Comedy

The Meaning of Love through the works of Dante Lighter Devon Strand-Brown “O all ye whose intellects are sound, Look now and see the meaning that is hidden Beneath the veil that covers my strange verses:” (Inferno 9:61) Dante Lighter is indisputably the most famous Italian poet in history. His seminal work, The Divine Comedy still inspires 700 years after its writing, and has not yet yielded all of its secrets, though it is one of the most widely studied works ever to be written. The name “Dante” and that of The Divine Comedy are known the world over, but what of the man Dante? What of the allegory beneath his verses?

The history of the Divine Poet, his life, his love and the mysteries of his great achievements are known to relatively few, compared to the number of people who have read the Comedy. My purpose here to open those doors to you, to give a taste of the lessons and mysteries of Dent’s work, to give a glimpse of a man, famous in his time and forevermore, and to recount the greatest tale of Love ever told. His definition of love may be the most potent and intricate definition ever described, told through four separate levels of allegory, culminating in the rise of the universal goal of Love itself.

The Man “In that book which is my memory, On the first page of the chapter that is the day when I first met you, Appear the words, ‘Here begins a new life’. ” (Volta) Dante was born in 1265, though the month is not known. His given name was Du- ranted Delhi Lighter, Dante being a shortened version which he himself, and subsequent -?2-? writers and translators would adopt. His family name Lighter comes form the Latin word ‘aligner’, which can be translated to “winged. ” Though it came from his father, it was originally passed from a mother, Algeria Loudhailer -? wife of Guidance Elise’, founder of Florence -? to her son.

Thus Dante can trace his lineage directly back to he founders of his beloved Florence. The root meaning of Durance (and Dante) is more obvious, enduring, as names were of the most importance in those days. Dante would be happy to know that he has far surpassed the destiny of an enduring name. His father was a man of finance, buying and selling property as well as lending money, something Dante later disapproved of and which found its way into his Inferno. His mother was also from a well respected Florentine family, the Bait. Her father Durance (whom Dante was named after) was a Judge at the time.

Much of the Poet’s history we can find in the Comedy because although it is the story of his enlightenment, it also tells the tale of his past. We see this with his mother, whom we find in the circle of violence in Inferno, for she committed suicide while Dante was still very young, somewhere between 1270 and 1275. After his mother’s death, his father soon remarried and had two more children. It seems Dante had a good relationship with these siblings as he refers affectionately to a sister who visits him while he is sick in “La Vita Nova. These references require that I move ahead, to describe the works of Dante for it is especially through them that we learn so much of the man. I shall discuss The Divine Comedy at greater length in a future section. But as an overview it is the tale of Dent’s Journey through Inferno, rising up through Purgatory, then finally moving through Paradise, guided -?3-? by his beloved Beatrice, with his pilgrimage ending with the vision of God. The other work that I shall mention often is “la Vita Nova”, The New Life, which is a compilation of poems, sonnets and stories from throughout his life.

It particularly focuses on his love for Beatrice which pervaded his life from the age of nine until he died at fifty-six. At this time Florence was a burgeoning hub of trade and culture, becoming one f the richest and most powerful cities in Italy, and even in Eastern Europe. However the city was divided along many lines; there was a split between the populace and the gentry, yet also among the gentry. The largest of these rifts was that between the Gullah, whom Dante supported, and the Gibberellins.

Once the Gibberellins were expelled from Florence another divide occurred; Between the Black Gullets, those who supported the Papacy, and the white Gullets, who wished for more autonomy from Rome. With the support of Pope Boniface the Black Gullets took control of Florence, destroying many White Gullah homes and exiling Dante. If he were ever to return to his beloved Florence to “worship at his baptismal fount” he would suffer death by burning. Following his exile, Dante wandered from city to city. Reigniting his intellectual spirit in Bologna and moving as far field as Paris.

Finally he settled in Raven, a small city not far from Florence. It is during this time that it is believed that be began his masterpiece, The Divine Comedy. It was completed Just prior to his death, sometime between 1318 and 1321. The final Canto of Paradise was said to be lost for months following Dent’s death, until in a dream, one of Dent’s sons saw his father ho showed his where the final pages were hidden. His son, Pitter, searched for the pages and found them Just where -?4-? his father had indicated, and so, Just as a dream had begun the Comedy, a dream completed it.

The Divine Comedy tells the tale of the Poet, Dante, and his Journey down into Inferno, up mount Purgatory and into Paradise where “the Love that moved the sun and the other stars” is finally revealed to him. It is divided into three canticles, Inferno, Purgatorial and Paradise. Each canticle is then further divided into 33 cantos, similar to chapters, except for Inferno which has a single introductory canto bringing he total to 100. Each canto is further split into three line sections, each line with a precise 11 syllables.

This story fictively occurs in the year 1300 and Dante is faithful to this date, only including people who had died before 1300 in any level of the Comedy , though often referencing those who are still living. Inferno, the first volume, is by far the most famous and widely read of the three. It begins: “Midway upon the Journey of our life. ” Simply this first line gives premise to the Comedy being both a literal Journey through the levels of the earth but also a curative voyage through the life of a person, in this case Dante, though it can be expanded to include a more universal version of life.

Through inferno Dante is guided by another great poet, Virgil, who, because he is a virtuous infidel has been confined to neutrality, the first level of hell. But who has been tasked by Beatrice to guide Dante down through Hell and up Mount Purgatory. Their Journey through Hell takes them down through all nine levels, on each level pausing to watch the punishment of the shades and sometimes speak to them, talking of their crimes or of the goings on of the living world. Finally in the lowest -?5-? bevel -?Judea, reserved for the traitors-? gravity reverses and they climb back out of the pit of inferno to once more observe the stars.

At the base of Mount Purgatory seven As are inscribed on Dent’s forehead. Each standing for Peculate or sin in Latin. As they pass through each of the seven levels of purgatory, each P is purged from his forehead. For Purgatory is not a place of perpetuity as many believe; it is a place of purging sins as its name suggests. Virgil continues as his guide and offers advice and answers to his questions along the way. However on questions of faith he defers to Beatrice, asking Dante to await her for his answer. At the peak of Purgatory is the Garden of Eden, earthly paradise.

Here in paradise Dante is in awe of the heavens above him, while Virgil is reserved and distant. Dante turns away from his guide to gaze at four bright stars above him and when he looks back Virgil is gone. In his place stands Beatrice. From the Gardens of Eden Beatrice leads Dante into Paradise, the nine circles of heaven. In each of these circles Dante speaks with different figures, Roman Emperors, Saints and Apostles prominent among them. And Just as Virgil taught Dante of life and the plight of souls in Inferno and Purgatory, so Beatrice teaches him of divinity, irate and all the levels of beatitude.

One of the people he meets is his great great grand-father Guidance, who tasks him to compose a poem which “puts aside all falsehood. ” He agrees, and is also tested by the apostles Peter, James and John before his can enter the Empyrean, the highest level of Heaven. It is here in the amphitheater of the Empyrean that Dent’s Journey reaches is culmination with his rapturous vision of God. -?6_ “But my own wings were not enough for this, Had it not been that then my mind there smote A flash of lightning, wherein came its wish. (Paradise 33:139) Dante and Love But now was turning my desire and will, Even as a wheel that equally moved, The Love that moves the sun and the other stars. ” (Paradise 33:142) Perhaps it is a sad testament to the human race, that the greatest love stories are those of unrequited love. Mark Antonym and Cleopatra, Romeo and Juliet, Dante and his Beatrice. Dante first glimpsed Beatrice at the age of nine. Of that sight he says, “At that moment, I say most truly that the spirit of life, hath its dwelling in the secretes chamber of the heart” (Nova).

He goes on, describing her as a deity, as something other than a worldly woman. From that moment onward his life was drastically changed. “l say that, from that time forward, Love quite governed my soul” (Nova). His love was torrential, yet when he saw her he kept it in check. For nine years after that first sight they never spoke. He would watch her in her family’s small church of Santa Margarita, sitting some ten feet behind her, imagining her as an image of perfection, but never speaking. It is difficult to imagine such love with so little contact.

He was enamored with her but also with his imagination of her. It was not until nine years later to the day,that a word was exchanged between hem. While passing in the street, Beatrice “by her unspeakable courtesy’ greeted him. He -?7-? remembers she was dressed all in white, unlike the red he first saw her in, white being the color of virginity and divinity. In each of his earthly visions of her, she is described using images and words normally reserved for Christ or God himself. Dante was taken by the sound of her voice: “For she doth make my veins and pulses tremble. He went directly home and fell asleep and dreamed that Love came to him. Throughout the Vita Nova, Love comes to Dante, taking a different human form each mime, and speaks to him, offering advice and admonitions. Love appears to him multiple times and each time represents a shift in Dent’s interactions with Beatrice. Dante makes the mistakes of many lovers as he is so overcome by Beatrice. In an attempt to hide the true object of his love, he begins to use what he calls a “screen- lady,” a woman toward whom he outwardly directs his attentions so as to divert attention from Beatrice.

This obviously backfires and Beatrice, as they pass again in the street, withholds her greeting. Dante is grief-stricken and, following another vision of love decides to write directly to her. These poems and sonnets received praise in Florence, and were read around the city in small poetry readings, increasing Dent’s stature as a great writer even in his time. However life for Dante soon takes another enormous turn, with the death of Be- iatric. She is said to have died in June, 1290, a date with “the perfect number nine” having been completed “nine times” according to the Syrian Calendar. (Lewis).

Dante is so overcome that he cannot put words to the event. After compiling the Volta Nova he resolves not to write of Beatrice again, until he can “say of her what was never said of any other -?8-? Oman. ” It is from this wish that springs the greatest tribute to human love ever created, La Comedic. In Dent’s Journey Beatrice is his primary guide. Though Virgil guides him through two levels of the afterlife, it is Beatrice who sent Virgil to assist Dante and Beatrice whom he follows through paradise and Beatrice who teaches him the most of love. She acts as a personal representation of Christ.

We can see this in many aspects of Dent’s description of her -? her appearance, the events around her and her relation to the number nine. The number nine can be seen as a reference to the divinity of he holy trinity, and it is used in reference to Beatrice to reinforce her power as Dent’s connection to the divine. In the ninth canto of both Inferno and Purgatory Dante enters the city of Dish and then the Gates of Purgatory -? the two most significant entrances in their respective canticles. Yet in Paradise, in the ninth canto, Dante passes from the circles of Venus unto the level of the sun.

This may seem insignificant yet it signifies the passage from earth to heaven. It is not until the level of the sun that all earthly woes and pains are stripped away. This ninth canto is significant as it also demonstrates the divinity of the number, yet interestingly it also illustrates the divinity of love as it is in this canto that Dante meets three great lovers; a mistress, a bishop and a harlot. Not exactly the lovers you would expect, but these references, as well as their relations to nine and their positions in paradise, serve to highlight the significance of human love in order to ascend further into heaven.

This is Beatrice role, as she serves both as the object of human love and the transcendent divine guide. Other parallels between Beatrice and Christ can also be drawn-? one being her -?9-? appearance in heaven, she is proceeded by Giovanni Primeval, as Christ was similarly proceeded by John the Baptist. Here we can see Dent’s literary playfulness with “Giovanni” as a feminine version of John and Primeval as an anagram meaning “Prima Vera” which literally translates to “will come first. ” Beatrice also descends to Inferno to summon Virgil as Christ did to bring salvation to humanity, Virgil will be Dent’s personal salvation.

Dante even recognizes this in Paradise 30:80 saying “Who deigned for my salvation to leave your footprints in Hell. ” Lansing also points out a parallel between the names of Christ and Beatrice: The reference to her nickname, “Vice,” in Paradise is a way which must evoke the abbreviations of Christ in manuscripts: “Be” (beat, “blessed”) and “ice” (ICC=less Crisis=Jesus Christ. )” Despite her obvious divinity, Beatrice is also a physical woman, as we see in the Volta Nova, who inspires love and desire in Dante.

Thus she fills both roles, as the method of divine salvation and also as the guide to human love. Both of which together create natural love, something I will go into greater detail about at a later point. Dante strives, however, to remove any sexual attraction to Beatrice both for the deader and for himself. And for the most part he is successful. By removing her erotic nature in his writing, he reclaims some power from her. As we see in the Vita Nova, she holds great power over him; she has the power to send him into fits of worry or anguish, simply with a laugh or refused look.

In De-redirecting her, we see Dent’s attempt to retain his own power over human love, while relinquishing his power over natural love, allow-? 10 -? inning her to guide and teach him of its natural flow. As both the Comedy and the Nova are little more than an homage to Beatrice, it is interesting to see that Dante toeholds this one form of power from her, that of sexual power. It could very well be that he is attempting to protect either himself or Beatrice from the sin of lust, yet we also find a seductress and a harlot in heaven, who further inform Dante on love.

It may also be the case that Dante is protecting himself from the worldly effects of Beatrice. The vast majority of his writings about her are of his perception, his fantasy of her. Their physical contact was negligible and by removing the sexual discourse between them, the Beatrice of Dent’s pages is fully from inside the Poet. The Beatrice we know is Dent’s fantasy, a character within his own character. It is her spirit, not her body, that guides Dante. Dante may also shrug off this worldly influence because he has a further lord, one to whom he answers whole-heartedly, and for whom Beatrice is the perfect guide.

That lord speaks to him in the third chapter of the Vita Nova saying “I am your lord. ” That lord is Love. Allegory The term allegory literally means the “hidden meaning”, it derives from Greek “al- SIS” (other) and “Georgia” (speaking), “other speaking. ” The Divine Comedy is rife with it. Each canto is filled with political moral and divine statements. Allegory takes four forms in The Divine Comedy modeled after biblical exegesis (interpretation of biblical style); Literal (historical), Allegorical (Typographical) , Moral and Angelical. These four forms follow the interpretation of scripture in the Middle Ages.

In scripture, the historical meaning is -? 11 what is described as fact. It encompasses the people, places and events represented and shows them historically as things that have occurred. The second meaning (the Allegorical/ Typographical) is that of personification and representation, a person may represent a sin or a virtue. The moral meaning in the scripture is literally represented by Christ. “So far as the things done in Christ, or so far as the things which signify Christ, are types of what we ought to do, there is the moral sense. ” (Aquinas).

The final meaning, the angelical is the hardest to pin down. This is because it is the broadest of the terms; it is the meaning which expands outwards and offers what the writer or reader considers an “eternal” meaning. The angelical represents the realm of the Gods, thus making it eternal, “But so far as they signify what relates to eternal glory, there is the angelical sense. ” (Aquinas) Neither the bible nor The Divine Comedy possess all four of these elements at all times however. Writing is often adorned with “historical buttresses and adornments”, events that hold no further meaning than the literal.

Different verses and cantos hold some of these meanings, some are personified in particular figures, others can only be found by evaluating the entire trajectory of the Comedy. These four meanings overlap, come and go, are sometimes clearly visible and some are lost forever in the annals of time. Other than the historical, the allegorical (typological) is the most prevalent form of meaning throughout the Comedy. Because all allegory is dependent on interpretation, the meanings put forth here are those that I deem to be correct, although there are likely other interpretations or even contrary views.

As Dante followed many of the teachings of Thomas Aquinas, the following is the most prevalent definition for the typographical (allegorical) meaning in -? 12 -? the Comedy: “Whereas in every other science things are signified by words, this science has the property that the things signified by the words have themselves also signification” (Aquinas). This is the definition Dante would have followed in instructing his own allegory. Dante borrows heavily from Thomas Aquinas and Aquinas’ Theological for his moor- al theory and view of God, theology and use of allegory.

As far as the view of God, Thomas Aquinas believed that there are two apices of any object or subject (their existence and their essence), except for God. Aquinas preaches God as simplicity. God is simply essence, for his/her/its existence is its essence. This essence to Dante is Love; all other objects are not independent of love and thus God, who is the representation of pure love, is the only individual being in existence. “God is identical tit Just one in- divisible thing, but that one thing has different effects and appearances” (Stump).

Dante also enumerates the importance of each level of meaning, saying in his work Conviction, “l shall always first discourse upon the literal meaning of each cannoned, and after that I shall discourse upon its allegory, that is, the hidden truth; and I shall sometimes incidentally touch upon the other senses (angelical), as the place and the time make appropriate. ” This leads us to believe that the historical (literal) meaning is the most important, followed by the allegorical. The angelical seems to e a natural uprising of this discourse of both the literal and the allegorical.

The moral finds its way into the literal meanings as well, since Christ is synonymous with morality, and the bible and Beatrice are taken as fact. Throughout the Comedy, Beatrice and her compatriots teach Dante many -? 13 -? things, most of these may be interpreted as the moral allegory. What must also be understood is that the literal meaning will always be present, and for the most part the allegorical will be also. But that Allegory will take one or more of its three forms, typographical/allegorical, moral or angelical. He gives an example of this four-fold allegory in a letter sent to Gangrened of Verona.

The Allegory of Love “Love, which pardons no beloved from loving, took me so strongly with delight in him That, as you see, it still abandons me not… ” (Nova) As we begin to look at the many meanings of love in The Divine Comedy, the three literal forms we shall examine are 1) love as an emotion, 2) love as Beatrice, and 3) Love as a figure and as God. First let us examine Dent’s belief of love. For Dante, love was the driving force of the universe. It causes souls to rise to heaven or fall into hell. It literally set the stars in motion. All sinners and all saints had their actions based in love, for better or for worse.

Love causes all movement in the universe, whether for the sinners to ascend because of love for God or for the blessed to descend in order to save a soul. Just as Beatrice descends to bring Dante to the Empyrean, it also causes the angels to move in their circles around God, thus creating the movement of the heavens. However, love also has a darker side. According to Dante, love is also the root of sin. He takes this view from William Perusals’ analysis of the Sustaining Sins; Pride, Envy, Wrath, Sloth, Avarice, Gluttony and Lust. These sins can be divided into three cat- Georges according to love; insufficient, disordered and excessive.

Insufficient love takes the form of sloth, disordered love manifests in pride, new and wrath (as these three are misguidedly directed at an external object), and love in excess creates avarice, gluttony and lust. These are all forms of what Virgil distinguishes for Dante as rational love, separate from natural love which I shall discuss at greater length later. Rational love takes many forms, both positive and negative. If unbalanced or per- averted, it is the basis of all sin, but it is also that which leads Dante towards natural eve. Dent’s earthly love for Beatrice could be described as courtly love, a popular subject of the times. Courtly love can be defined as desire and longing for someone, and personal suffering by loving this person” (Du France). This definition as we can see applies perfectly to Dent’s relations to Beatrice. It is this earthly relationship that begins Dante on his path to salvation and enlightenment, thus it is this form of rational love that sets Dante on his path. At the beginning of The Divine Comedy, the Pilgrim believes this love for Beatrice is pure and correct. Yet through his discussions tit Francesca De Riming, and then Virgin’s discourse on love in purgatory, Dante begins to doubt his assertion.

Finally upon his meeting with Beatrice in Paradise he repents for the earthly love he paid her and accepts the purity of natural love, the love that will guide him through paradise unto the Empyrean. Natural love was considered by Dante to be the love of and for God. It is the pure force which motivates the universe and binds it together. It is the purest form of this love that Dante is striving for throughout the Comedy. Through hell and purgatory, he is strip-? 15-? inning away the sins and tarnishing of sin, and in paradise he is being prepared, level by level, by Beatrice, for the experience of Pure Love.

Virgil, who has not entered heaven and has thus not experienced natural love, can only describe to Dante human love and the perverted shapes it takes in sin. The constant motion of natural love is moving toward a goal; that goal is the attainment of the realization of place and of perfection for every object and creature in the world. “As the specific capacity of anything is actualities by being exercised, the nature of that thing is progressively completed or perfected, according to Aquinas” (Stump). It is by loving and being love that this process is perpetuated and thus moves closer and closer to a perfect equilibrium.

This ultimate beatitude is inconceivable to the human mind, however, and thus we give it a humanly understandable form, that of God. Yet Dante is very careful not to name God as the center of the Empyrean; the highest level of heaven is occupied by Love. Virgil describes how love takes three stages to develop. The process begins with awareness of another object or person. This perception is offered to the soul to Judge whether this object is beautiful and shall bring happiness. If it is deemed good, then eve develops and takes the form of an inclination or attraction toward that object.

Until love develops, the force driving this process is human will and it is thus that love can be misguided, as the will can make mistakes and lead an individual toward sin. If we take love as the attractive force that moves the universe, then the ultimate goal of life is also love, but love in equilibrium. This is why perverted, insufficient and excessive love are sins, for it is balanced love, natural love that we are striving toward. We cannot, however, achieve union with natural love simply by following others’

Dante Alighieri’s “The Divine Comedy” is a poem written in first person that tells of Dante’s altered-ego pilgrimage through the three realms of death, Hell, Purgatory, and Paradise while trying to reach spiritual maturity and an understanding of God’s love while attaining salvation. Dante creates an imaginative correspondence between a soul’s sin on Earth and the punishment one receives in Hell. “In the middle of the journey of our life I came to myself in a dark wood where the straightway was lost. (Canto I, pg. 11). Throughout “The Divine Comedy”, this is the only reference Dante, in my opinion, is referring to that “dark place” we all find ourselves in at some point in time in our own life. I, as Dante’s Pilgrim, have found myself in this “dark place” or “dark wood” once I lost sight of the “beaten path” or “where the straightway was lost” that I was travelling (life). But, it was during this time that I was lost that I not only found myself, but most importantly, I found my soul.

I found the straightway path to my soul while in the dark wood. It is at this dark place or dark wood, that one begins not only to search for answers to one’s sin but to seek answers to the questions of the heart and mind. It is here, of the straightway lost, where the heart and mind no longer struggle for right vs. wrong but to harvest peace. Peace within one’s soul. The peace of one’s soul is born once the heart and mind become one and with this peace one will continue to search for God’s salvation just as Dante’s Pilgrim. The path to Paradise begins in Hell. ” (Dante – The Divine Comedy. When Dante enters Hell on Good Friday, he reads the following posted above the gates of Hell as he is about to enter (Canto III, line 9): “Abandon all hope ye who enter here”. To leave Hell, Dante and his self-ego, must go through all nine circles of Hell, the deeper the circle, the more grave the sin and the sin’s punishment. The gravest punishment is that no one cares nor will help another while in Hell.

Dante recognizes that those in Hell have chosen to be in Hell by their own choice but most importantly Dante learns to recognize and detest man’s sinful nature and the power of evil, and the need to guard against it. Hell has no hope. At times, it seems, more often than enough, that both the world and society are becoming increasingly hopeless. To lose hope is to lose life. To lose life is to gain Hell.

Living is caring and hoping for the well being of man for today and for days to follow. In the Divine Comedy, to leave Hell, one must go through nine circles of Hell. But, for us, are the nine circles of hell the nine hours in the day that we inject ourselves into society? At the end of every day, do we journey through nine circles of Hell? Do we abandon all hope as we enter the day? “The path to Paradise begins in Hell. ” If this is to be true, then tomorrow may I awake in Paradise.

Aristotle said that comedy is an imitation of inferior people’. How far do you think that this applies to the character of Rata in the play ‘Educating Rata? Educating Rata Is a play that uses the colloquialism of the mall protagonist, Rata, to create the comedy element for the audience when she Is being tutored by Frank, an untypical university lecturer who works In the setting of sass’s northern England. In interpreting the characteristics of Rata, it can be identified that comedy is indeed an imitation of inferior people as highlighted by Aristotle who seemed to signify the inferior of society as those who weren’t of royal or noble birth.

Including Rata, the two main protagonists of this play could be classed as inferior because of them not belonging where they should. As Frank is a middle class university lecturer, he should be considered a financially comfortable and sophisticated man due to his social class. Educated people of his social class were typically expected to visit the theatre and enjoy sports. They were also expected to watch the BBC, the comment ‘It’s all BBC with you Isn’t It? ‘ portrays Rite’s Idea of Franks class and the typical actively f his class.

As Frank has a problem with alcoholism, he Sins the normal middle-class lecturer; he Is Instead used to expose the deterioration he sees within the education system of England at this time. Russell uses Franks alcoholism to bring out the comedy in the first act of the play. Franks alcoholism is humorous to the audience because of it being so unexpected due to his class and career. In Act One, Frank recites famous classical authors before finding his alcohol, Where the hell..?

Eliot? No. ‘E’. ‘E’. Dickens. ‘ This portrays his apparent loathing for the education system by sing the literature on his bookshelf to hide his alcohol, but also shows the depth of his alcohol problem because of him having to conceal it. He does this by the mocking of classical literary works and he also mocks the students within the education system when discussing the window in his room, Frank says ‘l sometimes get an urge to throw something out of It… A student usually.

This portrays his distaste for his career and this problem separates him from the rest of his social class, It therefore classes him as someone who Is Inferior. He could also be considered Inferior because f his aversion to the education system and this causes him to again be different from a normal academic figure from sass’s England. Rite’s character has more than one dimension to the contemporary audience. Although the majority of the audience watching this play would have been middle class, they would admire Rata due to her level of determination to gain an education.

This admiration could come from her being a female and the rise of feminism in the sass’s, the popularity of plays such as ‘Top Girls’ by Carry Churchill which had many feminist ideals within it could be linked to aspects of Rite’s character. Throughout the first act of the play the comedy elements come from Rite’s misinterpretations. This enhances her working class mind- set to the audience and gives them more of an analysis of the comedy within Rata, due to her Interpretations and how they differ from Frank.

One of these misinterpretations Is when Frank shows her a picture on the wall that she observes by saying, ‘look at those its’, whereas Frank believes it to be beautiful piece of need for a choice within working class life. She is desperate to escape from the normal class of her social group and doesn’t feel like she belongs there. She goes against her husband to gain what she wants and consequently takes power over her own life, ‘he can burn all me books but he can’t burn what’s up here’ shows this to the audience.

This choice she will gain separates her from what Aristotle considered inferior. As Rata progresses to better herself, she also progresses to become more like Frank and middle class, but by the end probably doesn’t belong there either, ‘I’m a freak signifies her opinion of herself. Rata will never belong in either class, as she is too educated for her own class but her lack of an ascribed status creates a difference between her and the middle class.

This creates empathy from the audience as she has no real identity; she is inferior in both classes and will never be considered superior. The determination of Rata to progress beyond her own class now changes the mockery once used by the audience towards her character into awe and admiration. Rite’s lack of real identity is also signified as she changes her name to match that of an author before we meet her in Act One. She is borrowing someone else’s identity because her own identity is so confused by her not knowing where she belongs.

Her choice of author to correct her working class name, ‘Rata Mae Brown’ also creates comedy and a mockery of her class because of this author not being renowned at all in terms of literary status. This again signifies her lack of belonging within the middle class. In Act Two, Frank himself mocks her for her lack of known identity, What is it now then? Virginia? Or Charlotte? Or Jane? Or Emily? This represents the breakdown of their relationship due to Rite’s new status. This significance of Rata having no identity could imply Rata is inferior in her own head, ‘I’m a freak, but is still not inferior to the audience.

Elder Olson said that ‘comedy resides not in events but in the view taken of them’. This suggests that comedy isn’t created through the events that occur but in the audience’s perception of these events. This applies when Rata quits smoking, possibly to improve her health, whilst bettering her education. This shows us how serious her intent is on bettering her life and her determination for this and this makes us view her as being superior in terms of strength and determination.

However, in Act Two, after she has gained an insight into academic education through summer school, Rata takes up smoking again, but due to her rise in self-confidence and class, it now seems like a sophisticated element of middle class life. Smoking no longer seems a habit of the working class, ‘She is wrapped in a large winter coat. She lights a cigarette’. Rite’s change in clothing and the cigarette portray the change in her. The audience’s perception of Rata has now changed and signifies her superiority to her former self.

This indicates to me that she is not an inferior character in this play. As this play is set in the sass’s, the issues presented were more acceptable than they are to a modern day audience. One of these issues is the controlling relationship between Rata and her husband, Denny. Although we never actually meet Denny, the audience can infer his personality wrought Rite’s description. While Rata wants to gain an education, Denny wants to settle down and start a family, ‘l told him I’d only have a baby when I had choice’.

To Rata, this ‘choice’ is all that matters, and with Denny controlling her, this choice is more limited than ever before. This type of relationship was not uncommon in the role, especially in working class British society. This means that an audience of that time would find this more socially acceptable, but looking at it from a current perspective, this would be considered wrong due to society being perceived as more equal now. This is also similar with the issue of Franks alcoholism, as this was more accepted then, now it is considered a social problem within society.

The issues presented by Rata show her not to be an inferior character as she removes herself from her controlling marriage and her determination to gain a ‘choice’ culminates in success. Using a different viewpoint, I believe Rata completely goes against Aristotle theory of comedy being an imitation of inferior people. The characterization of Rata is not that of someone that is inferior, but is in fact someone who is elevated above the inferior but is not yet considered superior. Her willpower to improve herself does not follow that of someone who would be classed as inferior.

The fact she is ‘on the pill again’ when her husband wants to settle down and start a family shows how independent and strong she is as a woman and she does not allow herself to be controlled. I think an audience at the time the play was written would have admired her need to take control of her own life, even though they would be largely middle class. At the time of the play being written, Margaret Thatcher had Just come into power and she spoke of attaining more than you were expected to achieve. I think Hess ideals of Margaret Thatcher may have inspired Wily Russell when creating the protagonist, Rata.

Through analyzing Aristotle theory, I can deduct that the character of Rata is not inferior. In fact I think the determination shown by Rata in the play, leads me to believe that she would be considered superior to a contemporary audience as she elevates herself not only above her own class but also above the middle class through her necessity to better herself. She does not succumb to the traits classically portrayed by the middle class and therefore I feel that claiming her as inferior is not doing Rite’s emotion and character Justice.

Bill Cosby came from a poor neighborhood as a child. He grew up with a lot of humor. He did not know that he would make a career of it as a child. As he later grew up he tried stand up comedy and succeeded. in the 1960″s “I Spy” came out and broke the racial barrier by featuring Cosby, the first ever black man to lead a weekly dramatic series. So he started a television show called “The Bill Cosby Show.” The Show brought NBC from last place in the ratings to first. His show was a great success.

His goals included succeeding in life as a comedian. He did that and did it very well. His success in entertainment was complemented by his involvement with a host of charity organizations and making generous gifts in support of education.

While Cosby was younger he saw little of his father. His mom on the other hand was very supportive. His mom was a major influence and his first audience member. It didn”t take long for him to start gigs on her and practicing routines on her. She always encouraged his inventive performances of everyday household happenings. A couple of his friends that he knew from elementary school including: Fat Albert, Old Weird Harold, Dumb Donald, and Weasel was an influence on him and later immortalized in his comedy routines. Family and Friends helped Bill Cosby get a great start in his entertainment career.

As a child Cosby loved to joke around all the time with his friends after school while playing in the playground. They loved playing gags on each other in their free time. Bill Cosby was always loved by neighbors and friends of family. He would always be in a good mood no matter what the situation. When Bill walked in a room he always brought humor with him and made people laugh. This is pretty much how he figured he could be a comedian when he grew up.

He had to leave the tenth grade to join the Navy, but he finished school by means of a correspondence course while in the service. Later when he was discharged he enrolled at Temple University in Philadelphia, hoping to become a physical education teacher. To support himself he started to perform at a nightclub that really enjoyed his performances. His talent started to spread north to New York, so he left school to perform in Greenwich Village clubs, and within a year he landed a spot on “The Tonight Show”.

In 1963 Cosby revolutionized American comedy. At the peak of the civil rights movement, Cosby was unique among black comedians of the time in not using race as a subject. He was also very popular in the publishing world. His book Fatherhood became the fastest-selling hardcover book of all the time which is still in more than half of its fifty-four weeks on The New York Times Best Seller List as number one. The book sold over 2.6 million hardcover copies and 1.5 million paperbacks. He has earned eight Gold Records and five Grammy Awards on his 21 albums that he had on the national pop charts. He broke Radio City Music Hall”s fifty-three year old attendance record for his concert appearances.

Ever since Cosby was little he knew he wanted to do comedy. All the other things that came about was just add ins that helped him out even more. More people should learn about Bill Cosby because they should see how he succeeded in life. For someone with not so much education he did very great in life. Comedy to some people might not be a very successful job but Cosby enjoyed entertaining people very much so he did what he enjoyed doing best.

The quote listed in the title comes from 2009 box-office hit The Hangover. The events that incite Mr. Chow (played by Ken Jeong) to say laughing “it’s funny because he’s fat” feature Alan Garner (played by Zach Galifianakis) charging at Mr. Chow, who is stomping on Alan’s satchel, and exclaiming “Hey! There are skittles in there! ” (Hangover 76:55; 76:45). In return Alan is punched in the stomach by one of Mr. Chow’s henchmen, causing Mr. Chow to laugh hysterically and simultaneously slip “it’s funny because he’s fat” out of his mouth (Hangover 76:55).

Clearly in the scene, the overweight character, Zach Galifianakis, is the butt of the joke as he is punched very hard in the stomach and then laughed at for his stupidity and weight. In modern movie making, overweight comedians have had a critical role in humor in films. Stars such as John Black, Seth Rogen, and Zach Galifianakis are modern examples of such characters, but in the last thirty years, many other large comedians have developed and popularized similar roles in films.

The overweight funny man in film has evolved into a more personal, relatable character due largely in part to their accurate reflection of the United States obesity problem. These characters have also created their own genre, a genre that has evolved out of slapstick comedy, yet remains in the realm of realism. This genre, which often involves immature and physical pain, yet remains plausible and not fake (like earlier slapstick humor), continues to bring new fans to the cinema and create greater love for this group of comedians.

This paper will explain funny fat people’s emergence, humor, and popularity in American cinema. Evolution of Slapstick Comedy in Films When was the first comedy film? John Montgomery suggests it “may well have been Fred Off’s Sneeze, filmed in 1894 by William K. L. Dickson. The film was produced for Thomas Edison’s Kinetoscope Company in the ‘Black Maria’ Kinetographic Theatre which Dickson built for Edison in West Orange, New Jersey” (Montgomery 17). This film was released just three years after Edison’s invention of the Kinetoscope in 1891.

It is not a coincidence that a comedic piece of film was released soon after the production of the moving picture, but it simply suggests the necessity of comedic entertainment in American culture. From the early days of film, comedy became a staple on American cinema. In the early twentieth century, films were silent and featured many comedies. The initial type of comedy featured was slapstick comedy, which “was a gift to America from France” (Durgnat 67). The term slapstick evolved from “the double paddles formerly used by circus clowns to beat each other.

The loud crack of the two paddle blades as they crashed together could always be depended upon to produce laughter and applause” (Dale 1). Slapstick is a type of comedy involving exaggerated physical violence and activities which exceed the boundaries of common sense. The first American slapstick comedy producer was Mack Sennett, who with the help of actor/producer Charlie Chaplin, created many hilarious films loved by the American people (Durgnat 70). In these films, there was no audio component, requiring all humor to be dependent on physical actions (Montgomery 18).

Raymond Durgnat states that “in early Chaplin, Dough and Dynamite (1915), the human body is all but reduced to an apparatus for punching, kicking, ducking and dodging” (Durgnat 69). Chaplin has been considered the “master clown” and in 1916, Chester Conklin, an actor and comedian, stated “without a doubt the one person who has been most successful in making people laugh is Charlie Chaplin” (Montgomery 108). Chaplin and others continued to produce silent slapstick comedy films through the Roaring Twenties, a time when film became increasingly popular and very successful.

In 1926, Warner Brothers introduced the first film with audio attached. Because of the imperfections of the initial product and smaller budgets in the 1930s due to the Great Depression, films with an audio component remained imperfect, allowing silent films to retain their popularity and stay popular and not outdated. Following Chaplin and the others of the first generation of slapstick comedy was the Three Stooges: Larry Fine (born Louis Fienberg), Moe Howard (born Moses Horwitz), and Curly Howard (born Jerome Horwitz) (Matlin 163). This trio continued to produce popular short films and a few feature films until the late 1950s.

The Three Stooges were the last true slapstick comedians, where Leonard Matlin argues that the use of “clever scripting and direction places the physical burden on others but still gives the Stooges elbowroom in which to clown” (Matlin 168). The Three Stooges were some of the last slapstick films, which essentially died out as many other forms of comedy emerged onto the film scene. One of these styles of humor Louise Dobson describes in a 2006 edition of Psychology Today as ‘hate-me humor’, a style in which “you are the butt of the joke for the amusement of others” (Dobson 76).

She continues stating this character is often the “familiar clown” or “fat guy” and includes examples like John Belushi and Chris Farley (Dobson 76). Dobson directly identifies the “fat guy” as an example of such comedy because of how popular these comedians have become. From this article it is evident that funny fat people are essential to American comedy, so much so that the author is able to classify them as the ‘fat guy’ and American readers are able to identify with popular overweight comedians. Although there appears to be a reasonable argument that this comedy genre falls into ‘hate-me-humor’, I would suggest that these comedians exist as an of slapstick comedy.

The laughs these characters receive come from the same qualities the original slapstick comedians, like Charlie Chaplin, shared. Raymond Durgnat describes this stating “Slapstick comedians are childlike, and in consequence act out the impulses which as adults we suppress” (Durgnat 72). If you replace Durgnat’s word ‘slapstick’ with overweight, the sentence would read: overweight comedians are childlike, and in consequence act out the impulses which as adults we suppress.

Looking at many overweight comedians we see that this very well could be the case. The characters impulsive and childish actions are very common in their films (many examples to follow in next section) and generate laughs similar to those of traditional slapstick humor. In recent years, no director has released a true slapstick comedy film. The genre has been avoided (except in children’s cartoons) in movies perhaps because the producers believe that the modern American culture is too advanced for this immature, simplistic, outdated humor.

In reality, current comedy has progressed into a new form of slapstick comedy, where the exaggerations have been toned down and the humor has become a little more realistic. Looking through the last four decades we can see countless examples of films featuring this realistic slapstick humor. These characters tend to be lovable, goofy, wild and consistently overweight. Modernization of Slapstick Comedy: Realistic Physical Humor. In order to analyze the continuation of slapstick humor in American cinema, a look at the period immediately following the Three Stooges (the last true slapstick productions) is essential.

In 1963, the release of the first Pink Panther film, starring Peter Sellers marked a new era for slapstick comedy. The Pink Panther series stretched nearly two decades with Sellers as the star, relied on slapstick humor, yet remained plausible. Most scenes from the Pink Panther movies are absurd and over the top in every manner, yet the events of the plot could be realistic, creating a new breed of slapstick comedy. At the end of the Pink Panther’s dominance, National Lampoon released Animal House in 1978, starring several actors including John Belushi.

Following the release of the film, Belushi evolved as the work’s centerpiece providing countless hysterical events. In the movie, John ‘Bluto’ Blutarsky (played by John Belushi) appeared in about a dozen scenes, yet is the most memorable character of the film through his ridiculous actions. In the movie he rarely speaks, and acts very childish, both parallel pieces of the earliest slapstick comedians. Belushi has a handful of memorable quotes and scenes, most of which are truly ridiculous, yet believable.

He has several immature one line quotes including: “Toga! Toga! ”, “Blow-job!”, “Holy Shit! Holy Shit! Holy Shit! ”, and “Food Fight! ” (Animal House 44:00; 63:55; 30:25; 35:37). All of these quotes fit perfectly into the description of “childlike and in consequence act out the impulses which as adults we suppress” that the classic slapstick comedians possessed (Durgnat 72). Bluto continues to act wildly doing many things including falling off of a ladder trying to peep in a sorority window, crushing a beer can on his head, smashing a guitar someone else is trying to play, and chugging an entire bottle of Jack Daniel’s and smashing it on a car.

All of these actions are absurd and exaggerations of what any human might do in a similar scenario, yet all are possibly plausible. A last scene from Animal House that demonstrates the evolution of slapstick comedy begins with Bluto (Belushi) going through the lunch line where he stacks a ridiculous amount of food on his tray and in his pockets. While doing this he also stuffs enormous amounts of the food in his mouth, including a hamburger in one bite. He then proceeds to sit down at a table filled with some clean cut preppy students.

There he is ridiculed for his eating habits and called a “P. I. G. pig” (Animal House 34:35). In response to being classified as a pig, he attempts to be a zit, stuffing his mouth with mashed potatoes and spraying everybody at the table by mashing his cheeks with his hands as seen in the following picture (Animal House 34:55): The focus of the scene is the unrealistic quantity and grossly unhealthy quality of food Belushi eats as well as the animalistic, childish manner in which he feasts.

Following the incident he proceeds to be chased around the cafeteria, ultimately ending in a brawl and food fight. The sequence of events in this scene all are extremely humorous, yet very childish and exaggerated beyond what any viewer would expect from a twenty year old man. However, all of the actions in the scene are perfectly capable of being true, making this portion of the film extremely humorous in its realistic slapstick fashion. Nearly a decade later, in 1987, Planes, Trains, and Automobiles featured John Candy, another overweight comedian.

In this film, the progression of slapstick comedy continues paralleling Belushi’s contributions to the genre. Candy acts extremely childish and wildly, yet his actions remain plausible, exhibiting similar humor to that of John Belushi. In Planes, Trains, and Automobiles Candy’s humor can fully be grasped in a scene on a commercial plane flight. On the plane, co-star Steve Martin has just been downgraded from first class to coach seating, and finds his seat next to John Candy. It quickly becomes clear that Candy fills up way too much of the seat, creating an uncomfortable situation.

To make things worse Candy proceeds to take off his shoes in order to help relax, clearly releasing a disgusting odor observed by others in seats around him. He continues his gross movements by taking off his socks and spinning them around to air them out. When doing so, his dirty sock is very close to Steve Martin’s face, and based on the expression on Martin’s character it is clear that the sock smells wretched. This act is unbelievable, childish, and ridiculous, all similar characteristics of slapstick comedy.

Later in Planes, Trains, and Automobiles, John Candy continues to provide humor through another similar evolution of slapstick comedy, where he accidentally spills several beers on the bed in which he (who barely fits on the bed alone because of his enormous frame) and a complete stranger share. The move is very careless and results in an incredibly uncomfortable situation that makes the audience laugh hysterically because of the continuation of unfortunate events all linked to Candy’s childish careless actions.

A last scene from this film takes place in a rental car, after the duo (Martin and Candy) have managed to run into every problem possible on a trip to Chicago to get home for Thanksgiving. In the car, Candy attempts to get comfortable by tampering with the seat position. He uses the buttons on the side of the seat, jerking the seat around for a few minutes, failing to find a satisfactory position. Although Martin has persistently told him to stop and that he will break the seat, he continues on until ultimately he breaks the seat, making it uncomfortable and unmovable.

Following the seat incident, he continues his path of destruction. After smoking a cigarette, he drops the butt out the window. However due to the wind, it blows into the back seat of the car ultimately sending the back seat up in flames and roasting the entire car. In this quick scene, Candy manages to act immaturely and rambunctiously resulting in the destruction of the car. The remains of slapstick comedy are clearly evident in this scene, climaxing with the unreasonable fate of the rental car.

The absurdity of someone so overweight that he breaks a seat and the reality of seeing a car explode in flames seem like a moment from a slapstick cartoon, yet the film is completely plausible due to the overweight and clumsy nature of Candy. Following John Candy’s death in the early 1990s, Chris Farley emerged as the next overweight star, both on television and in a few Hollywood films. His humor was similar to that of John Candy and also very comparable to the works of John Belushi.

In an article praising the life of Chris Farley following his death in Rolling Stone magazine, the author states “we talked about his hero and Saturday Night Live predecessor, John Belushi. It was well known that Farley had been obsessed with Belushi, and people loved making much of this fact, since the two seemed to share a love of certain rather common excesses” (Hedegaard 39). Looking at Tommy Boy, produced in 1995, John Belushi’s influence on Chris Farley becomes apparent through Farley’s role and performance in the film.

In Tommy Boy, Chris Farley stars as the protagonist, an immature and dimwitted heir to an auto parts factory who must save the business to keep it from take-over and away from evil relatives. Throughout the film, Farley’s childish actions bring laughs to audiences of all ages. To begin the film, Tommy (Chris Farley) is shown in a flashback as a young school boy rushing to class, late as always. In this scene he runs full speed into a glass sliding door, shouting “Holy Schnike! ” (Tommy Boy 0:44). The film then skips several years and shows an older Tommy, in his seventh year of college.

Although the older character is much larger (Chris Farley was very large), he mirrors the young middle school version of Tommy because he is pictured doing the same action: rushing to class (late again). In this scene, he is scene trying to take a short cut through some hedges, but runs full speed into a newly put up fence, hitting his head very hard and exclaiming “Holy Schnike! ” again (Tommy Boy 2:02). From these scenes which mesh together, we can clearly see the immaturity of the character, yet the viewer gets many laughs through the physical pain Farley endures.

These actions take place in the first minute of the film, and really set the tone for the rest of the movie. In the film, Tommy is seen acting very foolishly on many accounts: he consistently runs into sliding glass doors, he gets hit in the head with a two-by-four piece of construction wood, he hits his head on a forklift after not listening to his father say heads up, he slips and gets covered in cow manure when trying to go cow tipping, and he rips his friends blue blazer because he is too big for it. Consistently, Tommy releases very childish comments, and he is largely responsible for destroying his friend’s beloved car.

In the film, the actions Farley takes mirror concepts that defined slapstick comedy. His childish and extreme actions are all very similar to this genre of comedy. Farley extends this comedy to make it more personal and relatable as the protagonist becomes more developed. His actions are all very extreme and in many incidents would cause physical pain. Although painful or ridiculous, all actions that take place in the movie could take place in real-life, making the audience relate to the comedy. In one scene in particular, Tommy pushes the realm of reasonable office behavior.

In an attempt to sell auto products for his company, he acts out an anecdote with his customer’s nice model cars. In his story he gives two examples of how a similar scene could play out with two different brakes. In the first action, the car has on Callahan Brake Pads (his company’s) and is able to stop in front of a obstacle that is suddenly in front of the car (a lighter also on the desk). While showing this action he has a complete narrative stating “You’re drivin’ along, la-de-da, woo. All of a sudden there’s a truck tire in the middle of the road. And you hit the brakes. EEEEEEEEE!

Whoa, that was close” (Tommy Boy 35:30). He then proceeds stating “Now let’s see what happens when you’re driving with the “other guy’s”[does quotation marks with fingers] brake pads. You’re drivin’ along, you’re drivin’ along, the kids start shouting from the back seat, ‘I gotta go to the bathroom, Daddy! ‘ ‘Not now, damn it! ‘ Truck tire. EEEEEEEE! I CAN’T STOP! ” (Tommy Boy 35:45). He then rams the model car into the lighter smashing the car of the customer. Farley then gets really into the story acting out voices of a narrator, the kids, the parents, and eventually the paramedics who respond to the scene.

In the scene, some of his quotes include “No! I can’t feel my legs … Here comes the meat wagon … And the medic gets out and says, ‘Oh my God. ‘… New guy’s around the corner puking his guts out” (Tommy Boy 36:05). He also finishes the crash by setting the crushed car on fire with the lighter and calmly collects himself making his point casually stating “All because you want to save a couple extra pennies” (Tommy Boy 36:20). This scene is a clear example of Farley taking over a scene that could have easily been executed much more peacefully, maturely, and professionally.

But the director and Chris Farley decided to execute the scene wildly and immaturely so that viewers see the scene in awe as they cannot believe how overdone he makes the episode. The film is full of scenes like this one, which leave the audience in shock at how a human could act in such a manner. They key to the humor brought about in the film is much like that of Belushi and Candy, it remains believable: although unlikely, all actions in the film could possibly occur in a person’s life. Through looking at these three overweight comedians we see the progression of the same genre of comedy.

The slapstick comedy that first featured Charlie Chaplin and other silent film comedians progressed into slapstick comedy with audio, like the Three Stooges. Following the Three Stooges, the horseplay that was extreme and in many ways violent and not possible for a person to survive, died out. In return, several years later comedians like Belushi rediscovered the art of making a career out of horseplay in every film or television show in which they appeared. Following the mold Belushi made, many other actors have morphed their careers into similar roles.

Through the years the importance of the overweight comedian has grown dramatically. In 1978, John Belushi was a minor character in Animal House. Although his few scenes (around a dozen) are the most memorable from the film, his role contained very few lines and he was never intended to be the star of the film. Looking forward nearly a decade later, John Candy in Planes, Trains, and Automobiles promoted his role to the supporting actor, though not the protagonist of the film.

In this film, we learn much more about the character (a back story, his emotions, etc.) than we did of Belushi in Animal House. Belushi’s character, Bluto, has apparently been in college for several years and the odds of him graduating appear slim. Other than this, we have no other information on the character. For Candy’s character, Del, we find out much more about his life as a shower ring salesman as he appears in nearly every scene and is a much better developed character. Finally looking at Tommy Boy, released almost two-decades after Belushi, the American audience sees the fat wild character as the protagonist of the work.

Chris Farley’s character, Tommy, is the clear protagonist of the film (the film is even titled after the character’s name). Farley’s character has a well developed character, as the viewer is well informed of the character’s entire family and Tommy’s flaws and strengths. Why Overweight? Following in the footsteps of the unrealistic, unsurvivable slapstick comedy to the more plausible realistic feature films, the role of the fat comedian progressed to the center of the film. Perhaps the movement towards realism reflects American’s recognition of their own overweight society.

The United States is the world’s most obese country. In an attempt to explain this epidemic, Greg Critser published Fat Land: How Americans became the fattest people in the world. This work highlights new research that claims cheap fats and sugars as the source which causes our calories to stick and shows why children are too often the chief metabolic culprits of such foods. He clearly claims that we (Americans) have been telling ourselves lies about how much we can eat and how little we can exercise.

He attempts to expose the nutritional value (or lack thereof) in schools as well as political and cultural forces that have caused American’s fitness to continue to decrease (Critser 23). Critser debunks all eating patterns and even diet books in an attempt to explain why they do not work and only supplement the obesity problem in the United States. Although a slightly humorous book, Critser’s message is very serious; the lack of a balanced nutritional diet (which he provides to the best of his understanding) and reduced exercise has set a death trap for many people in America, leading to an obesity problem.

Hollywood has capitalized on the acceptability of overweight people, and has used and continues to use actors bearing this unhealthy lifestyle in order to provide entertainment (usually humorous) to the United States (Critser 25). The comedians explored in the previous pages share one common obvious trait, their weight. John Belushi, John Candy, and Chris Farley were all obese. The reason why they were overweight will never be fully understood, whether it was genetics, poor eating, lack of exercise, pressures of society, or bad habits. The fact is that all these men were huge, and remained large until their respective deaths.

Not only were all of these men overweight, they were also well loved. In a People Magazine article following the death of John Candy, the author concludes “in the end, of course, no one can say for certain whether diet and self-denial would have prolonged Candy’s life a single day. Only one thing is sure: Already Candy is missed” (Harmes 97). Similarly in a Canadian magazine an author begins “While all of us feel as though we’ve lost someone we knew personally,” showing another example of the attachment fans had with such comedians (Candy in both of these instances) (The Untimely Passing 9).

Like Candy, Chris Farley had his fair share of praises in a Rolling Stone Magazine stating “almost everyone loved Farley, and it was a genuine love, not a Hollywood love” (Hedegaard 40). Through these accounts praising the lives of such overweight comedians, it becomes clear that the actors really connected with their audience and gained a sincere affection from their fans. The love they generated came through both the laughs they consistently provided America as well as their big loving appearance.

Perhaps people connected with the characters because they thought their enormous build made them more resilient and therefore they could endure the slapstick comedy they provided. Maybe the reason they were admired was because their large appearance was not the typical Hollywood ‘Barbie’-like figure that so many stars posses, but a reflection of how America really looks: overweight. Or, perhaps their size made them more human because they embodied the flaws in all of us. By the simple act of laughing at and with them, the audience is put at ease and feels better about their own shortcomings.

In any case, the success of these comedians came through their realistic appearance on stage. The people and actions in these films could occur in everyday American lives. The men were not living a sophisticated lifestyle and did not have special skills; they portrayed an overweight male (which is common in the United States) and shined in immature and physical humor evolving the slapstick genre that has been a staple of American comedy films since their beginning a century ago.

With the play, Much Ado About Nothing comedy is generated through numerous ways within its structure, language and form. Conflict and battles of wit between characters in the play create humorous scenes, which are typically intelligently crafted in order to create hilarity. In addition, the utilisation of over exaggerated language and sarcastic remarks, with metaphors and puns spawn comedy.

The obvious, comical scenes within Act 1 are created with the two protagonists Beatrice and Benedict. The role of women in society in the time period was to be quiet and have little power however; Beatrice goes against society’s unspoken rules and contradicts social conformity by being witty and clever with smart remarks so therefore goes against expectations. Due to her continuous conflict with Benedict, she generates comedy in the form of satirising physical features and aspects of his personality. Beatrice speaks arrogantly and aggressively towards Benedict, which further goes against conformity. This is clearly shown through the way she condemns Benedict, portraying him as a ‘disease’ named the ‘Benedict’ that is easier caught that ‘pestilence’. This implies that Benedict is no more than an infection that is easier to catch than the plague, which will spread if you become to friendly with him. The utilisation of these words is humorous due to the fact she always wants the upper hand in the competition of wit, outsmarting the notorious Benedict.

Additionally, the role of Benedict is important in generating the comedy within Act 1. Benedict is a proud and vain individual, who satisfies himself with sarcasm and is the entertainer in the book very much like Beatrice. This contradiction in personality helps to generate comedy, as both individuals battle to seek smart remarks to give themselves satisfaction. However, what they both don’t seem to realise is that they both have equal power and wit. This is evidently presented when Benedict states that Beatrice is a ‘parrot teacher’. This is comical as Benedict personifies Beatrice to be a parrot that is typically renowned for their repetitive nature, in repeating whatever someone Sais.

Furthermore, comedy is caused through sexual references and sexual comedy. This is signified when Beatrice refers to Benedict as ‘Signor Mountanto’ at the start of scene 1 act 1. This phrase is a common fencing term or fencing thrust however it can mean two things. The idea that he is a flashy swordsman or this could be a connection of Benedict’s penis thrusting into an enemy soldier, so therefore there is an association of aggressive sex. Beatrice is clearly commenting on his sexual prowess, as being a womaniser. We find this amusing as Beatrice is once again going against social conformity, speaking of sexual matters with men involved. Due to the fact he has sexual prowess, the imagery of him thrusting his penis is quite obscure but comical as it infers homosexuality. Additionally, Leonato uses less explicit sexual references within Act 1 to generate comedy. This is expressed when he says ‘ her mother hath many times told me so’ in the context that he jokingly doubts Hero as his daughter. This connotes that status of women in the Victorian society, as he makes a joke at his wife’s expense to generate comedy. The idea tat women are passed around in this context is comical.

Furthermore, the theme of marriage is a theme that spawns conflict and comedy. Benedict disgusts anyone’s approach to marriage and emphasises that he ‘will die a bachelor’, however the comedy is generated when Claudio expresses his love for Leonato’s daughter, Hero. This is demonstrated when Benedict states that she is ‘to low for a high praise, too brown for a fair praise and too little for a great place’, which creates comedy. This is comical as Benedict over complicates Hero as a wife for Claudio analytically pulling out all the negatives within her. The fact that Benedict is devoted to the idea he will die to be superior o a bachelor, allows his character to pick the fun out of anyone who has fallen into the trap if love and marriage.

Pleasure and merrymaking is projected through the banter and conflict between Beatrice and Benedict within the first act this is clear when Leonato states there is a ‘skirmish of wit between them’, which clearly emphasises the fact that there battle for wit is obviously noticeable in order to get the upper hand. The reason for enjoying this humour is because of the fact that they want to be superior over one another.

In conclusion, we can infer that there are numerous attributes that contribute to the humour and comedy of Act 1 in Much Ado About Nothing. However, the most noticeable element is the battle of wit between Beatrice and Benedict. The utilisation of satirical comedy and overly exaggerated sarcasm along with puns emphasises the fact the reason for their conflict is the recognition and gratitude they will feel. Undoubtedly, there are several other contributing factors like the sexual references from the male characters, which could be thought to be slightly sexist and inappropriate in todays society but the cheek involved in delivery the lines makes it comical.

The drama essay “The Brute” by Anton Chekhov is typically referred to that subgenre of comedy known as the farce. What separates a farce from the more pedestrian and commonplace “comedy” is that it is infused with a sense of whimsy as well as a detachment from reality that, paradoxically, should serve to make it all the more realistic. In the case of The Bear the farcical elements are utilized to heighten the emotional intensity that is under normal circumstances subject to far too much control and restraint to allow it freedom in a work of drama as short as this play.

The revelation that love and the realization of love is enough to make Smirnoff undergo the series of truly bizarre and unexpected changes in register could probably only be accomplished in a farce. The arguments that take place between Mrs. Popov and Smirnov serve both to provide the comic material for the play and as a foundation upon which to build Smirnov’s growing realization that he succumbing to the ultimate debt of love. Popov has retained her commitment to her husband long after his death has released her from that debt.

Smirnov is a landowner who had lent money to Mr. Popov’s husband before his death and who has now shown up to demand repayment because he, in turn, is facing down his own creditors. The cyclical nature of debt and repayment serves as a metaphor for relationships between men and women. The play proceeds from a point of Popov’s refusal and Smirnov’s reactions. It is the evolution of Smirnov’s reactions that is the key to understanding his character.

The progression of the play is through dialogue rather than action and the progression of the dialogue of Smirnov is one of self-assuredness-almost cockiness-to a sense of losing control, which ultimately leads Smirnov to realize he has fallen in love. Smirnov boasts that he has “refused twelve women and nine have refused” him. These are the words of a man still secure in his independence before a woman; an insecure man never admits that a woman has refused him, much less nine. The subject at hand is still the debt as the argument intensifies, but then Mrs.

Popov takes it from the financial to the personal. She attacks his very humanity by crying out “You’re nothing but a crude, bear! A brute! A monster! “. Finally, things progress-as it seems it always must-to weapons being brought to bear. Mrs. Popov goes for her husband’s pistols, essentially turning the argument into a full scale duel. There is only one problem: Mrs. Popov does not know how to fire the gun. At this point, she ceases to be a debtor and is well on her way to becoming a woman. Smirnov is lost.

Smirnov’s reactions to Mrs. Popov change considerably after weapons are introduced and since it is clear he has no real fear for his life, this change that comes over only can only be attributed to a death in his original feelings for the widow as his emotional trek comes to a rest a full one-hundred eighty degrees from where he started. Nothing in either his words or his actions could lead one to suppose that any element of truth is expressed when Smirnov asserts “If she fights I’ll shoot her like a chicken! . One can well imagine the Smirnov who first entered Mrs. Popov’s home at the beginning of the play actually entertaining this idea-if not actually going through with it-but the words ring empty and hollow by the point at which they are actually spoken. The Bear is a drama-perhaps even a tragedy if one cares to extrapolate what may happen to these two characters once the curtain comes down upon this small moment in their lives-masquerading as a farce. And, of course, it has to be that way.

If the events that take place within the short period of time allotted in this short play were played straight and dramatically, Smirnov’s strange, comedic odyssey from cold, heartless debt collector to overwhelmed object of love would draw even more laughs, albeit unintentionally. To show the absurdity of Smirnov’s situation, indeed the absurdity of how any two people come to fall in love, the farce is the writer’s best weapon. It provides a method of distancing the audience from realizing they too are characters in a real life farce every time they fall in love.