Civilization

My culture comes from where I am from and where I was raised. I am Pakistani. I was born and raised in Pakistan. I don’t know about art history. Where is came from? I am going to write about Art culture in Pakistan. Art is an expression of a specific person or group of people. Art can have a large effect on culture, as it can be symbolic of traits, morals, and spiritual characteristics. An artist is described as ‘a man or woman whose creative work shows sensitivity and imagination. Culture in Pakistan dates returned to greater than 5,000 years to the duration of the Indus civilization. Also known as the Indus Valley or Harappan civilization, Indus was once the earliest known urban lifestyle of the Indian subcontinent.

The emphasis on the Islamic faith has introduced a robust romantic identification with the Islamic way of life in Pakistan. Pakistani artists desired to present themselves as current according to worldwide standards, and adopted patterns popular in the United States and Europe, however, they also started experimenting with native traditions to see how these should be adapted. Modern artwork used to be chosen as the country’s visual language because regular traditional art was regarded to be insufficient to correct categorical the goals and fears of a technology aiming closer to a new generation of freedom. The 1960s delivered a strong American culture have an effect on Pakistani urban centers.

Films and publications were shown, and the media used to be used to promote Abstracts Expressionism the United States’ first art movement. Through art historians and touring exhibitions, Pakistani artists acquired publicity to summarize style. Those trained in the English medium colleges effortlessly adopted western styles, valuing ahead progress. The first artist in Pakistan to clearly have an exhibition of current art work used to be a woman. Zubeida Agha developed an approach to painting that mirrored her training and trip in each Pakistan and Europe. Today, Pakistan has a strangely excessive ratio of woman artists due to the fact that the artwork industry has now not historically been viewed as a lucrative commercial enterprise via men.

In the past, creatively inclined guys in Pakistan have focused extra on fields of marketing or illustration, leaving the art subject open to women. Modern Pakistani lady artists proceed to galvanize no longer only their country, but the complete world. Pakistan is wealthy and numerous in all types of artwork and culture. The United States of America are domestic to numerous artwork galleries, museums, performing arts theaters, drama and dance studios, and film events. Although Lahore is depicted as the cultural capital, all predominant facility, and many rural areas have cultural occasions and fairs during the year. In short word Pakistani artists paint on many surfaces’ canvas, paper, walls, even fixtures and trucks, in styles based on traditional methods and patterns and present-day techniques alike.

The Aztec and Incan civilizations have similarities in religion, politics and social structure. Just like all compare and contrast topics, there will definitely be many similar parts but also many different parts to their society. There are many things that start up a great civilization. From its beginning, to its leaders, to many more factors that contribute greatly. Overall they both made great impact on history to this day.

The Aztecs were nomads that were worshiping the Huitzilopochtli which is the Aztec sun and war god. There was a legend that says the people of Azetec were to head south in search of an eagle on a cactus with a snake in its mouth. If they found that, then they were to establish their city there. Where they found and established their civilization, it was in present day Mexico. As they began to start their city they copied other civilizations through their religion, cities, commerce and culture. Just like the South Indians in our previous essay. They adopted and integrated many things into their starting culture they originally had. Which makes them now a melting pot like the United Stares.

In 1325 they began to really settle. The Incas now, were a small tribe in the Andes in struggle for the rare, rich soil in order to establish farming. They settled in Cuzco at 1200. Their technique to began to become a powerful empire was by attacking apposing tribes. If we were to say who was more powerful, the Inca had the more the empire. This is because the Incas had a much larger empire at it height or peak point of development as a society, and a better sense of government. The strong part of the Aztecs was they had a better social structure and were more consistent and loyal to their religion.

Their religion served as a key factor to their lifestyle. So important that the taking ones life in the sake of religion was accepted and a normal thing practiced. Although this was more common through the Aztecs, it was still practiced with the Inca people during rituals and ceremonies. Human sacrifice was performed to please the gods and increase the chance the crop produce in the year to come. Usually the prisoners of war, volunteers, and the youth would be sacrificed in their worshipping mass.

The volunteers who chose to die for their religion were set to one year of waiting. You would live a very lavish life up to their sacrificial murder. Originally this kind of ideas was passed on by the Maya and the Toltec empires. The Inca side more calm and not as intense as the Aztecs. It was rare that they would sacrifice a human, and usually be a goat or some other animal to be sacrificed. They would only sacrifice a human during a famine, war, or significant reason. In the end, the Aztec had the more powerful religion overall.

Socially, the Inca and the Aztec was much different. Aztecs based their social structure on a ladder of four classes: nobility, commoners, serf and slaves.  The nobility and the commoners could own Land. Serfs were members of the lowest social class, like slaves. They were assigned and attached to the land owned by the nobles and required to perform labor with a certain amount of work for an amount of free time. A serf was very similar to the indentured slave.

Even worse, there was the slave who worked on the noble’s properties with no release. The fairer one was the Inca social structure which was based on equality. Everyone was equal and there was no upper or lower class – a stateless society. Thats great right? Everyone would have the same stipend or salary. Kinda like communism. In this social structure no one owned private property but everyone had the same amount of land to live on. Anything that you grew or harvested belonged to the government. Which made it hard to have ambitions to do more if your neighbor did nothing and still got the same result. Also if you had more of something than someone else, for example sheep, you would be required to give it away to people who had less sheep than you. So live was more less motivation and diverse compared to the fellow Azetects.

The Government and politics were both widespread in both empires. A hierarchy controlled the Aztec empire. There were the steps that separated it. Each step had more command and power than the one lower. The emperor was the top of the chain. He controlled the military and was backed by various religious viewpoints, such as the emperor was a god to be worshiped. The emperor and his subjects also had the job of also controlling the life of the commoners. The emperor owned all the land and regulated the amount of food rations each person got. So he was the boss over his people and did what he felt was best to him and his people. This kind of government was not as centralized as the Inca. An Incan ruler called Pachacuti created an authoritative central rule to calm his large empire. He shaped a very detailed structure consisting of tax collection, courts, military, and trade security. Also a common language to be used, called the Quechua.

Eventually they are all conquered and changed. Which hows that these empires were the roots and pioneers that led to bigger, better, and new empires such as the Americas. The empires taught us to farm on a rocky plain by using steps and various other great tools. Without them we wouldn’t have so much skills and knowledge we have today.

The ancient Aztecs were a Mesopotamia civilization. They originated from Northern Mexico. They developed a intricate social ,political, and religious society. They were great contributors to today’s ideas, way of living, and society itself.

The Aztecs were very advanced and articulate. Causeways were very important because of where the Aztec capital was located at. Causeways are raised roads across water or wet ground. Another very important achievement that the Aztecs made was that they created “floating gardens”, “Floating gardens” were used because the Aztecs were originally located on a small island, there was not a whole lot of room for the crops that the Aztecs wanted to grow and sell.The island was also the capital of the Aztec Empire, and it had big temples that could be seen from far away.

Aztecs also made a calendar that was similar to the Mayan calendar. This calendar helped the Aztecs choose days for stuff such asas ceremonies, days for battle, days for planting crops, and many other things. The Aztecs were also very good with plants. They had a good idea of what foods were edible and what foods were deadly. They knew more than one hundred plants that could be used as medicines.The Aztecs were very talented artist and writers as well. In the Aztecs architecture and sculptures they usually made their work out of stone. Besides achievements they were also very skilled artist.

The Aztecs were very skilled artist. To make art they incorporated natural materials and gold feathers. With the use of there art skills they were able to developed a capital city. Within the city were avenues, canals, long causeways, aqueducts, and dikes. It also included pyramids , temples and buildings. They had a bunch of markets that included everything from livestock, medicine, food, and building materials. Of all the accomplishments there is a lot of history.

The aztecs were under the rule of Itzcoatl. They formed a three way alliance with Texcocans and the Tacubans. They joined the alliance to defeat there most powerful rivals. They wanted influence within the religion and they wanted conquer the Tepanec, and conquer their capital of Azcapotzalco. By the 16th century the Aztecs ruled over 500 small states. Within these states were a massive population of about 5 to 6 million. Within these states there were markets that were visited by about 50,000 , the markets were a big contributor to the Aztec economy. These cities also included great structures and temples. Of all these great advances in the Aztec community there were other big roles in their society, one being beliefs.

The ancient Aztecs built temples, plazas, and palaces with statues in them for reasons of religion and to represent their undivided devotion. Some of their gods include Huitzilopochtli god of war and of the sun and Quetzalcoatl (“Feathered Serpent”), a Toltec god who influenced many important roles in the Aztec faith over the years. The aztecs also developed a calendar that was influential to their religion. The calendar was based on a solar cycle of 365 days and a ritual cycle of 260 days.With all of the peace and accomplishments, came a downfall.

By the year of 1517 was the first Europeans to settle in Mexico ( Francisco Hernandez de Cordoba). Cortes founded the city of Veracruz where he trained his army. Cortes and about 400 soldiers marched into Mexico with the intentions of violence. Being that the Aztec Empire was failing, Cortes was able to make alliances. In November 1519, Cortes and his men arrived in Tenochtitlan, where Montezuma and his people greeted them as honored guests according to Aztec custom.

The Aztecs had superior numbers, but their weapons were inferior. Cortes felt the need to take Montezuma and his lords hostage. In which he gained control of Tenochtitlan. The piards killed thousands of people including, Aztec nobles during a ritual dance ceremony, and Montezuma died under uncertain circumstances while in custody.In the year It is to be believed that they brought on salmonella.Cuauhtemoc, his young nephew, took over as emperor. The Aztecs pushed the Spaniards out of the city. Finally defeating Cuauhtemoc’s on August 13, 1521. 240,000 people were believed to have died in the city’s conquest, which ended the Aztec civilization. After his victory, Cortes razed Tenochtitla and built Mexico City , it quickly became the premier European center in the New World.

The Economy of Ancient India. Agriculture and crafts. Impact of science on economy

India is an ancient country about 8 thousand years old. In its territory lived a strange people of the Indians. Which were divided into several social classes. Where priests played an important role. Although historians do not know who ruled this state. The Indians had their own language and writing. Their writings cannot be deciphered by scholars to this day.

The ancient Indians presented to the humankind such crops as cotton, sugar cane. They made a thin cloth – a sieve. They tamed the world’s largest animal, the elephant.

They believed in different gods, worshiped animals. Along with the gods, the Vedas, the Sanskrit language and the Brahmins were worshiped as guardians of culture and sacred knowledge. The Brahmins were considered to be living gods. The history of India allows us to study the most important stage in the development of mankind – the collapse of the tribal system, the emergence of classes and ancient slave-owning societies, the creation of states, the beginning of civilizations and the economy as an organized sphere of human activity.

Separation of animal husbandry from agriculture, development of agriculture and the separation of crafts, the emergence of metallurgy, the emergence of the need for additional labor. She became mainly captives, who were turned into slaves. The increase in production gives a surplus product that becomes the object of exchange. There was trade and then money. The ancestral community is gradually disintegrating. Wars and trade increased the property stratification. There is a first division of society into classes – slaves and slaves. A state is created to protect the interests of owners, property, slave owners and protection from external danger.

The Economy of Ancient India

Among civilizations and ancient powers that have arisen on the planet, a special place is occupied by Indian civilization, which has had a huge impact on the development of the economy and culture of the whole of Southeast Asia.

From ancient times, the Indo-Peninsula was inhabited by Dravid tribes. Their habitat from the north was restricted to the Himalayas, from the west and east – the ocean. Such detachment from the outside world was reflected in the identity of the population and its economy and culture. For the habitation of the people the most favorable areas were the Indus and Ganges valleys and their tributaries. The hot climate and the lack of rainfall required irrigated agriculture, which in turn forced people to come together for irrigation work.

Already in the III millennium BC. The states and cities of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa were created by indigenous peoples in the north of the peninsula, whose excavations testify to the high level of economy and culture of the local people.

The city of Mohenjo-Daro was the largest of its time, with an area of ​​260 hectares. The city had large houses of 200 m2 or more. In the center of the city was an artificial swimming pool with a depth of 3 m, lined with two rows of bricks. There was a water supply system in the city. Water flowed into the city and bred through its territory through ceramic pipes. To prevent water leakage, there were flanges at the ends of the pipes. The joints of pipes were sealed with asphalt. The rich people’s homes had bathrooms and toilets. The city had sewage systems, sewage from residential buildings fell into the street sewer networks and were discharged outside the city.

Trade was also developed. This is evidenced by the remnants of a covered large market with permanent counters, kettlebells found, large warehouses. The inhabitants had their hieroglyphic writing. There were trade links with the states of Mesopotamia, in whose territories seals with ancient Indian scripts were found.

The main occupation of the population was agriculture. Wheat, barley, vegetables were grown. From ancient times (V BC) began to grow cotton here, and from IV millennium BC. ie – sugar cane. A tiller plow was used for tillage. Farmers were free congregants, from whom natural taxes were levied. In the economy of large landowners used the work of slaves.

Crafts have reached a high level. In ceramic production was used pottery wheel. Vessels and bricks were burned in special furnaces. Copper, tin, lead, gold and silver were mined. Bronze and other alloys of metals were produced. Casting, sheet forging and riveting were already used in metalworking. In weaving, cotton was used as raw material. Jewelry skill was developed. Products were made of gold, silver, stones.

Excavations of ancient cities testify to the level of construction skill.

In the middle of the second millennium BC. The ancient cities of India were conquered by Aryan tribes descending from the Hindu Kush Mountains. The Aryans were nomads, pastoralists, who first sought the Indus Valley and then the Ganges in search of new pastures. The economic and cultural level of the Aryans was below the conquered peoples. They destroyed the ancient cities. The culture of agriculture has also declined. The main activity for a long time was nomadic livestock.

Subsequently, the Aryans began to borrow from the indigenous population the culture of agriculture. The population lived in family-owned, community-owned communities. Gradually, family communities were transformed into rural, rural-run communities.

The land was owned by communities. As property stratification in communities emerged the right of private ownership of land.

The wars gave prisoners of war who became slaves and worked for wealthy members of the community. From among the wealthy were selected officials who managed the community economy or hostilities. They have given themselves the right to distribute community products.

Gradually, in order to preserve the privileges and community values ​​that have been gained, a social system – castes – is being created in India. By the laws of Manu and Anastamba, all the inhabitants of the country were divided into four castes: Brahmins (priests); kshatriyas (warriors); farmers, artisans, traders; sudras (people who have no property and slaves). The privileged position was occupied by the first two castes. The laws forbade the mixing of people of different castes.

Until the VI. BC. In the northeastern part of India, there were several states. The largest were Magadha and Kashala, who fought for hegemony in the area. In the V century. BC. Magadha wins this fight. North-West India in VI. BC. BC falls under the rule of the Persian king Darius I. However, in 327 BC. Alexander the Great, having defeated the troops of Darius, seized North-West India.

After the death of Alexander as a result of the liberation movement led by Chandragupta, the Indian state was created, and the heirs of Chandragupta expanded it. In this way, part of Afghanistan included parts of Afghanistan and Balochistan, northern India and the Deccan.

Agriculture and crafts

Already in the III millennium BC. The main occupation of the inhabitants of the Indus Valley was agriculture. Wheat, barley, peas, millet, jute and, for the first time in the world, cotton and sugar cane were grown.

Livestock breeding was well developed. Indians raised cows, sheep, goats, pigs, donkeys, elephants. The horse appeared later.

The Indians were very familiar with metallurgy. The main tools were made of copper. Knives, spearheads and arrowheads, hoes, axes and more were smelted from it. It was not a secret for them artistic casting, skillful processing of stone, alloys, among which a special place was occupied by bronze. Indians were known for gold and lead. But iron at this time they did not know.

It was developed and craft. An important role was played by spinning and weaving. Impressive is the skill of jewelers. They handled precious metals and stones, ivory and shells.

Maritime and land trade reached a high level. In 1950, archaeologists found the first ever port for mooring ships at low tide.

Trade with the Southern Inter-Rivers was the most active. Cotton and jewelry were brought here from India. Barley, vegetables and fruits were brought to India. There were trade links with Egypt and the island of Crete. Probably the Indians also exchanged with neighboring nomadic peoples and even built a city on the Amu Darya River.

With the inheritance of Indian culture, economic life died down. Only at the turn of the II – I millennium BC. The new Indian population – the Indians – has again moved to agriculture. There were crops of wheat, barley, millet, cotton and jute. Particularly high yields were harvested by the Ganges farmers.

Along with the horse and cattle an important place in the farm was occupied by an elephant. With his help, people have successfully fought the enduring jungle.

Metallurgy is developing. Quickly having mastered bronze, already at the beginning of the first millennium BC. The Indians learned to mine iron. This has greatly facilitated the development of new lands previously occupied by swamps and jungles.

Craft is also being revived. Again prominent place in the economy are pottery and weaving. Particularly famous were Indian cotton fabrics, which could be made through a small ring. These fabrics were very expensive. In honor of the goddess of arable land, the City called them a sitter. There were also simpler cheap fabrics.

Only trade remained low. It was limited to the exchange of goods between neighboring communities.

Thus, the ancient Indians presented to mankind such crops as cotton, sugar cane. They tamed the world’s largest animal, the elephant.

The main occupation of the population was agriculture. Rural communities have been preserved, and community members have jointly owned and cultivated the land. The communes carried in favor of the prevailing labor obligations – one day a month (building roads, canals, other construction work) and paid natural taxes – 1/6 of the crop.

But with the development of property stratification in communities, much of the public land is concentrated in the hands of rich people, and the poor are forced to borrow in rich land for rent. The expansion of private land ownership was facilitated by the distribution to the kings of the land of Brahmins, officials, and military. Land began to sell, give, lease. Rents, like royal taxes, were levied in kind. Silk farming began to appear in the country, and cotton was further developed.

With the development of productive forces in the country again began to revive crafts. Artisans began to specialize in types of crafts, to combine into special groups of workshops and guilds. As a rule, artisans of one type of craft settled their part of the city and occupied their part of the market.

Weaving developed most rapidly. The fabrics were woven of cotton, wool, linen, silk. Cotton, as a raw material and finished fabric, has been the subject of Indian exports to neighboring countries. Developed metalworking and woodworking.

With the development of handicrafts began to grow rapidly the city. Varanasi, Shravasti, Pataliputra, Vanga, Kalinga became the economic centers of the country. With the advent of maritime shipping, the ports of Dantapur and Roruka are being built on the shores of the seas. Trade relations are established with China, the countries of Southeast Asia and even with Syria and Egypt.

Impact of science on economy

The heyday of the economy of ancient India in the VI-III centuries. BC. contributed to the expansion of scientific knowledge and culture. Knowledge was systematized in the field of astronomy, mathematics, medicine.

In India, distinctive writing systems of kharosta, brahma, devangar and other alphabets were created, which became the basis of writing in the countries of Southeast Asia.

The state, taking care of the development of science, organizes universities. Thus, in the VII century. there was a large science center in Nalanda, with 10,000 students. Exams were taken for admission to this university. The level of requirements was such that 80% of applicants were screened. The university was so prestigious that some individuals pretended to be graduates of this institution. In order to maintain the authority of the graduates, they began to issue certificates with clay seals on graduation from this university.

Already in the II millennium BC. CE astronomers have established the phases of the moon, the lunar zodiac. They created a calendar. The year was divided into 12 months of 30 days. In the VI. N. ie, astronomical treatises are written. The Hindus established the rotation of the Earth around its axis and the moon’s reflection of the light of the sun.

Particularly significant were the successes of Indian medicine. Already in the middle of II thousand Indian physicians systematized knowledge in the field of human anatomy and had anatomical terms. Not only did they know about diseases such as jaundice, rheumatism, pranks and others, but they diagnosed them and tried to treat them.

The medicinal properties of plants are studied and medicines are produced. There are doctors of different specialties: surgeons, therapists. The first medical treatises, for example, in the I century. N. e. a treatise by Samhita Charak, then a treatise by Sushruta Samhita. Indian surgeons are developing many medical instruments. Thus, the treatise of Shushtra describes 20 sharp and 101 blunt medical instruments, including scalpels, probes, syringes, tweezers, needles, etc.

Doctors performed ophthalmic surgeries, operations for suturing the gut, plastic surgery (repair of the nose, restoration of the torn lining of the soup, etc.). All this testified not only to the skill of physicians, but also to the skill of artisans who made fine medical instruments. Knowledge of Indian doctors passed to the Arabs, and then reached the European specialists.

Conclusion. It was no coincidence that India was one of the countries in the world where the transition to class society was first made, and statehood emerged. In its region, earlier than other parts of the northern hemisphere, conditions for the development of human civilization arose. While almost all of the European continent was still covered with dense forests, and only in some places, in the past, scattered parking lots of primitive hunters in India had already begun to flourish at a very high level of material culture.

Agriculture – one of the most important sectors of economic activity began to develop earlier and faster than in other areas of the globe. This was facilitated by the warm climate, the presence of fertile river valleys, easily cultivated soil. The rapid development of agriculture made it possible to raise other sectors of the economy and productive forces as a whole to such a level as to determine the division of society into classes and the emergence of the first states.

The biggest achievement is the creation of a sophisticated irrigation system with an extensive network of canals and artificial reservoirs. The fields were enclosed by dikes; when water was released from irrigation channels, they turned into small pools.

Craft is increasingly important in the economy. Artisans have succeeded in the textile, pottery and blacksmith industries, in the processing of wood, stone, leather, ivory, precious metals – gold and silver.

Greece were a little more than virtual slaves, themselves. From the day of their birth, up to their deaths, females were constantly controlled by a master, normally the father than overtaken by her husband. Girls approximately the age of 1 5 were chosen an appropriate suitor by their fathers, usually a man already more than twice her age (p. 75). Most men spent little time at home; therefore, the wives dominated home life through her skills of sewing, cooking, spinning, weaving, and preserving the slaves of the family household.

On average there were plenty of slaves to help with the dally chores, only the most destitute homes was the lady responsible for these duties alone. Therefore, wives In some aspect were more privileged than women in our present society, where the domestic labor Is generally completed single-handedly. Women had specific boundaries in society and the events that took place there. Women didn’t have the privilege of voting, and were allowed no entitlement into public office. Although women were forbidden in political positions, they were Greek citizens and could not be violated or sold into slavery (p. 4). They were prohibited from watching the Olympic Games as they contained fragments of nudity, and were only permitted to participate in chariot racing. (Graham) Public roles that women were encouraged to take role in were funerals, weddings, and religious celebrations where they could socialize outside of the home. “A wife’s main duty, apart from managing the household, was to provide a male heir n order to maintain the family’s hold over its property,” The Western Experience.

Since men dictated all property in classical Greece, it was a necessity to produce boys in addition to girls. It is difficult to depict the ancient feminine lives of the Greeks exactly, as we have no recorded verification documented directly by them. A number of Greek gods and written Greek epics portray women as leaders, and are sharply admired by men. Sources.

Roman Emperor, Father of Europe, or the Chief Bishop Larry Ray December 15, 2013 Charlemagne was one of the greatest European rulers of medieval times. He was both part warrior and part scholar. He was also know to many as Charles the Great or Just Charles in his inner circle. He lived from 747 to 814. Charlemagne was a Frank. Franks’ were German tribes who controlled the area of northwestern Europe that is now western Germany and northern France.

Not much is known about Charlemagne’s childhood, however her grew up to be a very religious righteous man. He boasted with Christian spirit and it is with that spirit that he wanted to rule. He believed in education and in virtuous work. Even his own children would be tasked with menial work. Charlemagne was known for his “greatness of spirit” and steadfast determination. L His autobiographer, Inward wrote many times of the fact that Charlemagne recognized and lived by traditional Roman Virtues. He single handedly battled to extend the area on all sides of his kingdom.

Eventually he went from being King of the Franks to Emperor of the West. However, “According to this title, Charlemagne as not the Roman emperor crowned by the pope but rather God’s emperor, who governed the Roman Empire along with his many other duties. ” 2 By the time Charlemagne had died, his Freakish Empire was as big as the Byzantine Empire. 3 Charlemagne was a lover of the Liberal Arts. He was never satisfied with his own language so he went on to learn several others, most of all Latin. He could understand Greek but he never learned to speak it well.

In the Kings spare time he studied rhetoric, astronomy, and dialectics. It wasn’t until later in his life that he started to write in Journals documenting his wisdom and ideas about religion and owe the stars and the planets existed. In one of the most accomplished endeavors that Charlemagne took on, was the education of children. He was truly a visionary of his time. He himself was quite educated verbally and in reading but he never mastered the art of writing. He thought that every child should have a chance to go to school, even commoners.

He felt with education that he could lead his people to eternal salvation. What better way to spread the word of God, and then teach it along side general education? In Charlemagne’s conquests there were several newly conquered lands and or people hat needed saving, so he took upon himself to build school and fill them with the most educated of educators. He vowed to have the teachers teach grammar, psalms, math, and reading. Charlemagne would offer free schooling to anyone ages six years and up that would offer there children to the Church, attaching them to the monastic life permanently.

He would task the nuns and monks to educate these children with little or no down time. If the child successfully completed the first series of education they would then be allowed to continue in his educational program, which would include subjects such as, geometry, music, astronomy, and math. 4 The end result of Charlemagne’s school curriculum well surpassed anything he could have imagined. “It led too kind of literacy renaissance”. Scholars from all over Europe would come and teach different subject.

These scholars from Italy, Spain, Ireland, and England influenced the regions culture not only raising questions about religion and social issues but they also influenced the way Charlemagne’s own children were being raised. Charlemagne married at his mother’s request the daughter of Desirous, the King of the Lombardi. However it is said she was sent away a year later because she could not have children. 6 He later took a Sabina woman as his partner and had four sons and five daughters. Charlemagne was unlike other rules with children.

His autobiographer would often say that he bonded with his children, always making time for them. He would eat dinner with them, and he never would travel without them. They were educated Just as other children, first in the Liberal Arts, with emphasis in math and grammar and then on to the higher level, which included music and geometry. After a certain age the boys were taught how to ride horses ND carry a sword. The girls were taught how to work wool, so they would value hard work. 7 He never did marry off any of his daughters.

It is speculated that he was too worried about having to give up land by the request of their suitors, so he never strove to marry them off. Each went on to have several illegitimate children. 8 One thing is for sure; Charlemagne was a visionary and a skilled warrior. He knew that education was the key and he also knew it should be available to anyone who wanted it. His successors would continue on his legacy of learning by educating their officials and by spreading the word of God throughout the lands.

During the period of 1492 to 1750, Europe experienced drastic changes during their Age of Discovery. As a result of contact and colonization, Western Europe’s economy, political, social, and military systems changed, but also maintained certain aspects that enabled them to build strong civilizations. Such changes include increased (international) trade routes, more centralized governments such as monarchies, decreased unifying influence of the Catholic Church, and increased interest in military conquest and expansion.

In terms of the economy, industrialization and manufacturing drove the economy forward, catalyzing change and developments that would contribute to the economy. Advancements in metallurgy produced an increased demand for skilled blacksmiths and detailed metal work. State sponsored trading companies and colonial ventures were investments that had a lasting influence. The ventures were mainly directed at the Americas, which were rich sources of gold, silver, sugar, and other desired goods. This new international trade opened infinite possibilities for the economy to grow and expand.

These ventures also brought American crops back to Europe, such as potatoes, which increased specialized agriculture. However, through these increased changes within the economic system, many aspects remained behind. Most notably was in agriculture, where farmers continued relying on the methods and techniques of the Middle Ages, such as the three-field system. Although there were innovations during the 18th century, they were not enough to noticeably improve the productivity, and many old crops were grown along with new crops, which resulted in a lower production of the old crops.

Politically, important changes, mainly the Glorious Revolution, impacted Europe in such a way that there is a lasting impression to this day. The decline in feudal balance resulted in more centralized government states, therefore leading to absolute and parliamentary monarchies. When France, England, and the Netherlands gained power through international trade, Spain lost its dominance while slowly falling behind the new major powers of Western Europe. Parts of the European political systems that remained untouched included the feudal political forms that remained strong, even with introduction of monarchies.

Since European states thirsted for expansion of their states, military remained a top priority in funding; therefore, the strong feudal forms remained, although with shifted balance. Furthermore, ordinary people were not highly affected by the political changes, because politics did not concern them; all they had to worry about was paying their taxes as usual, and the general economic life was not altered. In terms of the social system and structure, a main change that altered the social structure was commercialization, which created a new social class, the proletariats, who suffered from poverty.

Other notable social changes include the emergence of a European-style family, which emphasized the nuclear family structure, and intensified links between family and individual property, and the decline of influence of the Catholic Church, which cause a separation of peoples’ religious and daily lives. However, women maintained their low statuses as inferiors to men, and have fewer alternatives when Protestants abolished convents. In addition, although the Catholic Church lost its influence, the elite remained powerful and limited cultural movements, mirroring that of the Dark Ages but to a lesser extent because of the Enlightenment.

Militarily, the main advancements were evident in the navy, and skills in building stronger, bigger ships capable of sailing the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. The increased interest in military conquest supported state-sponsored expeditions and ventures. France formed a professional military, and Italy became more militarized, with majority of Western European states improving their navies. Similar to their ancestors, the European states used their dominating armies and navies to expand their boundaries and conquer neighbouring lands.

The coastal states gained more territory as a result of having superior naval forces, notably Britain. Throughout the period of 15th to 18th centuries, the changes that occurred, heavily influenced the development of the states into independent, dominating forces with Western Europeans gaining their own unique identity. Although there were more changes than continuities, the aspects that did last through this period aided in the development of others, such as how the feudal political forms aided the emerging monarchies in becoming stronger, lasting till modern day.

Europe’s Age of Discovery was a time for drastic and rapid changes, changes for the best, and not necessarily for the worst. Guns, Germs, and Steel. Dir. Jerad Diamond. National Geographic, 2005. DVD. Hoffman, Philip T. “Prices, the Military Revolution, and Western Europe’s Comparative Advantage in Violence. ” Economic History Review, Feb2011 Supplement. Vol. 64. 2011. 39. Print. “Outline. ” World Civilizations, AP Edition. Pearson Education, 2010. Web. 11 Dec. 2011. . “Transformation of the West. ” World Civilizations. Pearson Education, 2010. Web. 11 Dec. 2011. .