Civilization

The purpose of this investigation is to find the real reason why and how Copal collapsed. Copal was placed where Honduras is today; Copal showed they were great civilization of the cultural Amman life. People wondered what happened to the once great civilization. Copal civilization had a rapid fall do to diseases, natural disasters, overpopulation, economic disruption, and many more. All those things that can happen to a civilization bring a collapse. But people around wanted evidence, from information that I read it was said there was no follow period and land was Ewing overused.

This was also hipping leading into another fact that the population was getting to large more than what civilization can hold. The evidence that kind of gave you the answer of the telling of overpopulation was the skulls and bones left behind. When the skulls were found there was a question was do these to skulls have different outcomes on what happened to them? Skull #1 showed it had severe anemia which probably killed the Copal citizen. Skull # 1 had spongy looking areas on the back of their skull which are caused by lack of iron in diet. The percentage was 0 percent of skeleton showed they had anemia.

Skull # 2 showed the Amman culture way of they had being wrapped during childhood formed into shape that Mayans are use to. The teeth were carved in an intricate pattern, something that Maya upper social classes would do. Skull # 2 was also shown that it had spongy looking areas on the on there had. This Amman noble had anemia also. The evidence has now proved this was not a gradual fall. In the forest there were plants that could have evidence In how and why Copal collapsed. These plants can tell us how it collapsed based on heir life style and how It affected the plants.

These plants showed that Copal valley had a heaver return back to the forest. I reached the conclusion that there were people with anemia when they died. A constant of over farming, too big of a population for Its own civilization, and economic disruption. This to me and evidence that there was a rapid decline going on. To prevent a collapse from happening It Is said that every society should have their own needs of rules, food, labor, drinks, and trader. Also your society should have educational purposes, with a passing of certain expectations.

To make sure this Is all being followed your society should provide meaning and motivation to Its members. Amman Collapse By Distant-Johnson this was not a gradual fall. In the forest there were plants that could have evidence in their life style and how it affected the plants. These plants showed that Copal valley population for its own civilization, and economic disruption. This to me and evidence that there was a rapid decline going on. To prevent a collapse from happening it is expectations. To make sure this is all being followed your society should provide meaning and motivation to its members.

Europe includes an immense diversity of cultures and languages that developed side by side; Asia on the other hand had been developing on its own for centuries before Europe began to evolve. So how did the “peninsula of Asia”, become not only a strong force in the West, but a global power. Through the different articles we read, Illustrated History of Europe, Roberts’ A History of Europe, Davies’ Europe: A History, Diamond’s Guns, Germs, and Steel, Landes’ The Wealth and Poverty of Nations, and Hanson’s Carnage and Culture one can understand how and why the later developing Europe became the dominate power over the already powerful Asia.

The Illustrated History of Europe calls Europe a divided continent, but one civilization. Europe’s wide plains, for example the Great Northern Plain, only aid to an easy invasion from the east which happened numerous times throughout Europe’s history. Europe also has a high diversity of languages, 43 in total, that were originated from Sanskrit. Because of this, Europe’s language, in written from, is based on a consonantal system rather than that of an ideographic system such as the Chinese use.

This article broke down Europe’s civilization into three different bases: democracy originating from the Greeks, law coming from the Romans, and finally, the value of individualism and liberty derived from the Christians. Roberts and Davies mainly describe Europe’s geography and how it affected the development of the people within. Roberts described Europe as a “peninsula of Asia”, being surrounded on its boundaries, primarily by water. This was why Europe was able to develop on its own.

The bodies of water, plus the plains and heavily forested inner regions, caused people to become very isolated from one another thus letting them make their own decisions and also forming their own languages. Western Europe’s temperate climate aided by the Gulf Stream kept its environment mild year round, plus with the addition of a good amount of rain made it easy to farm without irrigation. Central and Eastern Europe were not as lucky, however, because they experienced fluctuations in temperature and rainfall.

Diamond discussed how the “creation” of the farmer through the domestication of plants and animals led to the development of guns, germs, and steel. He compared the “hunter/gather” peoples with the “food producing” peoples, to demonstrate the benefit of the farmer. With a farming group, one could devote one’s time to other jobs, and thus become “specialists”. These specialists could master an art or trade instead of spending time searching for food, and eventually evolved to become the kings, bureaucrats, soldiers, priests, and artisans.

The domestications of plants and animals was an integral part of the development of the farming culture over that of the hunting culture. For example, the peapod when it is ripe will “explode” and drop its seeds onto the ground. The only thing left on the plant after this occurs are the pea pods that did not explode. Thus those were the ones which we were able to eat because they were the only ones we were able to gather. We would therefore only disperse the seeds of the “non-exploding” pea pods through our excrement or our garbage dumps.

In the end the hunter/gatherers will eventually die out because they do not have the steel to make tools as well as the weapons that the farmers have and thus will, in time, be destroyed. Latitude played a huge role in the rise of farmers in Europe. Due to the similar latitude throughout Europe the growing season is relatively the same, along with a relatively equal climate. The easy spread of germs came about because people lived in crowded villages where a disease could simply pass from one household to another.

Plus with the domestication of animals, the animals now lived in close quarters to the people and thus contributed to the spread of diseases. When the European explorers introduced germs to the Native Americans, many Native Americas were killed because they didn’t have the built up resistance because of the lack of domesticated animals. Because of Europe’s close proximity to animals many of the world’s diseases have originated there. The Fertile Crescent was a very ecologically fragile area. It ended up being destroyed due to deforestation, and erosion, as well as other factors and now is mainly desert.

The Great Man theory said that a few great men can influence the events of history. One of the main reasons Europe “outdid” China was because of Europe was fragmented, whereas China was totally united, this basically meant that competition could flourish while in China what was said was unquestioned. Landes covered some of what was in the Roberts article as well as what was in the Davies article. He discussed the Gulf Stream and the immense forests, but he also pointed out facts about riverside civilizations. People gathered around rivers because they not only provided water, but also a mode of transportation.

Riverside civilizations, because of their strategic importance were, however, more likely to have a ruler. In riverside civilizations if the ruler needed money or more land then he would just take what they wanted from the people. As far as property goes in the West, where there was no need for riverside civilizations due to the temperate climate and abundant rainfall, there was a deep commitment to private property; so much so that even kings did not take their subjects property. During the period of 1000 – 1500 AD, five “great” inventions were made.

These inventions were deemed the “inventions of inventions”. The inventions were the mechanical clock, gunpowder, eyeglasses, printing, and the water wheel. Gunpowder, in China was used as a defense, but in the European’s hands it became an offensive weapon. Eyeglasses “created” an additional work force from the many people who had poor eyesight but were in overall good physical condition. Printing was used to spread knowledge, so ideas no longer had to be passed by word of mouth. The water wheel became an addition source of power.

The mechanical clock, in my opinion the most important, kept people task oriented, and because people always want the most accurate time we kept improving upon it and it turn improved upon all inventions. This was the economic revolution, which was only comparable to when humans went from hunter/gatherers to food producers. Hanson stated that the reason the West fought so well was because Europeans fought for their own land. Peoples in the West had a voice in what happened, militarily and politically, whereas peoples in the east had none.

An example of this would be the battle of Salamis, the Greek soldiers got together only hours before the battle to decide if fighting this fight was really worth it. On the Persian side, however, the soldiers had no say in it, and fought that battle not necessarily wanting to fight for the cause. Due to the West’s freedom, private property, domestication of plants and animals and the movement from hunter/gatherers to food producers were all factors why the less developed Europe came to overpower the already strong Asia. If Asia had had a these “fundamentals” as did the West think how different the world would be.

1. In ancient Rome slavery became the indispensable foundation of the economy, and social status was a way to have political privilege and was praised upon in society. But in ancient China, they didn’t have as many slaves as the Romans, the had more of peasants contributing to society by working in fields, laboring on imperial estates, and maintaining canal channels. Chinese slaves also had legal protections provided by contracts specifying and limiting what would be demanded of them.

The government depended more on a large population of free peasants to contribute taxes and services to the state instead of ordering people to do it under a contract. Slaves weren’t as important to China as to Rome because they did not rely on the labor of a large slave population, they were merely a provided service or someone to do chores more than an actual slave. The treatment of Chinese slaves was much less harsh of the Romans, mostly because it was against the law to kill your slave, kings even lost their kingdoms after it was found they had murdered their slaves.

Slaves were mostly treated unjust and badly from their master, and were viewed as other forms of property. They were mostly treated like property when they were sold and purchased by masters. When they talked back or refused to work, most slaves were severely punished, although it was illegal to kill your slave in China. When they worked they were used to farm and fix things and with no rest or appreciation, inhuman things that were made for animals or tools.

In ancient China the slaves “humanity” came into account when the Qin government sought to abolish slavery. However, the institution persisted into the and the Qin were unsuccessful in the abolishment of slavery, but it showed that the treatment of slaves were unjust and how they wanted to prohibit it. 3. Since slaves were overworked, and improperly treated most slaves tried some passive resistant tactics that slaves resorted to, to revolt against their master in a non violent manner.

Most slaves made excuses not to work, blaming it on the weather, maybe even other slaves, and maybe the lack of tools or machinery for them to use. Some even slept too much to blame it on the lack of sleep their getting from overworking. The slaves did not really achieve anything but more work that had to be done. If it was raining outside, then they had to work inside, and if they complained about it they were punished. Slaves in china resulted in protection by a contract which made them protected by the government if masters broke the contract.

INDIAN CIVILIZATION Also called Indus Valley Civilization; the earliest in South Asia Contemporary with Bronze Age civilizations in pre-dynastic Egypt, Mesopotamia Compared to the other Bronze Age civilizations, Indus Valley Civilization was unspectacular Early civilizations of the Indian sub-continent were centred on two major river valleys: The Indus River and its tributaries, especially the Saraswati River Valley (2600-1500BCE) – associated with Dravidians.

Called Harappan Culture The Ganges River Valley (1500-500BCE) – associated with the Aryans. Called the Vedic Age. Along the Indus & Saraswati, there were two major centres of this civilization: Mohenjodaro and Harappa hence Harappan Culture Other cities of this civilization include Kalibagan, Chanhudaro & Doraji in Gujerat Origins and Development

This civilization appears as fully developed & distinctive culture; little is known about the cultures that came before it or the factors that led to its development Recent research indicates that antecedents of this civilization can be found at Mehrgarh on the western edge of the Indus plains Evidence that domestication of plants & animals, pottery production and village life began here Around 3200 – 2600 BCE, several pre-urban cultures existed in Indus Plains and the western hill valleys that show aspects of the Harappan culture HARAPPAN CULTURE: CHARACTERISTICS

Built on irrigation-based agriculture. Irrigation based on dikes and drains. Barley and wheat the most important crops; grains stored in granaries in Harappa and Mohenjodaro (as a form of tax? ) Domesticated animals cattle, water buffalo, goats, pigs, donkeys Trade was very important; extensive trade connections with areas around the Arabian Sea & up the Persian Gulf to Mesoptamia Fortified cities; well-planned with straight streets intersecting at right angles; a system of underground drains and sewers Buildings made of baked bricks.

At Mohenjodaro, multi-roomed houses have been recorded Thickness of walls and remains of staircases point to the existence of upper floors Skilled artisans including bead makers, metal workers, cotton weavers and potters Potters made painted pots decorated with nimal figures, water jars, cooking & drinking vessels & storage vessels Metal workers produced copper and bronze vessels, silver and gold ornaments Other artisans produced the square and rectangular seals from steatite & other soft rocks Seals had an animal carved in negative relief and a line of script that could be read when the seal was stamped on wet tablet Seals were used to authenticate messages. The script on the seals revealed the name, lineage, social identity or the public office held by seal-owner Seals could also have been worn as talismans or amulets

They are the only examples of writing from this period 400 pictographs/characters have been identified so far, but the script is not fully deciphered RELIGION Little is known about the early religions of the Indus River Valley in these early times However, many elements of India’s religious heritage today are evident from some seals from Harappa and Mohenjodaro. A seal from Mohenjodaro has a human-like figure with three heads wearing a headdress and sitting in the Yoga position. He is surrounded by animals: elephants, rhinos, water buffalo, deer etc.

Thought to be a Prototype of the popular Hindu god, Shiva (the Lord of Beasts) Seal impressions and clay figurines from Harappa depict a female deity with conspicous sexual organs = thought to represent the goddess of fertility FALL & DECLINE Harappan Culture declined and fell around 1500 BCE; Harappa, Mohenjodaro and other cities were abandoned and their populations dispersed into smaller settlements There was a reversal of achievements: writing was forgotten and much of northern India returned to village life

REASONS FOR DECLINE/FALL 1. Possible flooding along the Indus, affecting the densely populated areas and cities 2. Shifts in patterns of long distance trade with Mesopotamia and other regions 3. Changes in subsistence farming; rice cultivation was introduced along the Ganges Basin and had taken root by 1500BCE; millet was introduced in Gujerat. So new environments were opened for farming where conditions were unsuitable for wheat and barley 4.

Major geological disturbances near the source of Saraswati river, causing it to dry up, catastrophically disrupting agriculture downstream. 5. Invasion by the Aryans (Arya = noble) who came from the northern steppes of Europe REASONS FOR THE SUCCESS OF THE ARYANS A highly developed spoken language that tended to displace other tongues that it encountered Better military organization: horse-drawn war chariots and weapons made from iron which was superior to bronze GANGES RIVER VALLEY CIVILIZATIONS

Aryans became sedentary landowners along the Ganges; others became traders on the river Crafts became more specialized & increased in complexity; produced iron ploughs, luxury items for trade Urban centres re-emerged with substantial populations of artisans, traders, resident landowners, priests, warriors Major metropolises along the Ganges include Patna, Benares (which is still a holy city for Hindus even today) SOCIAL ORGANIZATION Early Indian societies were matriarchal (i. e. headed by women) and matrilineal (inheritance was through the female side of the family).

This changed with the coming of the Aryans who were patriarchal Before the Aryans, husbands lived with the wife’s family; the wife’s family paid dowry. After Aryans, wife’s were required to move to the husband’s family, bring substantial dowries and accept husband’s authority The caste system was introduced at this time. Basis for caste division was social and economic rather than racial Originally there were four castes: 1. Sudras = cultivators of land, manual labourers, domestic servants 2. Vaisyas = landowners, artisans, herdsmen, merchants . Kshatriyas = the warrior nobility 4. Brahmans = priests, scholars The caste system became a dominant factor in shaping Indian society Economic specialization & division of labour played a role in the evolution of the caste e. g. Brahmans engage freely in other occupation, avoiding those considered to be polluting The hierarchy embodied in the caste system also applies to the cosmic order; the ranking order of the caste (from pure to impure) corresponded to the ascending order of the divinities as well

POLITICAL ORGANIZATION Not much is known about the political organization in India before the coming of the Aryans However, we know that Harappans had adopted the city as a means of organizing & controlling their civilization Up to five major Harappan cities are known: Harappa after which the civilization is named; Mohenjodaro, Kalibagan, Chanhudaro & Doraji Aryans were loosely organized into families, clans and tribes.

Tribes were headed by chiefs/kings called Rajas, most of whom were elected or chosen by rotation from the leading families Rajas shared political power with councils of elders & assemblies of adult males There were two forms of states in India: Republics and Kingdoms In the Republics, rajas continued to rule in conjunction with powerful councils and the assemblies while in the Kingdoms, the power of the rajas grew at the expense of the councils & the assemblies.

Most often, power became hereditary Monarchies developed administrative systems headed by chief priests and military leaders Close alliance between kings & priests; Brahmans were involved in the consecration of new kings; the kings supported the emerging Hindu priesthoods RELIGION Again, little is known about early religion in Harappan India. However, we know that religion in early India was a form of polytheism People of Harappan culture worshipped a goddess whose clay figurines have been recovered in Harappa & Mohenjodaro Aryans introduced new gods including:

Indra = the god of war Agni = The spirit of the sacrificial fire Varuna = the lord of the big sky Aryans sacrificed to these divinities by slaughtering dozens, even hundreds of animals & sometimes humans too Sacrifices were accompanied by hymns, prayers & rituals. The hymns were passed on through generations to become core of the Hindu scriptures, the vedas HINDUISM

Hinduism emerged from the merging of the gods of the Aryans and those of the conquered Dravidians Early Hindus saw some of their gods in the shape of animals (anthropomorphic divinities) such as snakes, the sacred cow etc However, Hinduism did evolve to engage in philosophical search for the deepest spiritual principle of the universe The most important gods of the Hindu faith are: Brahma = the creator god; also called the Absolute Being or the World/Universal Soul Vishnu = the preserver of the universe

Shiva = the dancing divinity with four arms and the destroyer of all things; also the Lord of Beasts The concept of Brahma later subsumed all the three gods (Brahma, Vishnu & Shiva). Brahma personified the concept of a deity that could be worshipped; Brahman (as the title for the priestly class) is a derivative of the same word Brahman can also be described as the universal principle that underlies all that exists, the spiritual essence permeating the entire cosmos & the one hidden in all things; hence reincarnation THE VEDAS

Today, Hinduism is based on the vedas, the sacred books of the Hindu religion. Vedas are believed to have been divinely inspired. There are four vedas: 1. Yajurveda: a manual of sacrifice for the officiating priest 2. Atharvaveda: a catalogue of charms & spells supposed to be effective in curing illnesses, arousing passion in the object of one’s desire or in destroying one’s enemies 3. Rig Veda (means “verses of wisdom” or “knowledge”): a compilation of more than 1000 poems composed between 1500-900 BCE, addressed to various Aryan gods.

For example one of the poems is dedicated to Indra who is described as the god of thunder who pierced the bellies of the mountains to release waters (possibly referring to annual floods caused by the melting of snow in the Himalayas). Another poem appeals for protection of goddess Night whose radiance was believed to drive away darkness Another poem is by a gambler lamenting an unlucky throw of the dice which has caused his wife to repel him and his mother-in-law to hate him. 4.

Upanishads (meaning “sitting down near”): These are philosophical treatises in prose and verse. They are cast in the form of dialogues between teacher and student They examine the nature of reality and the problem of man’s place in the universe. They reveal a genius for conceptual reasoning still admired today. •Upanishads teach that evil is the fruit of ignorance; that the pursuit of wisdom is pursuit of the highest possible good and that attainment of wisdom bestows both power and virtue •Main Teachings:

The Absolute Being/World Soul is the only supreme reality Material world is an illusion (or maya); it is not permanent •That individual souls go through a cycle of rebirth; the soul seeks to reach nivarna (spiritual liberation) •That the soul can escape the cycle of rebirth by union with the Absolute Being. The individual soul (atman) is actually a fragment of Brahman, the Universal Soul. OTHER ASPECTS OF HINDUISM

The concept of brotherhood of all living things embodied in the concepts of reincarnation and transmigration of souls, karma and ahimsa The Hindu faith holds that each human soul is reborn/reincarnated in the body of some other creature – human, animal, plant or even supernatural being over & over again The precise form one takes on reincarnation depends on karma or the actions one takes in the present life Good and pious life – you may be reborn as a Brahman or other high caste; a life of self-indulgence & sin – you may live your next life as a worm, dog or something else Members of lowly castes were encouraged to diligently do their duties to be born to higher status Dharma (faithful performance of one’s assigned role) and Karma (merits and demerits earned as a result of action) cemented loyalty to the prescriptions of caste.

Thus doctrine of transmigration of souls reinforced the caste system Ahimsa refers to the doctrine of nonviolence; first emerged among the Jains before adoption by others in Indian society Meditation – Hindus belief that one might escape endless rounds of lives filled in with human suffering through meditation (i. e. the mystical concentration of all psychic forces) The goal of Yogi meditation is the submergence of one’s ego in the supreme unity of Brahman. This is achieved through spiritual enlightenment: that all differences are illusions (or maya) & that all that really exists is the totality of Brahman, the Absolute Being BUDDHISM Has origins in religious reforms in Indian society in the 6th century BCE.

These reforms produced the spiritual teachers or gurus The gurus were later described as the naked philosophers (or the gymnosophists) because they walked naked in the rain and the sun to discipline the flesh Also fasted for long periods of time & engaged in exhausting exersices that developed into the sacred discipline of yoga Two leading gurus were Mahavira (540-476 BCE) & Prince Siddartha or Gautama (563-483 BCE) Mahavira founded Jainism & Gautama founded Buddhism Gautama was given the title of Buddha (the Enlightened One) by his followers; was born in the Himalayas, present day Nepal GAUTAMA’S TEACHINGS He denied the existence of a soul; taught that only matter existed (in opposition to teaching of Upanishads) Because matter was always in a state of flux, he recognized no Absolute Being or any fixed universal principle other than constant change Even gods were subject to laws of growth & decay; the universe is forever becoming He retained the concept of karma; he believed that the root of suffering is desire (i. e. he pursuit of unattainable goals because the objects sought are fleeting & unreal) In this sense, he agreed with orthodox Hinduism that worldly things are an illusion or maya To reach Nivarna, one should recognize & reject worldly desires as blind follies; cultivate unselfishness, compassion & honesty; reject injury to others such as murder, theft & adultery; choose a life that does not bring harm to other living things 500 years after Buddhism was founded, it split into two major divisions: Hinayana School ( the Lesser Vehicle) and Mahayana School (the Greater Vehicle) HINAYANA SCHOOL So called because it emphasized individual salvation; claimed that a diligent person could attain nivarna in three lifetimes Bodhisattva – successive incarnations of the Buddha Denied existence of a soul; does not recognize the founder of Buddhism as a god. However, prayers, gifts of flowers & incense may be offered to his image Found in Sri Lanka, Burma (Myanmar), Thailand, Cambodia & Laos MAHAYANA SCHOOL

Mahayana sets as its goal the redemption of the entire human race; worships Buddha as a god The concept of Bodhisattva – represents the Buddha-elect, an individual who has won enlightenment but chooses to remain in the world for the liberation of others; agreeing to suffer as ransom for all human beings Everyone is potentially a Bodhisattva & may become a Buddha. It embodied as cardinal virtues love, piety, joy & serenity Mahayana Buddhism found in China, Tibet, Mongolia, Nepal & Japan, but it disappeared in India in later centuries JAINISM Founded by Mahavira; it is contemporary with & in many respects parallel to Buddhism. Mahavira broke radically with traditional religions, rejected both their deities and their scriptures Doctrines of Jainism

To Mahavira, the material universe is real, but it is filled with an infinite number of souls lodged in living creatures & inanimate things Rejected the concept of an overriding World Soul & taught that individual souls are held in bondage by matter; this bondage is perpetuated through successive births by operation of karma Because every action produces karma and karma adds weight to the chains of bondage, the only route to escape is to avoid action altogether; thus nivarna represents a place of absolute passivity Mahavira prescribed a regime of extreme asceticism, ideally culminating in death through self-starvation. Despite its atheistic tendencies, Jainism did resemble a true religion with prayers, holy scriptures and gods. Today, there are about 2 million Jains in southern and western India Prominent in Jain faith is the doctrine of ahimsa or non-injury to living things; it imposes taboos against slaughter of not only of animals but even insects. Ahimsa contributed ethical support to the ideal of pacifism Since Jainism ruled out the practice of agriculture, Jains turned to trade & money-lending, becoming some of the wealthiest in Indian society ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE VEDIC AGE

Medicine: dissection, delicate surgeries; thorough knowledge of human anatomy; study of embryology Knowledge of astronomy: the first to suggest that the earth revolves on its axis & that the earth rotates around the sun Mathematics: were the first to extract square & cube roots; used the decimal system; invented the principle of zero, eventually adopted by the rest of the world; Arabic numbers in use today originated in India; advances in algebra Literature: Two epic poems: Mahabharata & Ramayana Mahabharata – the longest poem in the world with over 10,000 verses. About the struggle between two powerful Indian clans, but gods were involved also Ramayana – a romantic story of Prince Rama who rescues his lovely wife Sita fromRavana, the demon king of Ceylon Arthasastra a political commentary

Culture and Society in Mesoamerica

• Remarkable civilization created
• Different language + politics, but unified by material culture, religious beliefs + practices, and social structure

Classic Period

• Classic period (built upon Olmec and other civilizations)
• Social classes with distinct roles
• Hereditary politics + religious elites controlled towns + villages

Teotihuacan:

• Powerful city-state in central Mexico (100 B. C. E. – 750 C. E. )

Religion

• Religion = worshipped many gods + lesser spirits, Sun + Moon
• Human sacrifice = viewed as sacred duty to the gods and essential to the well-being of society

Farming

• Chinampas = raised fields along lakeshores to increase agriculture Politics * No evidence for single ruler; alliances between elite families

The Maya

Location

• Maya = civilization concentrated in the Yucatan Peninsula, Guatemala, and Honduras, but never unified
• Contributed mainly in math, astronomy, and the calendar
• High pyramids + palaces = meant to awe the masses that came

Decoration

• Maya = loved decoration

Infused warfare with religious meaning

Society = patrilineal Contributions

Devised elaborate calendar system, concept of 0, and writing

End of Classic Era

• Maya cities declined due to struggle for resources, which lead to class conflict and warfare
• Connection with the Mesoamerican societies due to learning about the Aztecs in grade 8
• Have visited Mayan cities in Mexico, and have seen temples in real life
• Question: didn’t the Arabs develop the concept

The Postclassic Period in Mesoamerica

No single explanation for fall of Teotihuacan and Mayan centers

The Toltecs:

• Powerful postclassic empire in central Mexico (900 – 1175 C. E. )

Origins

• Origins = unknown (either satellite or migrant populations)
• Used military conquest to create powerful empire|

Reason for decline

• Fell by internal power struggles and military threat from the north

The Aztecs

Altepetl = ethnic state in ancient Mesoamerica that was the common political building block of that region Society +

Politics

• Calpolli = group of up to hundred families that served as a building block of an altepetl (controlled land allocation + taxes + local religious life)
• Tenochtitlan = capital of Aztec Empire; in an island in lake Texcoco Mexico City created on ruins of Tenochtitlan

Aztecs = AKA Mexica, created empire (1325 – 1521 C. E. )

Aztecs forced defeated peoples to provide goods + labor as tax Aztec

Women

• Women = held lots of power; held in high esteem; held positions like teachers and priestesses; seen as founders of lineages, including the royal line
• Merchants become rich, but cannot become high nobility

Economic systems

• Tribute system = system in which defeated peoples were forced to pay tax in forms of goods and labor; help development of large ities
• Did not use money; used barter instead

Aztec religion = demanded increasing numbers of human sacrifice

Connection to Aztecs as I learned about them in grade 8

Noted the familiarities between the Mesoamerican societies, which also had distinct differences as well

Northern Peoples:

• Classic period ends around 900 C. E.
• Transfer of irrigation and corn agriculture -> stimulated development in Hohokam and Anasazi society

Southwestern Desert Cultures

• Anasazi = important culture in southwest US (700 – 1300 C. E. )
• Anasazi built multistory residences, and worshipped in subterranean buildings (called kivas)

Anasazi women

• Women = shared agricultural tasks, specialists in many crafts, responsible for food preparation and childcare

Anasazi region

Anasazi = concentrate in Four Corners region Mound Builders: The Hopewell and Mississippian Cultures:

Political structure

• Chiefdom = form of political organization; ruled by hereditary leader (Chiefdom) who had control over collection of villages + towns; based on gift giving and commercial links
• Political organization + trade + mound building continued by the Mississippian culture (largest city = Cahokia) Ansazi

Environmental changes caused destruction of Anasazi + Mississippian Mississippian cultures Decline Andean Civilizations, 200 – 1500

Environment = sucks for creating civilization

Amerindian peoples of Andean = produced some of the most socially complex + politically advanced societies in

Western Hemisphere Cultural Response to Environmental Challenge

• How they adapted
• Domestication of llamas and alpacas
• Farmed at different altitudes to reduce risks from frosts Social + political
• Ayllu = Andean lineage group or kin-based community groups
• Ayllu = foundation for Andean achievement; members = obligated to help fellow members (thought as brothers and sisters)
• Mit’a = Andean labor system based on shared obligations to help kinsmen and work on behalf of the ruler and religious organizations

Gender distinction

• Men = hunting, military service, government
• Women = textile production, agriculture, home Harsh climates of Andean civilizations = similar to harsh environment of North American settlers

Anasazi + Mississippian culture = one of few civilizations that did not fall due to outside pressures

Moche

• Moche = civilization of north coast of Peru (200 – 700 C. E. )
• Built extensive irrigation networks + impressive urban centers dominated by brick temples

Political + social

• Did not establish formal empire nor unified political structure structure
• Moche society = theocratic + stratified; priests + military leaders had concentrated wealth + power|

Decline of Moche

• Moche centers declined due to long-term climate changes
• Wari = new military power, culturally linked to Tiwanaku
• Wari contributed to the disappearance of the Moche

Tiwanaku and Wari:

• Tiwanaku = name of capital city and empire centered on the region near Lake Titicaca in modern Bolivia (375 – 1000 C. E. )
• Llamas = crucial for maintenance of long-distance trade relations
• High quality of stone masonry
• Stratified society ruled by a hereditary elite
• Used military to extend their power over large religions

The Inca

• Largest and most powerful Andean empire (Cuzco = capital)
• Initially a chiefdom -> turned in to military expansion in 1430s
• Inca prosperity depended on vast herds of llamas + alpacas
• Hereditary chiefs of ayllus included women
• Had hostage taking system for politics
• Each new ruler began his reign with conquest (legitimize authority)
• Khipus = system of knotted colored cords used by preliterate Andean peoples to transmit information
• Did not produce new technologies; increased economic output
• Civil war weakened the Inca on the eve of European arrival
• Noticed that primary gods for many societies were Sun gods and agricultural gods
• Pressures from inside took out the Inca society; similar to other societies
• Khipus = similar to the one that Aztecs used

They include tools, dwellings, artifacts, war machinery and music instruments among others. Material culture advanced at different speeds in different communities depending major on the needs of the community at that particular time and technological ability. Building structures such as homes and roads, which are products of architecture, provide the major contribution to material culture. This brings out clearly the importance of architecture in the development of material culture, and the same way, material culture is so important in architecture and other fields as discussed below.

For architects, material culture can be a great source of inspiration in designing of buildings. Many architectural designs source their inspiration from the material culture of a society. Physical cultural elements such as the African hut, the gourd, the African pot and the African mat have inspired African architecture. A good number of buildings in Africa have their inspiration from very old buildings in Asia and Europe, mostly religious places of worship such as the churches and mosques, almost all mosques have a similar design that traces its origin way back in the Asian countries where McHugh style of architecture was plopped.

Such are forms of material culture as they played a central role in defining the religion of the people during that time. Since material culture is tangible, and in most cases very durable, it provides a concrete support and evidence in proving historical facts. By collecting and studying material culture, historians are able to validate and prove their claims. In the study of the origin of man, Charles Darwin could have not in any way convinced a single person that man evolved from the same evolutionary path as primates.

But through the evidence gathered from the mains of the stone tools and artifacts at the areas belied to have been the dwellings of the early man, it was much easier for him to prove his point that man evolved from apes. Material culture enables us to gauge the level of development of a people. In the modern world, there exists a different level of gauging the development of societies I. E. The developed countries such as USA china, Japan and Britain, the developing countries such as Brazil Kenya and south Africa and also the third world countries.

What leads to such difference in classification is mainly the kind of materials these societies use and their technological advancement. We are able to measure how advanced the ancient societies were through the study of their material culture, for example the early civilizations such as Mesopotamia and Egypt, through studying the remains of their agricultural tools, we are able to comfortably conclude that such civilizations had sophisticated technology as per that time. In the more recent societies of Rome and Jerusalem, by getting knowledge of their architecture, we find how much they were technologically advanced.

This is important in that it gives us onscreen evidence to use in gauging the level of development of a people. Material culture is a source of heritage and pride of a people. The tangible evidence of the technological advancement is a source of pride as a heritage of a people, historic buildings and artifacts owned by a society provides them with something to show off their history and advancement in various fields of Science and Mathematics. For example the Fort Jesus building in Lama, the Geed ruins, these are sources of pride for Kenya as they are historical places that define the history of Kenya.

Famous old buildings such as the Dome of the Rock located on the Temple Mount in the old City of Jerusalem, SST. Pewter’s Basilica in Rome, Italy, Acropolis of Athens, the Pantheon in Rome, the Parthenon in Athens, Decent Mosque in Mali, the Great Pyramids of Egypt and Haggis Sophia in Istanbul, Turkey are great heritages of the communities that associate with them and the countries in which they have been in existence for centuries. They are a source of pride and give a visual impression of the history of the people in those places. References; www. Du. Com

“Economic Factors in the Decline of the Byzantine Empire” In this article taken from The Journal of Economic History, Peter Charanis discusses the factors that economically affected the decline of the Byzantine Empire. His discussion is based on the fact that past scholars, such as English historian Edward Gibbon who wrote The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, thought the Byzantine Empire was in a constant state of decline throughout its existence, but he disagrees. He says that more recent scholars have found that it was, in fact, one of the great empires in history.

He references to historians such as Fridtjof Nansen, author of L’Armenie et le proche Orient, who said that the Byzantine culture “is and will remain one of the most remarkable works of architecture, and if the Byzantine culture had created nothing but that, it would be sufficient to classify it among the greatest. ” Charanis is convinced that most scholars today reject Gibbon’s theory, and this article discusses why he believes so. Because the Byzantine Empire endured for over a thousand years and was the center of civilization until the middle of the eleventh century, it could not be looked at as a constantly declining empire.

According to Charanis, it preserved antiquity, developed new forms of art, and held back barbarians. Byzantium produced great soldiers, statesmen, diplomats, reformers, and scholars. It was also successful at spreading the gospel among pagan tribes. Charanis quotes Czech historian F. Dvornik who wrote Les Slaves byzance et Rome au IX saying Byzantium “molded the undisciplined tribes and made nations out of them; it gave to them its religion and institutions, taught their princes how to govern, transmitted to them he very principles of civilation – writing and literature. “Byzantium was a great power and a great civilizing force,” Charanis said. He believed that war and religion were the two principal factors that molded the society of the empire and determined its external position. Because war was a normal state during Byzantium’s thousand year existence, war was not a reason to believe that it was constantly declining. For example, in the seventh century, the Sarcens, Slavs, and Bulgars reduced the empire greatly, but the seventh century emperors reorganized the administration of the empire to cope with the situation at hand.

In the eleventh century however, the empire was not as fortunate to recover from certain military reverses that occurred. There were disastrous defeats that they never fully recovered from, and this is what finally led to the beginning of their decline. One very important factor, according to Charinis’ sources such as Russian historians’ books and works, were the conditions the Manzikerts left the empire in. It had such a huge impact on the social and economic life of the empire, and this was the basis of its virtual disappearance.

Byzantium relied so fully on the social and economic aspect of their culture, that an attack to this was fatal. The Manzikert military aristocracy was far from what the Byzantines were accustomed to, and caused the soldiery-peasantry to decline which was a large part of their state. Up until this point, emperors were able to rework the empire and reorganize things so that Byzantium could thrive, but after their “large estate”, which had been a huge party of their society, was attacked, it was almost impossible.

Charanis believes that the aristocracy that was put in place in the eleventh century was also another large factor of decline. Instead of being a social and economic based empire, it was a military aristocracy. The soldiers were the holders of the military estates, and the aristocracy absorbed the estates of the peasants. The focus of the emperors was the happiness of the soldiers and not of the peasants, or all the other people in the empire, and this was also a large source of decline in Byzantium.

Once the emperors of the eleventh century realized that this system was not working quite as well, they tried to create an anti-military policy, which consummated a depression in soldiers. This entire struggle that occurred after the seventh century caused the empire to participate in a series of civil wars affected its sources and manpower, according the Charanis. Other serious factors that caused the decline were the weakening of the central administration, the failure to enforce measures of protection for the soldiery-peasantry, and the grants of privileges made to the aristocracy.

It has been said that another reason for their decline was the strict controls they placed on commerce and industry, but Charanis disagrees and says it is extremely doubtful that this was their weakness. He backs up this argument by saying that when those controls were most strictly enforced, was when their empire was at its greatest. He goes on to say that the period of the greatest decline is marked by the breakdown of these controls.

Tenth century Byzantine emperor Romanus Lecapenus wrote in one of his novels that the extension of power to the strong and the depression of power to the many would “bring about the irreparable loss of the public good. ” Charanis agrees with him saying that “His prediction had come true. The disappearance of the free peasantry, the increase in the wealth, privileges, and power of the aristocracy, and the consequent depression of the agrarian population constitute, I think, some of the principal factors in the decline of the Byzantine Empire. ”

Charanis’ evidence is clearly all there and cited, but it is somewhat difficult to understand his references. They’re numbered at the bottom and his numbers are meant to further explain certain points throughout the article. Another problem I have with his evidence is that they are mostly books written by foreign authors, and I can’t read the titles. I believe that Charanis has clearly proven his point and thoroughly discussed his thesis; however, his argument was not extremely bold, because he is arguing one historian’s theory (Edward Gibbon), and agreeing with every other historian who believes the Byzantine Empire was great.

His argument was more fact-based, and proven through certain points of notoriety throughout the existence of the empire, and his presentation of these points seemed unorganized. In fact I found the organization of this article to be somewhat confusing. He seemed to jump around from century to century and fact to fact. I believe it would have been much more efficiently written if he had discussed the certain centuries of the empire in chronological order. This also would have more effectively shown the factors that led up to the decline of the Byzantine Empire.

Instead he jumped around discussing things that related to the factors, but not thoroughly discussing what order the things happened and why one led to the next. Charanis did not raise new questions in his argument. He simply argued Gibbon’s theory, and used other historians to back his argument up. In fact, most of the historians that Charanis used as references were quite old, for example, Fridtjof Nansen, a Norwegian author from 1928. No recent authors or suggestions were raised from Charanis’ article.

I think that overall this article offered some very thorough and credible information about the decline of the Byzantine Empire, but since his original argument was that Gibbon was wrong, he should have used more examples of historians that supported Gibbons theory and argued their points as well. Though he had many historians to back up his argument, his thesis mentioned Gibbon. He definitely proved his point and listed many factors that caused the decline of the Byzantine Empire, but I would have liked to see less confusing organization and newer information that supported his argument.