Confucianism

The three main religions in China – Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism – originated at about the same time and share common beliefs in human goodness and the need to behave kindly and justly. However, they differ in their practices and, more importantly, in how they view deities and the afterlife. Derived from Confucius’ teachings around 500 BC, Confucianism emphasizes justice, sincerity, morality, and hierarchy.

It emphasizes conduct and decorum over spirituality, emphasizing self-control and obedience instead of religious doctrine in the Judeo-Christian sense. Its practices include being sincere, just, and deferential to elders, since it embraces a strict view of worldly hierarchy and the need for etiquette rather than one governed by gods or an omnipotent single God. In this sense, it is less a religion than “a tradition of ritual/propriety” (Yao 191) which upholds sacrifices to heavenly, earthly, and ancestral spirits (generally performed in temples).

It is hard to define as a religion because it does not fit the Western world’s criteria and is more a tradition and code of behavior; indeed, it was initially used to govern the actions of China’s ancient bureaucrats. (Yao 39) Daoism evolved at about the same time as Confucianism and also embraces virtues like justice, patience, and decency. However, it is more of a religion than Confucianism because it mandates reverence for the Dao (roughly meaning “the way”), which is “a cosmic principle, permeating and infusing all aspects of creation with vitality.

” (Oldstone-Moore 23) To become one with the Dao, one must attain enlightenment by practicing good, proper behavior in addition to cultivating a spiritual wisdom and serenity through unity with the Tao. Here, Taoism differs sharply from Confucianism, which does not place as much importance on cosmic forces or one’s spiritual nature. It also embraces a more concrete idea of the afterlife than Confucianism, since the Daoist view has the soul entering Hell, being forced to atone, and being reincarnated.

(Oldstone-Moore 84-87) Originating in India at roughly the same time as Confucianism and Daoism, Buddhism shares with them the principles of harmony and balance, though to a Westerner it seems more like a religion than either of its fellow faiths. Indeed, its doctrines and rituals are more evolved and clearly-defined than those of China’s other two main religions. Like them, Buddhism teaches that while human nature is essentially good, the world is corrupt and one must practice pure-mindedness and good, just behavior.

It also shares with Daoism the importance of seeking cosmic enlightenment, though Buddhists attain it through meditation and discipline. (Wangu 8) However, it also mandates a degree of asceticism (like varying degrees of vegetarianism) not required by Confucianism or Daoism, asking its laypeople to refrain from violence, theft, sexual misconduct, using intoxicants, and “incorrect speech” (lying, gossiping, etc. ).

Also, Buddhism’s concepts of the soul and afterlife are much more developed than those of either Confucianism or Daoism, and it places more emphasis on its written scriptures (which were committed to print during the first century AD). However, it has no supreme being and does not demand exclusive allegiance, as do Western religions; its appeal “has rested solely on the message of its founder and its flexibility in adapting to different cultures and philosophies. ” (Wangu 10) China’s three chief religions share common traits and basic outlooks (which they openly exchanged over the centuries).

Confucianism is the most secular and least spiritual, while Daoism has a more evolved sense of the spirit and afterlife and Buddhism the most evolved concepts of these, as well as the most involved code of practices. In all, they represent varying degrees of spirituality and what Westerners would call “religion. ” BIBLIOGRAPHY Oldstone-Moore, Jennifer. Taoism. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. Wangu, Madhu Bazaz. Buddhism. New York: Facts on File, 2002. Yao, Xinzhong. Religions of China. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.

The three of the most common religions in Asia are Buddhism, Shintoism, and Confucianism. In many ways, these religions share a number of common traits although they do possess a certain number of distinct differences as well. As such, a clear examination of the similarities and differences will be provided herein. Buddhism originated in India where it later traveled to China and to Japan. The Chinese version of Zen Buddhism is probably the most prevalently practiced form of the religion in the world.

Mainly, this is because this form of Buddhism is mostly concerned with philosophical and practical approaches to Buddhist theory and study, Mainly, Buddhism is concerned no with an afterlife or a heaven as much as it is concerned with achieving enlightenment on earth. A simple definition of enlightenment would be a free and clear mind that does not prescribe to any attachments or suffering. This is clearly not an easy state of mind to attain. However, by following Buddhism’s 8 Fold Path and 4 Noble Truths throughout one’s life, it may be possible to attain enlightenment.

Both the 8 Fold Path and the 4 Noble Truths are designed as a means of approaching life is a safe and sane manner that leads to eventual enlightenment. As the name would imply, Confucianism derives from the life, philosophy, and teaching of Confucius. Although Confucius and Confucianism originated in China, the religion has universal appeal. That is why it spread throughout East Asia and, to a certain, degree, into the western world. The basic premise of Confucianism seems more akin to traditional logic than any type of spiritual religion.

(This is where it possesses many Page – 2 similarities to Buddhism) The central tenants of Confucianism stress the importance of educating the populace in order to create a moral order. From this moral order, a government will emerge that prescribes to logical, moral tenants. As a result, the government will seek to serve its people as opposed to ruling over them with an iron fist. This connects to the notion that a moral order breeds compassion. This ties into Confucius’ belief that relationships and ritual behavior were critical to maintaining societal order.

Shintoism is quite removed from Confucianism and Buddhism in a number of ways. Shintoism is far more localized to Japan that the other two religions. Additionally, it is a religion that places great emphasis on the worship of spirits. This is far removed from the more secular approach of the other two religions. Shintoism seeks to create a harmony between humans and the natural world. So, in a way, it combines secular logic with the natural world and the corporal world of the spirits.

Ultimately, the goal of Shinto is to follow the path of the Four Affirmations. These Four Affirmations involve combining adherence to tradition and family; the natural world; physical cleanliness; and the spirit. Through this, an attainment similar to Buddhist enlightenment might be acquired. Again, there are similarities and differences between all three religions. The main similarity would be the desire to attain a more perfect and moral life. That is a common thread that is quite valuable.

The Han Dynasty and the Roman Empire were two of the most powerful entities to rule their respective parts of the world. The Han Dynasty dominated Asia from the Korean peninsula to present day Vietnam for more than four hundred years. The Roman Empire stretched from the present British Isles to present day Iraq, and lasted nearly five hundred years.

The Eastern Roman Empire went on to last another one thousand years. Both the Han Dynasty and the Roman Empire enjoyed times of immense prosperity during their golden years. They both ended in chaos.

How were their declines similar?

Augustus, the first emperor of the Roman Empire, brought order to the vast lands Rome had conquered and brought an end to over one hundred years of civil war. He disbanded the large armies that had been recruited during the civil war and consolidated his power. The people welcomed the new dictator, and enjoyed peace and prosperity. With peace came increased trade and commerce, and ideas traveled freely along the Roman Empire’s well designed roads.

However, the emperors after Augustus were not as politically gifted as Augustus. Four emperors and fifty-four years later, the Roman Empire was once again thrown into a violent civil war. After four coups in a single year, another line of emperors emerged. The line started by Vespasian was also a stable time. The Roman Empire reached its largest size during this time, and many historians consider those years the golden age of Rome. Inevitably, out of such a successful line of emperors, there would eventually emerge a bad apple. The emperor Commodus threw himself into immoral and violent practices, and gave no respect to any of the leaders.

He was assassinated in 192 A. D., bringing an end to one century of stability. This date marked the beginning of the end. The Romans gradually lost power, and barbarian people in the north frequently went on raids against the now disintegrating empire. The Roman Empire became steeped in debt as emperors tried desperately to buy the loyalty of the army, and the moral condition of its subjects continued to spiral downward. Christians were persecuted, and large, bloodthirsty crowds would in arenas to cheer as various people died violent deaths.

Rome steadily lost control of the frontiers, and roads and bridges were not maintained, leading to a breakdown in trade and communication.Riots and revolts became commonplace in Rome itself. The civil war affected the lives of all the citizens. As the government fell deeper into debt, it raised taxes. The armies of different generals seized any supplies they needed from local people. Food became a precious commodity, and for the first time in centuries, large numbers of people went hungry. Ultimately, the emperor Diocletian restored a semblance of order during his reign from 284 to 305.

He recognized the fact that one man could not keep all the armies loyal to him, and could not coordinate a defense against the barbarians.This led to the division of the Roman Empire into eastern and western portions. Constantine briefly united the Eastern and Western empires in the 320’s and established new capital Constantinople in present day Turkey, but his son Theodosius I was the last emperor of the united Roman Empire. When he died in 395, he divided the eastern and western portion between his two sons. The western emperors became weaker and weaker, and tribes of barbarians roamed freely. In 476, the Western Roman Empire officially ended. Most of the common people’s lives were unaffected by this.

Local governments remained much the same.The Eastern Roman Empire continued to prosper until the fall of Constantinople in 1453 to the Ottomans. Long before the Roman Empire had been united under one man, an empire in the East was thriving. The Han Dynasty was established by a former policeman. After the collapse of the Qin Dynasty, the first to unite China, a period of anarchy ensued. Liu Bang, the son of peasants, raised an army and conquered his foremost rival in 202 B. C.

He continued to war against other rivals and former allies until he consolidated his power. He pacified the nomadic Xiongnu by offering them tribute.He was popular among the peasants, who had been oppressed and overworked under the Qin Dynasty. Lowered taxes, less demands for labor from the state, and his own humble origins made him well-liked. He carefully appointed loyal officials and administrators, making sure that the power remained with him. Harboring a deep distrust of merchants, he put rich landowners in positions of power. At his death in 195 B. C. , he had left a stable and prospering kingdom in the hands of his family. Power struggles occurred in the royal family, but the dynasty produced capable rulers.The reigns of Wendi, Jingdi, and Wudi were marked by peace, prosperity, a better life for peasants, expansion of China’s lands, art, and trade. Confucianism became the official state philosophy. Under Wudi, China conquered many lands, expanding their power and influence. The Han Dynasty now controlled northern Vietnam and the Korean Peninsula, and the Xiongnu were pushed back.

Wudi sent explorers toward Central Asia, eventually opening up the famous trade route known as the Silk Road. Buddhism was introduced from India. However, the wars and large armies put an enormous burden on the economy.The land became overpopulated, and thousands were forced into banditry or even selling their children as slaves. Government officials became increasingly corrupt. Confucian moralists decried these events, but little was changed. Toward the end of Wudi’s reign, violence erupted between the empress and Wudi’s concubine over the heir to the throne.

Eventually, a compromise ruler was chosen, but the decline of the Han Dynasty had already begun. Later emperors were incompetent, and their reigns were marked by corruption, immorality, and apathy.Some Confucian scholars declared that the Han Dynasty had lost the Mandate of Heaven, a belief that rulers were appointed by Heaven. Wang Mang was a Confucian who was appointed regent of the child emperor Ruzi. The outsider seized power in 9 A. D. , and attempted to implement sweeping reforms that damaged the already feeble economy.

Though most Confucians had looked to him as the father of a new dynasty, economic and natural disasters caused a massive food shortage. The peasants rebelled, and Wang Mang’s attempted usurpation died with him in 23 A. D.Millions died in the resulting war for power, but a Han prince named Liu Xui emerged victorious. Though the Han Dynasty had been reestablished, it never reached the heights of its first years. Trade increased to new levels, and the first Nestorian Christians arrived, but corruption continued, and few reforms were made. Gradually, court officials and warlords gained more and more power, and the Taoist religion, which preached equal rights and land redistribution began to take hold among the peasants.

The Han Dynasty’s later years were filled with internal conflict, as court officials battled with the emperor and the Taoists.During this time, nomads in the north and near the Korean Peninsula destroyed the Chinese settlements as civil war rocked the Han. In the end, the emperors lost most of their power, and China split into various warring factions that were eventually transformed into three new kingdoms. The Han Dynasty’s glorious reign formally came to an end in 220 A. D. Both the Han Dynasty and the Roman Empire were powerful and impressive. They both fell because of weak leaders and power hungry individuals.

The Han practice of concubinage led to much violence and strife in the royal family, causing disunity and internal conflict.Regents often attempted to seize power. Love of money led to the precarious situations of Rome’s later emperors, as soldiers demanded gold for loyalty. In both empires, corruption of government contributed to the bitterness of the common people. All of these things arise from selfishness in the human heart. In James 3:16, we see the unavoidable consequences of selfish gain. “For where you have envy and selfish ambition, there you find disorder and every evil practice.

Man’s desire for power over himself and over others has led to much suffering. These two empires could not escape the corruption of human nature.

Introduction

“How have financial markets reacted to financial-sector reforms after the crisis?” By Schafer et al. is an article in pursuit for the extent to which the financial reforms have been adopted in many countries globally. The global economic crisis caused financial strategists to look into ways through which they would change their financial systems to counteract the effect of the crisis. This paper is a critique of this article in the manner it reported whether the reforms have been had a positive impact to the independent countries. The paper will also point out the shortcomings in the article about the financial reforms.

Summary of the article

This is a well researched and documented article covering the extent to which financial reforms have been adopted by many countries in the world. Schafer et al. articulates that Lax-financial sector regulation is the major cause of the global crisis that forced policy makers to innovate ways of dealing with the reforms. However, the introduction of reforms by various countries or multinational companies has had a lot of varied impact based on the reform and country. This is evident from reviewing the banks stock returns that demonstrate that four major reforms in the US and Europe has drastically reduced the bailout expectations. The Dodd-Frank Act is one of the major reforms initiated that has caused the strongest effects while the German restructuring law provided the least effects after the reforms were implemented in response to the global crisis (Schafer e al. 2013).

The G20 sorted to establish radical measures to overhaul the financial system after it was identified that the existing financial system was faced by a near collapse. The financial system was faced by the collapse because there were unprecedented support measures from the public sector and central governments that would deal with the global economic crisis that hit the world in 2009 (Veronesi & Zingales 2010). As a result, each country decided to initiate its measures independently providing structural measures that promoted prohibitions of activities whilst ring fencing of the retail banking (O’Hara & Shaw 2010). These measures are a major impact in the regulating the financial strategies of the world although most people observe that nothing much happened during the crisis and even the so called reforms have had less impact to the countries. At this point, only the financial strategists can be able to understand the impact of the reforms as it does not make sense in the eyes of a person who does not understand how financial matters are dealt with in business.

The article covered the regulatory events in the banking industry between June 2009 when the global crisis was at its peak and 2011 when the reforms had started bearing fruits to some countries. Four major reforms in the article are; the Dodd-Frank Act in the US, the reforms proposed by the Vickers report in the UK, the restructuring law and bank levy in Germany, and the too-big-to fail regulation in Switzerland (Schwert 2011). The reforms were used by different countries using different approaches to deal with the weakness demonstrated by the global economic crisis. The weakness revealed through the crisis include; a prohibition of risky activities, ring fencing of systemic activities, establishment of resolution procedures and special capital regimes for systemically important banks to address the weakness in Volcker rule in the US, UK, Germany and Switzerland (Fratianni & Marchionne 2009).

Critique

This article is well informed about the financial strategies, and its analysis gives an accurate position regarding the impact and effect of the reforms. This is due to the fact that the information used to analyze the questions was obtained from the bank stocks information for different countries based on their financial strategies. Its objective was to answer two questions: has anything happened in financial regulation after the global financial crisis and whether the structural reforms have been registered in equity valuations and credit default in their individual banks. According to the article, it has found out that the answer to these two questions is yes. Further, this means that the reforms initiated in the four major countries has been able to bailout expectations and lower the equity returns in their markets.

Under normal financial environment, these two questions cannot be categorically being stated as yes. Based on the financial mechanisms it is hard to predict whether enough has happened because the reforms were developed specifically with the interest of promoting the safety of the financial system. The article demonstrates that the major four reforms have been able to lower the bailout expectations in their respective countries. As research as established, lower rates of bailout expectations have an impact of creating a lower risk taking individuals (Boyd & Gertler 2004). Therefore, at this point it is difficult to tell whether the reforms have been effective or simply people in these countries have become risk a vase. The best answer for the questions highlighted in this article is that the only time would effectively determine whether the reforms have effectively instituted measures to deal with the economic crisis in the future.

On the other hand, it is not standards to identify at what level is the reform successful. There is no standard measure to be applied to the four reforms to be able to explain whether they have attained the ultimate goal or more strategies should be implemented. The basis used in the article is a drop in the equity prices and a subsequent increase in the credit default swaps which does not shut down the system in the individual countries. A comprehensive and successful strategy should be able to distort the cause of the systemic risk so that it cannot happen in the future. This can be effectively be done by comparing the results to the funding costs deferential (Ueda & Weder di Mauro 2013) In this measurement criteria, the values of the current financial year are compared to the values of 2009 which will demonstrate whether the reforms have effectively reduced the distortions or at what level has the distortions been reduced.

In regard to the second question, the article establishes that some of the reforms are better than others. This is true because every reform was developed with an underlying and competing philosophy. The reforms were not commonly developed to serve the same problems and weakness brought out by the global crisis. For example, the Volcker Rule and the ring fencing approach can be applied in different banking systems. Contrary, the Swiss and Germany reforms were instituted to promote capital buffers and adverse resolvability. As such, the default swap changes do not accurately pointy at the effectiveness of the reform strategy. The impacts provided by the four reforms do not pass to be used as the criteria to determine which among the reforms has been able to deal with the weakness provided in its financial system after the crisis. For example, the Germany reform cannot be ruled out as ineffective, but it is just irrelevant to the financial practices because it is executed at the national level. Here, no system can effectively point at its impact in dealing with the crisis. Therefore, the best assessment of the reform implemented on each of the four named above lies in the future.

The G20 initiated the development of the reform strategies with the aim of reducing the impact of the global crisis. Although the strategy might have well been good, it is difficult to develop a common strategy that would be applied to all the countries in the world. For example, in the Eurozone, the financial problem has been identified and a vigorous supernatural reform strategy implemented best to the identified problem which is majorly with the banking unions. Based on this example, it is difficult to develop a common strategy treaty would give the solution to the different financial systems. This is because problems are not identical for all the countries. Additionally, the Basel process is a good global initiative, but it has not established a robust framework for the establishment of cross-country resolutions to be instituted. However, this has lead to individual countries in initiating different banking systems that they deem better for their problems. As a result, these different approaches may lead into a more devastating financial problem than the global crisis.

Conclusion

The article “How have financial markets reacted to financial-sector reforms after the crisis?” points at the fact that the financial markets have been abler to deal with the effects of the global crisis. It focused on four major reforms that were initiated in the G20 countries in response to the crisis. Although this article provides factual data from the banks in individual country, its conclusion may not be accurate. It is difficult to answer the question provided in the article because the strategies have been implemented at national level by each country. Secondly, the problems are not the same for the various systems therefore it can be established further which of the strategies has been able to deal with the crisis effectively. Therefore, the best answer for the argument presented in the article is to wait for time to tell whether the reforms are comprehensive. It is only after the fullest of time that it will be established whether a reform strategy has been abler to completely distort the system that generates the crisis.

References

Boyd, J & Gertler, M .2004, “The Role of Large Banks in the Recent U. S. Banking Crisis”, Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis Quarterly Review, 18(1), 2–21.

Fratianni, M & Marchionne, F. 2009, “Rescuing Banks from the Effects of the Financial Crisis”, MoFir Working Paper Series, 1(30), 1.

O’Hara, M & Shaw, W. 2010, “Deposit Insurance and Wealth Effects: The Value of Being ‘Too Big To Fail’, Journal of Finance, 45(5): 1587–1600.

Schafer, A, ISchnabel, and Weder di Mauro, B .2013, “Financial Sector Reform After the Crisis: Has Anything Happened“, CEPR Discussion Paper 9502.

Schwert, G. 2011, “Measuring the Effects of Regulation: Evidence from the Capital Markets”,

Journal of Law and Economics 24, 121–145.

Ueda, K & Weder di Mauro, B. 2013, “Quantifying Structural Subsidy Values for Systemically Important Financial Institutions”, Journal of Banking and Finance 1(12): 128.

Veronesi, P & Zingales, L. 2010, “Paulson’s Gift”, Journal of Financial Economies 97(3), 339–368.

Stephanie Luu Soc 0835, Sec 002 Yuichi Moroi November 9, 2010 Ethnic/Race Identity Formation and the Internet Throughout the course of American history, immigration from around the world has been occurring. The result from the different people emigrating from such varying parts of the human race creates the diversity in American society. As different ethnicities come into America, racial discrimination and stereotypes are created. Ethnic identity starts to become an issue where immigration, sexuality, religion, politics, and social change begin to shape how race and ethnicity are constructed and perceived in the American culture.

In contemporary society, the internet serves as an additional element of the construction and shaping of these social identities. People are capable of using online networks and databases to learn about different cultures. By pressing a few buttons and clicking search, information is instantly displayed and questions can be immediately answered. The concern of the matter lies behind the authentication of the content; information posted on the web does not have to be validated by academic scholars to be published. Knowing the criteria for assessing web pages, the obtaining of misleading information can be avoided.Stereotypes generally occur among races that appear to differ from one’s own. It happens as a result of a person’s subconscious mind to group and generalize a person by their descriptions and physical attributes.

These classifications can be positive or negative, which creates an issue with the construction of social identities of different racial and ethnic groups. Being that the first groups to arrive to America can be generally stereotyped as “white”, people of other descents are known to be minorities. Some of these groups include black people, Hipic people, Indian people, Asian people, and more.The focus of this paper will be on those of Chinese descent; in particular, the stereotypes of Chinese people and how information on the internet perceives them. Despite if a person is Chinese or Korean, the individual is likely to be stereotyped as Asian. Their skin color may be similar to those considered “white”, but their hair color and facial attributes differ in the sense that they cannot be stereotyped as white. Nazli Kibria, author of an article in Sociological Perspectives, examined further into the dynamics between Asians and non-Asians by studying the interaction of everyday social encounters between the two.

Kibria aimed to explore two central aspects of the common stereotypes: “sameness” and “foreignness”. She shares of an incident where she was watching “M*A*S*H” and saw that a supposedly Korean character was wearing a Vietnamese-style hat wandering around in a village that appeared to be Japanese-oriented (Kibria 81). She was outraged by the fact that was evident that the show created an “Asian scene” based on a stereotypical idea of what an Asian person looked like and what was presumed an Asian environment.Such incidents are absurd to those who come from different backgrounds, while those who are not able to differentiate race and ethnicity do not find any offense to these encounters. She also noted that a family was asked to pose for a picture in the town paper wearing native garb without regards to what the occasion was. The picture turned out to be on the front page of a small daily newspaper next to recipes of egg rolls in celebration of Chinese New Year. We were their token Oriental family—Chinese, Korean, it was all the same” (Kibria 82).

Even differentiating the two, the town had no remorse. “Korean” and “Chinese” seemed to be synonymous with the term “Asian” because both could be generalized into that. Another incident occurred where an American company was about to make a deal with a Japanese company, and workers asked a fellow Asian worker, “Hey Karen, tell us how we should deal with Japanese so that we get what we want. ” Her response was, “You guys, I’m Chinese…born and raised here”.Immediate reaction, “OK, but Karen, you have to admit that you probably have a better sense of the way Japanese culture works than we do” (Kibria 83). Quickly, it is evident that these Asians are stereotyped into one generalization that relates each individual country with one another. These stories show similar cases in which Asians are linked together by culture and physical attributes, even being that they are of different ethnic groups.

This may induce problems to the social construction of Chinese people due to them wanting others to recognize and acknowledge their differences.The website that contained the above information was from an article called “Race, Ethnic Options, and Ethnic Binds: Identity Negotiations of Second-Generation Chinese and Korean Americans” in Sociological Perspectives. This article was found on an online database called JSTOR, and it is a credible source because the database is “. org”, which identifies its association with an educational institution. This information is both empirical and scholarly based because she uses endless examples of experiences to explain her theories of stereotypes.This relates to the scholarly aspect because she uses psychological studies to analyze the different behaviors in the surrounding atmosphere. It is quality information because the author is identified with a University, and the publisher is copyrighted.

The information is not biased because it also describes perspectives of the life behind a white person’s eyes as well as a black person’s. It does not lead to potential stereotypes, but it does make awareness of stereotypical incidents that subconsciously happen in everyday life.In relation to the stereotypical occurrences that happen daily, these incidents appear to shape the behaviors of ethnic identities, especially those among the second-generation Chinese Americans. In Baozhen Luo’s “Social Construction of Chinese American Ethnic Identity: Dating Attitudes and Behaviors among Second-Generation Chinese American Youths”, Luo makes an argument that “second-generation Chinese youths construct their dating values and identities through both differentiating and integrating their parents’ and white peers’ dating cultures and gender norms” (Luo 1).Luo, being a second-generation Chinese American, provides a summary of what his parents wanted of his life, the kind of lifestyle he grew up in, and the battle between the two. Education was first, then dating and marriage came later; most importantly the family’s attitudes towards interracial dating. He says that “Chinese American youths constructed and reconstructed their own dating values, gender norms, and ethnic identities through various processes of picking and choosing from both cultures” (108).

Luo argues that American culture cannot explain the complexity of the dating culture created by the second-generation Chinese American youths but that it is shaped by growing up in the middle grounds of two different cultures, allowing for an individual to adapt to both. Baozhen Luo’s article is a thesis brought to the public by the Department of Sociology at Digital Archive at Georgia State University. This is a scholarly and credible source, which also contains a reference at the bottom of the works cited. The information is a summary of his own life experiences so it may be a little biased because this will not pertain to every individual.But to my own experience growing up as a second-generation Chinese American, it is very similar and accurate. It may lead to potential stereotypes in the sense that people may think all first-generation Chinese Americans are narrow-minded and racist in a sense, where they want their child to marry only within the race. The construction of the Chinese American identity is not accustomed by the American way of life but by the intuition of the Chinese people themselves.

Joseph Wu’s “Filial Piety and Chinese Culture” explains that the foundation of morality of Chinese culture is filial piety.Filial piety is respect for one’s parents and ancestors—the virtue to be held above all else. He discusses that in the traditional West, the ultimate moral authority is God or Spirit, but in Chinese culture, the ultimate moral authority is still in the human world (Wu 2). By means of that, filial piety is a product created by Chinese culture, meanwhile for the traditional Westerners moral principles are by God or spiritual creation. While religion is essential, valuable, and necessary in the traditional West, there exists no formal religion in Chinese culture. According to the common sense of Chinese people, China has three major religions: Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. Nevertheless, Confucius is natural and humanistic.

He is not a God, but only a human being” (Wu 4). That argues in favor that the Chinese value humanistic reality over spiritual power. He also refers to Buddha not being a God but a human being having been enlightened. To some extent people believe that filial piety is a substitute for their religion because it serves as the worthy power and authority. The Chinese perform filial piety to liberate human beings from the fear of death (Wu 5). In Chinese culture, the initial way for conquering death is giving birth to a male-child, and hoping the male-child to continue to produce male descendants” (Wu 5). The purpose of this is because only the male can attain continuity of family life, considering females generally take after the husband’s name.

Though the extremities of Chinese culture and its religion appeared to be evident through the above examples, this website is not a reliable source. The website lacks accountability; it has an author but no email nor information (degrees, educational background) indicating whether the author is credible.The website also does not provide a date that shows when the page was updated so it is not safe to say the information is accurate. The page has notes at the end, but no works cited or reference page–the above source is not quality information. The information is biased because the only recognition mentioned says, “The author of this essay has been a performer of filial piety” (5). This holds relevance to why the author was such a firm believer that Chinese culture is shaped by filial piety. The construction of social identity of Chinese culture was attempted to be explored through information accessed on the web.

Any information without credibility may be posted on the web and assessed by anyone. This may lead someone to be misinformed when trying to learn about the construction of an ethnic or racial identity because the reader may be reading falsified information. The exploration of a person’s racial and ethnic identity can be successfully attained if done with proper search methods. I think the internet is a good tool for exploring people’s racial and ethnic identities because the world contains an extreme amount of different ethnic groups that you may never even encounter.With the internet, people are able to learn about different cultures even if they never get to interact with one.Works Cited Kibria, Nazli. “Race, Ethnic Options, and Ethnic Binds: Identity Negotiations of Second-Generation Chinese and Korean Americans.

” Sociological Perspectives 43. 1 (2000): 77-95. JSTOR. Web. . Luo, Baozhen. Social Construction of Chinese American Ethnic Identity: Dating Attitudes and Behaviors among Second-Generation Chinese American Youths.

Thesis. Georgia State University, 2006. Sociology Theses. 2 Aug. 2006. Web. .

Wu, Joseph S. “Filial Piety and Chinese Culture. ” Thome Fang Institute. Web. .

Hart Benton Dr. Levey HI/Hon 282 26 November 2010 Neo-Confucian History and its Application to Government Neo-Confucianism arose in China during the Song Dynasty as a vehicle to reapply Confucian teachings and morality to an era in which Buddhist and Daoist followers were all but competing with Confucianism.

Such competition found Confucianism becoming more and more related to the state as an official religion, reducing the true existence of Confucianism as predicated by Kung T’zu’s own canonical texts.The revival of Confucian thought during this dynasty lead for replacement of a militaristically centered society academia and cultural achievements, changing the view of Chinese history and the historian as well as leadership in the government as both began to take on the characteristics of Confucian practices such as The Way. The transformation of the view of history was radical at best. The overall essence of history was questioned as notable historians such as Lu Zuqian and Zhen Qiao professed the correct way of viewing history to be to view history as a continuous stream as opposed to solitary confined moments in time.Lu notes that history must be viewed as the continued record of organic growth and change in Lu Donglai wenji. Zheng Qiao claims that Confucius’ credibility as a notable sage lie in his ability to view history as an entirety and the stream that makes it up as opposed to Ban Gu who compartmentalized history by narrowing on one topic, or as he literally puts it in Tongzhi, “Ban Gu wrote the history of only one dynasty, this principle of continuity has been ignored. ”Another way that history became molded to the form of Confucianism was in its application.

The application of history could be noted as a two- way process, one being the application of the past to see the present and thereby stimulating intellectual growth as well as practicability, and the other being that history provides morals of conducts for the historian. The latter has a greater sense of Confucian character in that the process of being provided the conducts of morality involves the historian to mentally ut himself into the actual situation, apply the context of the day, and imagine to face these facts and come to a conclusions. This, Lu Zuqian says, is the way “you will get real profit from your reading. ” A sense of morality was also applied to the role of history in, quite literally, the beginning of the history. The words of an emperor were recorded in the Song Dynasty immediately at the moment, lending the historiographer to record the entirety of the emperor’s words, both the good and bad.In Zizhi tongjian, Sima Guang writes: The emperor said, “If I do something that is not good, do you then also record it? ” Suilian replied, “My office is to wield the brush. How could I dare not record it? ” The Gentleman of the Yellow Gate Liu Ji added, “Even if Suilang failed to record it, everyone else in the empire would” Zizhi tongjian The necessary morality of the emperors in their actions transcended itself through the historiographer’s recording and into the text and finally into the readers.

Such a direct relationship between published and actual history manifests itself in the image of history as a mirror in this neo- Confucian era. The image is used in several ways: one being that upon looking in a mirror, everything is completely visible including any flaw or blemish. As Liu Zhiji states, “When a clear mirror reflects objects, beauty and ugliness are bound to be revealed. ” It is the job of the historian to present a clean mirror, and as Zhiji also notes, “celebrate the good, censure the evil, and control the powerful” in doing so.The second way that the neo-Confucian role of history should resemble a mirror is that any government official, leader, statesman, or ruler should be able to look into the mirror and in the reflection make a value judgment and discover a truth about the issues in their day. Herein lays they connection between governmental leadership and history. Perhaps no Chinese Song historian better notes the close connection between history and government than Sima Guang in his 294-chapter work, Zizhi tongjian, or Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance.

Using this same metaphor of the mirror, Guang strikes on the fact of history becoming a predominantly political history and attaining an almost entirely political purpose. Just as part of Neo-Confucianism’s role in history relayed the essence of The Way in its acquiescence and practice, the same holds true for government policy. Cheng Yi memorializes an appeal for the Confucian Way to be adapted as a foundation for Chinese governmental policy implementation and return rule to scholars and sage kings as opposed to leaders focusing more on the role of the military as was evident in pre-Song dynasties.In the adaption of the Way to government policy, Cheng Hao took a more pragmatic Confucian stance on reform of government in association with the Way in that laws should “change according to the times and be embodied in systems that suited the conditions in obtaining each. ” In other words, let not the policies of the day digress to blanketing an entire spectrum disregarding of context and situational prowess, but rather cater the policy to where it fits in with the Way of the day by allowing the policy to follow in itself the Way.The emergence of Neo-Confucianism brought with it a change in the view of the development of history, application of history, and the role of the historian as history overall began to follow the role of the Way and morality throughout the Song Dynasty. With this shift in the role of history came the shift in role of government policy.

As history became more politically applicable with the “history as a mirror” metaphor, government followed the role of history and it too began to follow The Way in its practice and usage as a moral system.

The Great Wall of China and the Egyptian Pyramids are both Manmade Wonders of the World and belong to two of the oldest civilizations. Ancient Egypt and ancient China both have history that date back over 4,000 years ago, and though the two civilizations co-existed simultaneously with one another, there were little contact between the two. Yet apart from some underlying differences, there are many similarities between the two cultures as is highlighted when examining the Analects and The Book of the Dead.

On the surface, the social behavior and values emphasized in the Analects and The Book of the Dead resemble one another; however, upon closer examination it becomes apparent that the origin and purpose behind the actions different greatly. The purpose of the two literatures contrast due to the lifestyles and beliefs that were held during each of the corresponding civilizations. Though the texts preach similar values and achieve similar results in terms of human behavior, the factor that ignited the creation of these two historical pieces differ tremendously.

The Analects was written by Confucius, also known as Kong Zi, who resided during the Era of Warring State, which was a sub-period of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty. This was a time of disunity and power struggle where the empire was divided into areas controlled feudal lords who desired to expand their land by conquering weaker neighboring states. In the midst of this, philosophies of humanity and order began to blossom, as people began to grow tiresome of the constant wars and chaos. Confucius emphasizes that, “If they [riches and honor] cannot be obtained in the proper way, they should not be held”(p. ). These philosophies flourished as people began wanting reforms towards a harmonious life. Confucianism contributed to the downfall of the Zhou Dynasty, bringing in new values and social behaviors to the civilization. The Book of the Dead, on the other hand, formed due to the Egyptians emphasis of the afterlife. The Ancient Egyptian society was centered on the Nile River that provided fertile soil for the Egyptians to be able to survive. They believed that this “gift” from the Nile was from the gods when the people found favor with them.

To maintain the positive relationship with the Gods, and to insure a favorable afterlife, The Book of the Dead was created as a guide for the dead to pass over to the next life. A contrast can be drawn in what stemmed the creation for each of these texts. The Analects was created to bring about change in the Chinese Civilization while the Book of the Dead was designed to further the positive relationship Egyptian people had with the Gods. . Though the two texts have varying origins, similar values are emphasized throughout the two historical texts and the civilization as a whole.

The Egyptian word “maat” is an important term in the Egyptian society and is seen throughout the Book of the Dead. It signifies not just truth, but also balance, justice, and order. The people are required “live on maat, and feed on maat” (p. 3), which further reveals that the people’s life revolve around order and truth. In a similar fashion, Confucius also emphasizes the revolving order of truth, education, and justice. In the Analects, Confucius instructs man to “recompense injury with justice, and recompense kindness with kindness”, an obvious dedication to not only justice and equality, but also sympathy.

Further, Confucius reinforces that “the object of the superior man is truth, not food. ” Similarly, the same parallel exists between the justice and equality aspect of the Analects and the “maat”, the order and truth, found in the Book of the Dead. Thus, the values conveyed in the Book of the Dead, for motivational purposes for a “good” afterlife, mirror the ones found in the Analects, as the common Chinese civilization also take to heart said values for the benefit of society overall and to improve their current circumstances.

Therefore, although there is a difference in origin and intention abiding by such values, it is hard to avoid the fact that the common values and social rules revolving around both civilizations’ societies closely resemble one another. Though the messages revealed in the two historical texts are similar, how the same objective is delivered differs, which in turn also affects the people’s lifestyle. The Book of the Dead provides of list of actions that must and must not be done, as it serves as a checklist of things the Egyptians must do before death such as, “I have not caused pain, I have cause no man to hunger, I have made no one weep.. (p. 1). The Analects instead provides words of wisdom and guidance for the people when making the decision like, “What you do not want done to yourself, do not to do others” (p. 1). This empowers the people to make the decision and to find what it right and wrong. Another factor that further emphasis the difference in what motivates the people to conduct good behavior is education. Confucianism seeks to emphasize the importance of education and provide the genesis of the concept of morality.

In other words, the priority and heavy emphasis given to education by Confucianism exists to enable the education of right from wrong, and it is their belief that only through such truth and knowledge can one be conscious of choosing right over wrong. As an extension of that philosophy, Confucianism also argues that to know the ethics between right and wrong is essentially useless without applying and acting upon it. In contrast, the Book of the Dead doesn’t emphasize such an innate and acute developed sense of morality and ethics, and instead, dictates several rules of what to do and what not to do.

The mystery or education needed to identify right from wrong is not necessary, and practically doesn’t exist, and instead a simple adherence to discipline and obedience is the true test of their morality. In other words, the Egyptians did not place an emphasis of conscience or the development of ethics and morality, but instead places a greater emphasis on structured obedience, abiding by the rules stated in the Book of the Dead. All in all, it is no surprise that the two ancient civilizations live completely dissimilar lifestyles with contrasting beliefs, as they were isolated from one another.

As the two began developing their culture, it is interesting to point out that their values and favored social conduct behavior ultimately became quite parallel. The emphasis in harmony, truth, and social order would not be prevalent in other societies, yet are in both the ancient Egyptians and the ancient Chinese civilizations. And yet, it is no doubt that their beliefs of the afterlife and motivation for following such conduct differs tremendously and is what gives each civilization their unique culture.