrictions on their lifestyles, also play a huge role. Hartley,et al (1996:87). Other women however complained of physical discomfort and inconvenience. Some studies also found that some economically disadvantaged women feel a lack of confidence in their ability to produce an adequate quality or quantity of breast milk Marcus (2007).

Living in a particular society usually influences many of your life choices, so if not breastfeeding is the cultural norm, for people living in these environments then chances of them breastfeeding is low. NICE, also suggests that in the UK alone most factors that also contribute to women overall not breastfeeding apart from the influence of society and culture, is the lack of continuity of care in the health services, clinical problems and the lack of preparation of health professionals and public in general to support breastfeeding effectively. Health care professionals also have a huge impact on women’s choices to breastfeed.

The WHO and UNICEF launched the Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative in 1991, in order to provide information, support and assessment for health care workers in order to promote and encourage breastfeeding. This programme is very useful especially to new mothers because another reason why the rate of breastfeeding is low in the country is because; some women just don’t have enough information about it. This programme not only allows health professionals to encourage mothers on their own, but to also have the government to back up what they are saying.

Arnez, et al (2004:67). Fletcher,et al(2000:98) however also suggests that whilst some women do have the information and are educated on all the reasons as to why breastfeeding is better, most women however usually just do what their, peers, parents or friends do. This suggestion is also supported By NICE, who also note that “a pregnant woman considering how to feed her baby may be influenced, positively or negatively, by the experiences of her friends and family, messages in the media, and the advice of her midwife and GP. Adequate advice is especially important for mothers because, although the choice is ultimately theirs, it is important for health professionals to know that they have given the mother as much information as possible and support in whatever decision they make. Riodarn, (2005:83) For the mothers who do chose to breastfeed, some of them end up discontinuing in many cases the reason being is that the mother’s report of ‘insufficient milk’ Hamlyn et al. (2002:54).

This reason of not having enough milk may be influenced by the baby’s behaviour, the input of health professionals, the views of family and friends, and the mother’s own self-esteem, as well as clinical problems with feeding. If the mother feels as if she is not producing enough milk to feed her baby, then she can easily change to formula milk because, the stress of her thinking that the baby is starving would pressurise her to doing so Fletcher, et al (2000:43).

It is especially important in situations such as these, that health professionals play a huge role in supporting the mother, because they are various reasons that can lead to such problems, so advice and a health knowledge would be needed. In most cases women tend to think this way because breast milk digests faster than formula milk, so the baby becomes hungry more often. So the support and advice from health professionals would help the mother to understand and not worry about this problem, Hartley et al (1996:31).

It is very rare for anyone to suffer from not producing enough milk however, this is one of the main reasons why most women stop breastfeeding. Miller (1996:50) Suggests that it is especially women from low income backgrounds that usually use this as a reason to stop breastfeeding. However this can be argued that this excuse can be used by all women. A number of investigators suggest that this, is a condition that “ps a bio psychosocial continuum from a rare physiological situation to a condition embedded in psychological and social circumstances” Kumar, (2008:72).

This method of encouragement was shown to have the greatest impact on women’s choice to breastfeed. The baby friendly initiative hospitals also support this and statistics show that these hospitals had increased their breastfeeding rates by more than 10% by comparing the year receiving Baby Friendly accreditation with four previous years, before they had the accreditation. In teenage mothers the need of support to initiate breastfeeding is prevalent, in most cases this is due to the vast influence young mothers get from the media, and the pressure from society.

Appearance also plays a huge role in most women who decide to either breastfeed or not Scott, et al (1999:12). Most young mothers think that breastfeeding will make them socially unacceptable and make their breasts saggy. Most teenagers follow the media very closely and celebrity culture, so when they see or hear about certain things that their favourite celebrities have done they tend to follow in those footsteps. Teenagers are not the only population that the media influences in this particular area.

In 2001 breastfeeding obtained a large amount of negative and controversial media coverage, when a woman was removed from a Delta Airlines flight because she refused to cover her child whilst she was breastfeeding (Marcus, 2007). Last year, famous media icon, Barbara Walters commented to millions of viewers, that “a breastfeeding woman made her feel uncomfortable while on a flight, Curran (2006). Attitude such as this can influence women to not breastfeed, because they may start to feel embarrassed doing it.

Although these are the most reasons why women do not breastfeed, other reasons may include sore nipples, or the pressure on going back to work. In some cases women chose not to breastfeed because they feel, the father of the baby would benefit from bottle feeding so that he too can get some sort of bonding with the baby during feeding, Curran (2006:12). Women often complain that their partners do not get to experience the same bond they do whilst feeding, Hollander (1995).

Other health benefits said to be associated with breastfeeding are that minerals such as iron are present and lower in breast milk than in formula, so the minerals in breast milk are more likely to be completely absorbed by the baby Kumar, ( 2008:70 ). However In formula fed babies, the unabsorbed portions of minerals can change the balance of bacteria in the gut, which gives harmful bacteria a chance to grow, Foster (1995:45) this can often can cause constipation and lead to harder odorous stools than breastfed babies.

In cases where women find that breastfeeding makes their nipples sore, it’s very important for health professionals to give them the relevant support and education on how to treat this problem. Most sore nipples can be helped by changing how the baby is attached to the mother’s breast, so talking to someone who has had specialist training in giving women support and information on baby feeding, would help. Midwives, health visitor or other specialist are also able to help the mother, however it’s important for the mother to know that this information is readily available to them.

The stigma attached to breastfeeding especially in the UK, has caused a lot of women to be cautious about it compared to other countries. The WHO statistics show that women in Asia and Africa are more comfortable breastfeeding compared to the Western Society. This information shows that although the women in England live in a country where healthcare and information is easily available to them compared to developing countries, their surroundings influence their decisions greatly. However women from other parts of the world such as Asia and Africa, do not particularly have media influences.

Other reasons why Western countries have less women breastfeeding may be because, they have the formula milk easily available to them and it’s more convenient to their lifestyles. Formula feeding your baby especially in Western countries seems to be more ideal because of most work schedules and time off work given after the baby is born. In western culture a women’s breast is very closely associated with sex, so in most cases when a women is seen to be breastfeeding especially in public this is deemed as inappropriate Marcus, (2007).

Most men also do not want to see their partner’s breastfeeding in public, because of the confusion over sexual role of the breast. If we compare this attitude to other countries, most women and men have strict rules on sex exposure and attitude. For example in Africa the majority of women that do have children are married and the number of teenage pregnancies is very low, so already the type of women that do get pregnant are usually young and married. Their culture on pregnancy, marriage and breastfeeding is also in most cases taught to them from a young age and it becomes a part of their culture.

If the women’s grandmother and mother, both breastfed their babies they teach the daughter to do so, and because this is something that is taught growing up, it becomes the right choice for them. Having strong cultural beliefs has shown to have a huge impact on people particularly from this population, because they do not want to seem rebellious if they chose to do anything different from what they have been taught. Hollander, (1995) So in other words in most non Western countries the option to choose between formula milk and breastfeeding your baby is rarely given.

In western culture however, because individuals tend to do their own thing and the choice for them to breastfeed or not is there this gives, the mother opportunity to weigh out her options on what suits her and baby. If her everyday life requires her to be busy perhaps finding the time to sit down, and relax and feed may seem impossible. Breastfed babies eat more often than bottle-fed babies because the fats and proteins in breast milk are more easily broken down than the fats and proteins in formula, so they are absorbed and used more quickly Kumar, (2002:90).

This then means that the mother would have to breastfeed a lot more than she would with formula, so in a fast moving environment again this may not be ideal. In past years the facilities to actually breastfeed within the UK were very few, if women wanted to breastfeed their babies they were forced to either go and do it somewhere private or stay within their homes. It was only in 2010 that an equality act was carried out and passed to allow women to breastfeed anywhere, and to get public places and work places to facilitate this.

In other cultures image concern is not as high as it is in the western culture so there are less cautious about it. Overall breastfeeding is a very important and extremely beneficial point to consider for all women and healthcare providers. BIBLIOGRAPHY Anderson, A. K. , Damio, G. , Young, S. , Chapman, D. , Perez-Escamilla, R. (2005). A  Randomized Trial Assessing the Efficacy of Peer Counselling on Exclusive Breastfeeding  in a Predominantly Latina Low-Income Community. Arch Pediatrics Adolescence  Medical, 15, 836-881. Arenz S, Ruckerl R, Koletzko B et al. 2004) Breastfeeding and childhood obesity: a systematic review. International Journal of Obesity. Bryant C, Coreil J, D’Angelo S, Bailey D, Lazarov M. (1992) A strategy for promoting breastfeeding among economically disadvantaged women and adolescents. NAACOGS Womens Health Nurs. 1992;3:723-730 Breastfeeding Among U. S. Children Born (1999),(2005), CDC National Immunization Survey: 1999–2005. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; Atlanta: 2005 Curran, J. (2006). Online Update:  “Nurse-ins” planned over ejection of breast-feeding N. M  mother. Las Cruces Sun-News. http://lcsun- news. om/portlet/article/html/fragments/print_articlejsp? articleID=469 Counihan, C. (2008) Food and Culture: A Reader 2nd ed. New York: Routledge Dykes F. Western medicine and marketing: Construction of an inadequate milk syndrome in lactating women. Health Care Women Int. 2002;23:492–502. EU (2004) Promoting, protecting and supporting breastfeeding: an action plan for Europe. Luxembourg: European Commission, Directorate for Public Health and Risk Assessment Earle, S. (2002) ‘Factors affecting the initiation of breastfeeding: implications for breastfeeding promotion’ Health Promotion International 17 (3) 205-214

Foster K, Lader D, Cheesbrough S. , Infant feeding (1995), The Stationery Office, London 1997 Fletcher, D, Harris, H, The implementation of the HOT program at the Royal Women’s Hospital Breastfeeding Review 2000, 8 (1): 19-23 Hamlyn B, Brooker S, Oleinikova K et al. Infant Feeding (2000). Department of Health, the Scottish Executive, the National Assembly for Wales and the Department of Health, Social Services and Public Safety in Northern Ireland. London: The Stationary Office, 2002 Houston MJ (1984) Home support for the breast feeding mother. In: MJ Houston, editors Maternal and infant health care.

Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone. Hartley B, O’Connor M. (1996)Evaluation of the “Best Start” breastfeedingeducation program. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 150:868-871 Insel, P. , Turner, R. E. & Ross, D. (2009) Discovering Nutrition 3rd ed. Boston: Jones and Bartlett Publishers Inc. Lauwers, J. & Swisher, A. (2010) Counseling the Nursing Mother Boston: Jones and Bartlett Publishers Inc. Marcus, J. A. (2007,). Lactation and the law. Mothering (143), 48-57 Miller NH, Miller DJ, Chism M. Breastfeeding practices among resident physicians. Pediatrics 1996;98:434–437. Pryor, G. 2010) Nursing Mother, Working Mother: The essential guide to breastfeeding your baby before and after you return to work Sydney: Read How You Want Large Print Books Protheroe, L. , Dyson, L. , Renfew, M. J. , Bull, J. & Mulvihill, C. (2003) ‘The Effectiveness of Public Health Interventions to Promote the Initiation of Breastfeeding: Evidence Briefing’ National Health Service: Health Development Agency Kumar A, Kumar Rai A, Basu S, Dash D and Saran Singh J. Cord Blood and breast milk iron status in maternal anemia. Pediatrics. 2008: 121(3); e673-677. Accessed 5/29/2010. Kramer MS, Kakuma, R 2002.

Optimal duration of exclusive breastfeeding. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2002, Issue 1. [Art. No. : CD003517. DOI: 10. 1002/14651858. CD003517] Riordan J. Breastfeeding and Human Lactation. 3rd. Jones and Bartlett Publishers; Sudbury, MA: 2005. Scott JA, Binns CW. (1999) Factors associated with the initiation and duration of breastfeeding: a review of the literature. Breastfeed Rev 1999; 7: 5–16. Scott JA, Shaker I, Reid M. Parental attitudes toward breastfeeding: their association with feeding outcome at hospital discharge. Birth 2004; 31: 125–31 UNICEF UK Baby Friendly Initiative.

Baby Friendly hospitals show strong increase in breastfeeding rates. Baby Friendly News No. 6, July 2000. World Health Organization (2003) Global strategy for infant and young child feeding. In: Organization WH, ed. Geneva: World Health Organization. Whitney, E. , DeBruyne, L. K. , Pinna, K. & Rolfes, S. R. (2010) Nutrition for Health and Health Care Belmont, USA: Wadsworth World Health Organisation (2011) Breastfeeding http://www. who. int/child_adolescent_health/topics/prevention_care/child/nutrition/breastfeeding/en/index. html [accessed 7 May 2011] *

In today’s time, deviance and crime plaque American society. There are vast degrees of deviance, from a simple shoplifter, to a car thief, to a killing machine with no conscience, otherwise known as a serial killer. How is this killing machine created? Where and how does this type of criminal behavior begin? The answers to these questions must be addressed in order to stop the formation of deviance. While searching for these answers, the nature vs. nurture is brought up.

Scientist and psychologists have debated over whether a child’s upbringing forms their behavior or whether they are born with a personality disorder, or could it be their body type and brain set up? (Jones 1) Society may never truly know all the causes of this behavior but for now, they wrong upbringing can, without a doubt, increase the chances of violent behavior. It has been said for years that ones parents are the base to make someone the person they become as an adult. Parents are a young child’s role model, but as we grow older we start to have other influences in our lives.

People such as our friends, teachers, and other family members are considered to be part of our outside environment. In today’s time we are seeing less nuclear families and more single parent households. (Waggoner 30) Kimberly J. Waggoner did a study called, “The Project of Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods” which followed 80 young kids, till the age of 30, to see what kind of an impact their childhood had on them as an adult. She found that without two reliable role models, it can make a difference in that child’s behavior. Waggoner 30) She makes a great point that, “Grandmothers often play an important role in preventing children from developing antisocial behavior, especially those children born to teen mothers. In essence, children with access to extended family and other role models can thrive in a single- parent home. ” She also goes on to say, “Yet, some studies have found that boys raised by their birth mother and a stepfather are no better off than boys raised by mom alone. ” (Waggoner 30) The cause of this could be that the boys look at their stepfather as competitors, rather than role models, who normally help children develop their self-esteem.

Boys need to have that male role model in their lives. Without a solid home environment, it could lead a child towards the first step to criminal behavior, which is delinquent behavior. It starts as young as preschool. The child shows aggressive behavior toward their peers, and is than deemed as an outcast. Most times, this creates poor peer relations and causes those children to b e with others who share similar behaviors; usually these relationships continue into adolescents and maybe even adulthood. Waggoner 28) A child’s environment and upbringing has a tremendous effect on who they become as an adult. “As an adult, we can choose the environment in which to live, and this will either positively or negatively reinforce our personality traits… However, children are limited to the extent of choosing their environment, which accounts for the greater influence of environmental factors in childhood behavior,” says Caitlin Jones, a professor at the Rochester Institute of Technology. Jones 4) Even though all these things can cause criminal behavior, they are not the only causes. Parents could be great and do almost everything right and still have a criminal child on their hands. It is a great question they may never be answered, what makes some people commit vindictive criminal acts, while others could not even kill a fly? We may never truly know the answer but, there are plenty of theories on the brain of a criminal.

An Italian psychiatrist by the name of Cesare Lombroso has done countless studies of the skulls of criminals and found, “… each type of crime is committed by men with a particular physiognomic characteristics, such as a lack of a bred or an abundance of hair…” (Rafter 69) In 1876 during an in depth study, Lombroso discovered most skulls of criminals were unusually small or malformed. Some of the skulls had a median occipital fossetta, and others had “monkeylike anomalies”. (Rafter 70) Criminals are said to look like everyone else, but there are little differences that to the normal person, go unnoticed.

So they really do not look a whole lot different than the rest of us, yet they are still thought to be “backward intellectually compared to an honest man. ”(Rafter 69) Another theory behind the criminal mind was brought up in the late 18th century by a German physician named Johann Gasper Spurzheim, and he came to what he thought, was an inescapable conclusion, “… on the basis of numerous examples I have identified the primary cause of homicide, overdevelopment of the organ of Destructiveness, which is the seat of both negative and useful forms of destruction…It is commonly larger in men than women. (Rafter 78) Crimes are committed everyday; there are so many theories on the causes of crime one could talk about them for days. I believe both Lombroso and Spurzheim had great points; criminals are considered to be backward, which causes them to be vain, vindictive, remorseless, and undeterrable. Than, Spurzheim, believing in his organ of Destructiveness. There is just one thing wrong with both of these theories; they leave out the women criminals. Men may be considered to be more physically violent than women but, they are just as capable as men at committing a violent act.

Take the case of Andre Yates: in 2001, she systematically drowned her five children in a bath tub. Andre married a man by the name of Rusty Yates in 1993, and than she became pregnant six times in seven years, one ended in a miscarriage. Rusty insisted that Yates home school and take full care of the children herself. This placed heavy burdens on her and isolated her from social support. In early 2001, Andre lost her father and was prescribed antipsychotic drugs, she had her last child and went into postpartum psychosis.

After drowning the children, Yates confessed she was not a good mother and was possessed by Satan. (Rafter 6) All the burdens of schooling, caring and cleaning up after five children can drive some mothers crazy. She could not handle all that stress than, after the trauma of losing her father, and having another baby, Andre Yates finally snapped. She is now incarcerated in a mental hospital. Cesare Lombroso also studied women criminals. He compared female offenders to their male counterparts and found “the few violent women exceed men in their ferocity and cruelty. (Rafter 71) Of course, there are far more crimes that are committed by men than women, yet women should not be eliminated from the world of crime. A criminal is a criminal, regardless of gender. Why do some offenders only commit one crime and others make a career out of it? A range of thoughts and theories exist. Some of those include: Kimberly Waggoner and all her ideas of childhood causes, outside environment, and our upbringing, Caitlin Jones and being able to choose our own environment as an adult to stop potential criminals.

Also important are those of Nicole Rafter and the criminal brain, along with Lombroso, on women criminals and their male counterparts. Criminal behavior has been the subject for debate for centuries and will continue to be for centuries to come because, “Criminals are remorseless, incapable of resisting impulse to harm others, and morally savage, but in other aspects normal. ” (Rafter 20) Hopefully, with all the knowledge we have and the studies yet to come, it will help to end the frustration that criminal justice psychiatrist experience while trying to fight crime, instead they will be able to understand, control and prevent crime.

Introduction Is it the new trend for teenager to have sex and get pregnant? What is the point? There are so many things we as teenagers have to gain during our teenage life especially our maturity. So how can we do that and also take responsibility for another child? Teenage pregnancy is complicated by our conflicting attitudes and behaviors. Yet we are shocked at the increasing numbers of teens who are sexually active. As we all know, teenage pregnancy is on the rampage in St. Kitts and we are all wondering what may be the cause of it.

In my presentation, I will first outline what is teenage pregnancy, depict the causes of teenage pregnancy, and also state some risk factors of teenage pregnancy and also state some recommendations on how I think we can curb teenage pregnancy. What is Teenage Pregnancy? Teenage pregnancy is technically defined as occurring when a woman under the age of 20 becomes pregnant. The youngest mother who ever gave birth was Lina Medina, who, in 1939, gave birth to a boy at the age of five. Most girls, however, do not become fully fertile until much later, for example; the average age of menarche (first menstrual period) in St.

Kitts is 11. 5 years. Babies born to teenagers are at risk from neglect and abuse because their young mothers are uncertain about their roles and may be frustrated by the constant demands of caretaking. The number of births to teenagers in St. Kitts has been fluctuating considerably over the last few years. Some teenage pregnancies occur as a result of their sexual inexperience and inadequate understanding of their reproductive cycle. This is most likely due to the increased unavailability of readily accessible contraception and abortion facilities, because of an increase in sexual activity.

Research suggests that knowledge about reproductive matters and access to contraception are necessary to prevent unintended adolescent pregnancy. However, not all teenage pregnancies are unplanned. Some teenagers literally choose to want to have a baby due to their idealised views of pregnancy and parenting as well as presume from their male partners. Facts and figures In order to provide accurate statistics on the number of teenage live births in St. Kitts, I requested the information from the Planning Unit in the Ministry of Finance, Technology and Sustainable Development. Table 1 showing the number of live teenage births within St.

Kitts during the period 2000 – 2005. Sourced from the Planning Unit, Ministry of Finance, Technology and Sustainable Development. 200020012002200320042005 Age Group 10-14 yrs231036 15-19 yrs160164138144113120 Total of live births162167139144116126 Chart showing the statistics shown above in Figure 1 Causes and Effects of Teen Pregnancy Causes You may be wondering about the causes and effects of teenage pregnancy. A teenage girl may become pregnant as a result of many various situations. Some teenage girls become pregnant while involved in long-term dating relationships. Other girls become pregnant after hooking up.

And, some girls may become pregnant as a result of a rape situation. All teenage pregnancies are the result of sexual activity, whether voluntary or involuntary. No matter what measures are taken for birth control, the only 100% effective way to prevent pregnancy is abstinence( is the withholding or indulging of sexual activity) from all sexual activities. Only abstinence is guaranteed not to cause teen pregnancy. Parents shy away from discussing sex education with their children. Some may feel that their children are learning about it in school so why should they say it again.

Nowadays parents are too busy to shoulder of their responsibilities and that’s why neglect is a cause for teenage pregnancy. They feel that if they have a child that they can be loved. Teens can prevent teenage pregnancies by using one of a number of options they have. These options includes: CHART Effects Facing an unplanned teen pregnancy can be hard. The effects of teenage pregnancy are not limited to having to decide whether or not to keep the baby, how to cope with motherhood or whether to make an adoption plan. Teenage pregnancy is usually a crisis for the pregnant girl and her family.

Common reactions include anger, guilt, and denial. If the father is young and present, similar problems can occur in his family. •50% of adolescents who have a baby become pregnant again within two years of the baby’s birth. •Only 41% of teenage mothers complete high school, making it less likely for teen mothers to have the skills necessary to qualify for a well-paying job. •Teen fathers are very reluctant to support their child so all the strain is left on the mother. •Children born to teen mothers are more likely to have low birth weight and related problems such as infant death, blindness, and mental retardation. Children of teen parents often receive inadequate parenting, are subject to abuse and neglect, and often have insufficient health care. •Children of teen parents are 50% more likely to repeat a grade, perform poorly on tests and final exams, and ultimately less likely to complete high school. •Babies born to teenagers are at greater risk for neglect and abuse than those of a woman. Teenage mothers may feel like they are being demanded to do the job and they may take their frustration out on the child. Teen pregnancy, in my opinion, is awful.

I feel that young women should not be having children at such a young age. I feel that these teenagers that are having babies are children themselves, and do not know how to take care of them as an older, more mature person might. At this young age, very few teenagers have jobs. Therefore, it may be difficult for them to support themselves and the baby. They would probably have to drop out of school, and get a couple of jobs; all this just to pay for diapers, food, clothing and healthcare. There are a number of risk factors for teenage pregnancy.

They include: •unstable housing arrangements •poor school performance •low socio-economic background •family history of teenage pregnancies •low maternal education •father’s absence •low self-esteem Teen pregnancy can be a very difficult situation at times. For example, and I quote what a young girl tells about what she went through. This young girl thought she was in love. She was dating the cutest guys in the school and often wondered why he would be dating an average girl like herself. He said he loved her. This girl had been having sexual intercourse since she was fourteen years old.

She slept with this guy and before you know it, she ended up pregnant. What was this young girl to do? The family pressures pushed the girl to have an abortion. Time went by and she met another guy. She talks about how this guy was her “first true love. ” She has sexual intercourse with this guy and before you know it, she is pregnant again. What are her options? First she had an abortion. The girl is pregnant again and wonders what to do. How many times does a teenage girl get to do this? These young girls do not know how great the responsibility is to take care of a child.

They might think it would be like a babysitting job or watching their little brother/sister, but in actuality, it is much more than that. If the guy you were with decided to leave you and the child, you would have to find ways to support yourself. Recommendations Adult parents can help prevent teenage pregnancy by providing guidance to their children about sexuality and the risks and responsibilities of intimate relationships and pregnancy. School classes in family life and sex education, as well as clinics providing reproductive information and birth control to young people, can also help to prevent unwanted pregnancy.

If pregnancy occurs, teenagers and their families deserve honest and sensitive counseling about options available to them, including abortion, parenting and adoption. Special support systems, including consultation with a child and adolescent psychiatrist when needed, should be available to help the teenager throughout the pregnancy, the birth, and the decision about whether to keep the infant or give it up for adoption. Government should substantially increase its investment in effective teen pregnancy prevention programs.

Investment in abstinence-only programs that exclude information about contraception wastes precious resources. To date, these programs have been proven ineffective in delaying the initiation of sexual intercourse and/or in decreasing sexual risk-taking behaviors among sexually active youth. Sex education help prepare the youth for changes in their bodies, sex effects and consequences, and how to respond and deal with dating, birth control, condoms, pills etc and also help prevent Std’s and pregnancy. Conclusion To conclude, teenage pregnancy is a serious issue that everyone needs to realise.

While many teens that engage in pre-marital sex never become pregnant, some are not as fortunate. Teenage pregnancy has become all too common in this day and age. Some teens think it will not happen to them and do not use necessary precautions to protect against it. The simple desire to feel loved by another person may be a cause for an unexpected pregnancy. A teen may have a low self-esteem and simply be looking for acceptance in the bedroom. However, many teens that have a wonderful, affectionate family and are very confidant are merely looking for the few minutes of pleasure and avoid using protection.

As several teens use the excuse that sex feels better without a condom, an unwanted pregnancy is likely to occur. One major effect of teenage pregnancy is that the child may be raised by a single parent. While most girls are looking for love and acceptance in sex, many guys are looking for the mere pleasure and are not planning on becoming a responsible teen father. The pressures of high school and hanging out with friends may be overwhelming for some teens, so they just leave. Raising a child as a teen is difficult, but raising a child alone would be almost impossible.

With this I hope you will conclude that having a child is not a game; it’s a task we must take serious. Teens, we need to look at the effects as well as all the consequences before we go out and engage ourselves in something that can and could affect our entire lives. So let’s think before we become sexually active. Abstinence is the key but for those of us who can’t abstain, just remember to be wise, and condomize. I thank you!

Bibliography

1. Teen Pregnancy: Fact Sheet. ” Mar. 2000. “It Happens To “Good Girls” Too. ” Dec. 1999 “When Children Have Children. ” Jan. 2000 Wikepedia

Priscilla Dunlap Mrs. Rodriguez Writing 122 / Per. 4 10 May 2010 To Tolerate or Not To Tolerate Teen pregnancy costs the United States over $7 billion annually according to the National Campaign of Prevention. Although this number is astronomically high, the money donated is in fact put to good use. Students (7-12 grades) cannot comprehend the amount of responsibility, anxiety, and stress a teenage parent undergoes. As high school students do not have to face these factors they are inconsiderate to the amount of work a teen parent actually takes on.

Nearly half (46%) of all 15–19-year-olds in the United States have had sex at least once according to MSNBC News. Every one of these teens partaking in sexual activity has the possibility of impregnating or becoming impregnated. Although, this same 46% of sexually active teens are probably against teen parents having financial aid from our government. Why? If they were in the same position their view may change. We as young adults should be more tolerant of teen parent’s financial needs and be more considerate to the struggles they are undergoing.

One in three teen girls in the United States is estimated to get pregnant at least once before age 20, according to About. com. While this is better than a decade ago, when the number was four in ten girls, it is still too high. Pregnancy has very important consequences for teen girls and teen boys, and their children. Having a baby as a teen makes it much harder for a boy or girl to reach their goals, such as finishing high school, going on to college, getting a good job, or getting married when they grow up, and poses additional challenges to the child as well.

In a baby’s first year alone, a parent can easily spend an average of $9,000-$11,000 annually according to surebaby. com. This money is for necessities, it is not optional. A teen parent has no realistic way of obtaining this money without support of some kind. What if the family of the teen decides to not or cannot help? The teen is left with no choice but to seek help from our government. It would be un-American to turn them away and make them live on the streets. So in what ways does our government help?

Our government and local community have developed numerous support programs such as; Women, Infant, and Child (WIC); offered at most local health departments. They offer a monthly supply of peanut butter, bread, milk, cereal, cheese, and formula just to name a few. Medicaid: which provides socialized medicine care, and it is to help those who cannot afford insurance on their own. Depending on income and whether it increases or decreases, a child is qualified until he/she is eighteen years old. Pediatrician: Every baby needs a doctor.

Another form of assistance that is provided to teen parents that is the most beneficial and is absolutely necessary is housing. Maternity group homes house unfortunate teen parents that have no were else to go. We as a nation cannot, and will not have a pregnant girl be living on the streets. Maternity Group homes provide housing and other support services for pregnant or parenting teenagers. They include house rules, supervision, limit of stay, and other standards witch help them stay structured.

They are funded by local, state, and national networks. Almost all maternity group homes are operated and managed by community-based organizations. Some may have religious affiliations, while others are secular. The cost of operating maternity group homes varies depending on location, staffing, services provided, number of families served, and other factors. Among homes surveyed by SPAN in 2001, the annual cost per family ranged from $5,000 to $85,000, with a mean of about $36,000.

Yet, when it comes to providing a home to a homeless teen and their child, the cost is priceless. The next controversial issue that arises is educational aid from the government for teen moms. We will provide education to convicts in hopes that they become a positive influence on society but we discourage education being provided to teen parents? Some students see it as unfair that teen parents do get benefits such as President Obama’s new grant that pays for a teen parent’s education. But those individuals are simply selfish.

Why wouldn’t we want to make education available to struggling teen parents? It costs a teen parent the same amount of money as college tuition to simply raise a child. Thus being they are obviously paying the same amount as the average student, just in a different way. If we educate those young individuals we are providing them with the opportunity to provide their child with a better life and a lesser chance of their child following the same paths their parent did. This in turn will benefit our society as a whole.

It simply does not make since to rob an individual who is willing to work hard the chance of a better life, especially when they are raising the upcoming generation of America. Each year in the U. S. almost one million teenagers become pregnant at huge costs to themselves, their children, and society. While the facts are clear, the issues of teenage pregnancy are complicated by our conflicting attitudes and behaviors. We as young Americans must put ourselves in someone else’s shoes for a day and consider their struggles.

Teen pregnancy should never be promoted, yet the way to fix is not to shun. We should simply be more opened minded. Work Cited 1. “Baby Care”. Sure Baby. 16 April, 2010 . 2. Couric, Katie. “The 411: Teens and Sex”. MSNBC News. 15 April, 2010 . 3. Hoffman, Saul. “Cost of Teen Childbearing “. The National Campaign against teen pregnancy. 16 April, 2010 . 4. Hulsey, Lara. “What Are Maternity Group Homes? “. MatheMatica Policy Research. 16 april, 2010 . 5. Lowen, Linda. “Teen Pregnancy Statistics in the US”. About: Women’s Issues. 16 April, 2010 .

Physical Development and Health in Middle Childhood

Rosibel CastroPhysical Development in Middle Childhood The hidden changes in children’s bodies that enable the movements so familiar to us-riding bikes, climbing, jumping, skipping (p.289). Between the ages of 6 and 12, children grow 2 to 3 inches and add about 6 pounds each year. Girls age range are head of boys.

Girls also have more body fat and less muscle tissue than boys (p.290). Bones mature in such a regular and predictable way that physicians use bone age as the best single measure of a child’s physical maturation. The process of bone development gives us a powerful argument in favor of increased exercise or physical activity for children.

The endocrine system strongly influences physical growth and development. During the middle school years, the glands of the endocrine system change gradually in ways to prepare the body for the momentous changes that will occur during sexual maturation, or puberty. A muscle mass increases in middle childhood, so does strength.

Boys and girls differ in strength in two ways:

• Boys outperform girls on measures of strength, including tasks that involve using the muscles to apply pressure to a device used to measure muscle force.
• The ratio of strength to body size is greater amongst boys, thus boys require less effort to move their bodies through space than girls do. Both boys and girls become stronger during middle childhood.

Children’s capacity for extended physical activity (stamina) rises steeply across the middle childhood years as well. (Gabbard,2008). If we observe children at the playgrounds, we will notice that preschoolers display short bursts of physical activity followed by periods of rest. Changes in stamina are linked to growth of the heart and lungs, which is evident during later years of middle childhood.

These changes enable children bodies to take in more oxygen and to distribute it throughout the body more efficiently. Two major growth spurts happen in the brain during middle childhood. (Spreen, Risser, ; Edgell, 1995). In most healthy children, the first takes place between the ages 6 and 8, the second between the ages 10 and 12. Both spurts involve development of new synapses as well as increase in the thickness of the cortex.

Some of the first motor skills infants use are eye movements, and slowly this expands to movement of the arms, legs, and hands (even though they’re uncoordinated). Eventually, the child begins crawling and walking. Gross motor skills involve activities like rolling over, sitting up, crawling, and walking. These allow the child to gain new perspectives from which to evaluate their surrounding environment, enabling them to begin learning social skills and rules.

Fine motor skills involve more intricate tasks like touching, grabbing, and manipulating objects, enabling learning about the details of different objects and people. Advances in both gross and fine motor skills interact to allow children to develop sports skills such as hitting a baseball. About one-quarter to one-third of children in the united states suffer from allergies, immune reactions to substances called allergens. Children who have respiratory allergies experience sneezing, stuffy noses, and more frequent sinus infections.

Food allergies can affect the respiratory system as well. The most frequent cause of school absences is asthma. Asthma is a chronic lung disease in which individuals experience sudden, potentially fatal attacks of breathing difficulty.

An acute illness has the following characteristics:

• Onset is usually abrupt and from a single cause
• Develops quickly and worsens rapidly, such as an infection, trauma or injury
• Usually isolated to one bodily area
• Can be diagnosed and responds to treatment
• Acute pain stops when the illness is healed
• May heal by itself or can be treated and returned to normal within a few days or up to three months
• If it lasts longer than three months, it may be the start of a chronic illness

The following are generally descriptive of chronic illnesses:

• Onset is commonly gradual
• Duration is lengthy and indefinite
• Cause is usually multiple and can be a combination of genetic and environmental factors
• Diagnosis is often uncertain; getting an accurate diagnosis can be a long, difficult process

There is no cure and requires management over time In my opinion, we do most of the learning about our bodies during middle childhood, the reason I say this is because, we learn about ourselves, the environment around us, this is the time when we are truly exposed to everything out there.

Children are aware that they have allergies, they know they need their asthma pumps if they start having trouble breathing. During this time children know what kind of sports they want to play and they know what limits to push their bodies too. If a child is obese he will not want to join any sports not only because he might be “fat shamed” but also because he knows his body is not prepare to be put into the sports routine.

References

The Growing Child, Denise Boyd, Helen Bee 2009.https://study.com/academy/lesson/perceptual-motor-development-definition-components.html https://www.navicenthealth.org/service-center/health-associates-general/acute-and-chronic-illnesses