Criminology

Crime prevention has been somewhat a battle that most authorities face as they try to come up with new measures to deter crime and anti-social behaviour among citizens. One of the ways to prevent these problems is by using Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) in places where there are crime risks such as shopping malls and banks. The CCTV can be defined as the use of video cameras to transmit signals or images to a specific place or set of monitors, which allows close monitoring and surveillance.

Nowadays, CCTVs are widely used to prevent crimes and some are installed in public areas. I agree that it plays an important role in preventing crime and antl-soclal behaviour. Since crime and anti-soclal behaviours such as theft, rape, and other inconsiderate acts can cause damage to our society, measures such as Installing CCTVs in certain areas can be used to deter such acts. The act of breaking the law or antl-soclal behaviour such a vandalism of government property are done because the criminals believe that there is no one or no authorized personnel watching their wrongdoings.

They believe that they can escape from the law because there is no evidence or witness to the crime. By installing CCTVs in areas where the crime rate is high, for example, parking lots or car parks, crimes Ilke car theft can be reduced. In a survey done by Northeastern University, it was analysed that the surveillance cameras have helped in crime reduction, with a decline of 51% crime rates In parking lots. Recently, more people are installing CCTVs in their private residence to stop break-ins. Criminals become discouraged when they see these devices.

This is because the cameras may record he criminal’s actions and their faces. The cameras’ presence in the area can curb the criminals from committing the crime for fear of being recorded on tape. Besides that, the technology of surveillance cameras have improved throughout the years, providing high quality and high definition videos and images that can capture the details of people’s physical appearance with the exact time and place. This may well instil hesitation and fear in the hearts of law-offenders, thus dampening their urge to commit crimes.

The CCTVs do not only discourage the acts of crime, but It serves as roviding critical evidence for certain crimes. For example, CCTVs were substantially useful in the murder of James Bulger in England In the year of 1993. As James’ mother was momentarily distracted in the shopping mall where they were shopping, the surveillance cameras In the shopping mall recorded scenes of how 2-year-old James was abducted by two 10-year-old boys, Jon Venables and Robert Thompson. They brought him out from the shopping mall and to several places before finally murdering him near a cemetery.

The video footage documented by the CCTVs of the hopping mall were attained and displayed in national television by the media. A woman who knew Venables and that he had played truant with Thompson that day, saw the video and recognized him. She immediately contacted the police and the two been recognized, and they may have caused other murders or anti-social behaviours which pose a definite threat to people, in this case, small children. The CCTVs have helped to create hard evidence that is unchallenged.

CCTVs have been a very modern measure in reducing crime rates, but some people argue that it actually displaces crime, rather than deterring it. Easily-available mini CCTVs have been known to be used for criminal activity. It can be install at automatic teller machines (ATM) to steal people’s personal identification number without them knowing it. Apart from the fact that it may violate people’s privacy, the CCTVs’ videos are easily hacked and obtained. Some may use these videos illegally for their own use, usually for artistic purposes.

In addition, some people think that the CCTVs cannot prevent crime, because crime prevention can only be done through education or correction of behaviour. They think that the surveillance cameras do nothing to inhibit crime, as in some occasions, crime still occur even though the cameras are present. For instance, a bank can still be robbed even with CCTVs operating for 24 hours. During robbery, the robbers can very well conceal their faces from the recording cameras simply by wearing a mask or cloth to avoid recognition. Their acts may be recorded, but their faces have been hidden.

As a result, the videos obtained might prove non-useful. That is why some people believe that the CCTVs actually have no role in preventing crime. In conclusion, crime prevention using CCTVs is not the only way to combat crime and anti-social behaviour, but it is one of the practical ways that should be implemented. There are some countries that install CCTVs in public areas for the purpose of deterring crime and anti-social behaviour such as United Kingdom. A survey by University of Cambridge stated that the installations of the cameras have reduced crime and anti-social activity rates in public locations with a drop of 7%.

In highways in some countries, CCTVs are fixed to poles or in trees to detect road-bullies nd drivers who exceed the speed limits. So, I strongly believe that the CCTVs are particularly useful in both private housing and public places, as it can create the uncomfortable feeling of being closely observed as offenders commit misconduct. This feeling can generate a consciousness in them, making them reluctant to break the law. Looking at the fgures, these methods have positive effects in controlling crime. Therefore, the CCTVs have a significant role in preventing crime and anti-social behaviour.

CCTV Cameras are very useful when it comes to offering reliable monitoring and urveillance to a particular location. They are efficient equipment which help in the prevention of crime; they help keep criminals from breaking inside residences and also stealing valuables. However,’ strongly believe that having CCTV security cameras at home has more disadvantages than advantages. Apart from their strengths, CCTV Cameras are disadvantageous when it comes to personal privacy. Homeowners whoVe got CCTV camera systems set up in their own homes are going to be monitored 2417.

They won’t have the capacity to perform what they wish to do ecause they are being watched every single second, every single minute, every single day! It could be very annoying and also troublesome to appear in a video clip in which you have picked out your nose. It could be really irritating that the smallest motion that you try is going to be captured inside a video. Getting several CCTV Cameras and installing the best CCTV cameras at home can certainly help protect against as well as discourage crooks and also intruders. Yet, you’re also limited from performing a lot of things without restraint.

There are a few of the disadvantages of CCTV cameras to people’s personal space such as no more personal discussions. Each family member can easily know what you and your pal is discussing over the phone. Your conversation won’t be recorded completely, but it will capture whatever you have said in your conversation. So if it is something against one of the members of the family, everyone will know. Besides that, no more surprises. You can’t plan for your mother’s surprise birthday party together with your brothers and sisters because it will be documented on video.

There are security CCTV cameras which can ecord not only the video footage but also the audio clearly. If perhaps you are thinking about surprising your own mommy for her 50th birthday celebration along with your siblings, don’t plan it inside your home because it is going to be found by your mother in case she reads the cameras’ recorded videos. In addition, You’re conscious constantly. Having CCTV Cameras observing you will make you sense mindful. You need to act normally and even severely. You can’t carry out outrageous things like running undressed in your home when you’re home alone.

You can’t fart r perhaps burp anywhere indoors. Picking your nose is actually a no-no, too. These will simply embarrass you if your father begins to check out the videos and discovers everything you did. then moping and crying even inside your bedroom shouldn’t be done. Let us say the man you’re dating Just broke up with you and you wanted to be by yourself in your room to weep as well as let your emotions out. But you will find cameras installed inside. Crying inside the bedroom is going to be little bit uncomfortable since everyone will see you moping and crying.

Changes in Prisons BY Logrolling Changes in Prison The American Correction system has been in existence for over 130 years. It has been since the meeting of American Prison Congress on 1870 in Cincinnati, Ohio. (Allen, Latest & Ponder, 2013, p 30-31) The reformation was totally encompassing the inmate’s life in prison. The minds that met in 1870 were ahead of their times. With having put accountability and standards in the prison system created an improvement for the prisoner and the term he/she served. The beginnings were in Philadelphia at the Old Stone Jails on Third and Market Streets.

Its purpose was to hold debtors, and others awaiting trial. It has come a long way from the origins of the first Jails of the American Revolutionary however faltering in different fashions. The Jails were inadequate facilities. Inmates were lumped together male and female. A new Jail was erected in Walnut Street. This new Jail became the first state prison in Pennsylvania. The state prison had created separate cells for the various inmates. It also instilled different punishment in accordance with the crime.

Walnut Street prison had implemented new workshops to educated prisoners with useful employment. Nonstop, Ph. D. , 2012) Walnut Street prison set up was the ideal make up for the moment. The state prison was the foundation for many more prisons to be built in the same fashion. Because of the rapidly growing population, a new Jail was begun in 1773 on Walnut Street, behind the State House (later, Independence Hall). The new prison had the traditional layout of large rooms for the inmates. Initially, conditions were little better than they had been at the old Jail.

Prisoners awaiting trial might barter their clothes for liquor or be forcibly stripped upon entering by other inmates seeking funds for the bar. The result was great suffering when the weather turned cold. One estimate stated that 20 gallons of spirits were brought into the prison daily by the Jailer for sale to the inmates. It was also considered a common practice for certain women to arrange to get arrested to gain access to the male prisoners. After the peace of 1783, a group of prominent citizens led by Benjamin Franklin, Benjamin Rush and others organized a movement to reform the harsh penal code of 1718.

The new law substituted public labor for the previous severe punishments. Members of the Society were shocked by what they learned about the new Walnut Street prison. The next year they presented to the state legislature an explanation of their investigations of the conditions. They recommended solitary confinement at hard labor as a remedy and reformative strategy. An act of 1790 brought about sweeping reforms in the prison and authorized a penitentiary house with 16 cells to be built in the yard of the Jail to carry out solitary confinement with labor for “hardened atrocious offenders. Walnut Street Jail, by the same legislation, became the first state prison in Pennsylvania. Following 1790, the Walnut Street Jail became a showplace, with separation of different sorts of prisoners and workshops providing useful trade instruction. The old abuses and idleness seemed eliminated, but with Walnut Street now a state prison and the population of Philadelphia increasing rapidly, it, like its previous Jail, became unbearably crowded. The large rooms, 18 feet square, which still housed most of the prisoners, by 1795, had between 30 and 40 occupants each.

The Prison Society continued to urge the creation of large penitentiaries for the more efficient handling of prisoners. The reformers also remained convinced that in spite of the small-scale isolation cellulose at Walnut Street, that site would never prove the value of the system of separate incarceration which came to be called the Pennsylvania System. Only an entire larger structure, built specifically to separate inmates from one another, would be needed. Legislation was finally passed on March 20, 1821, and eleven commissioners were appointed by the governor.

Among them was Samuel Wood, later to be the first warden of the prison. All but three of the building commissioners were either members of the Pennsylvania Prison Society or had revered on the board of inspectors of the Walnut Street Jail. Members of the Prison Society felt that the solution to the disorder and corruption in most prisons and even at the Walnut Street Jail lay in complete separation of each inmate for his or her entire sentence, a system which had been tried occasionally in England but was always abandoned because of costs and inadequate prison structures.

The small “penitentiary house” of 16 cells at Walnut Street Jail had ended up being used mostly for hard core prisoners and as punishment for infractions of prison rules. What was deed was a solely new kind of prison on a large scale. In 1822, work began on what was to become Eastern State Penitentiary, although at the time it was called Cherry Hill because it moved a cherry orchard. Despite not being finished, the prison opened in 1829.

Completed in 1836, it turned out to be one of the largest structures in the country at the time and was higher than preliminary cost estimates. Each prisoner was to be provided with a cell from which they would rarely leave and each cell had to be large enough to be a workplace and have attached a small individual exercise yard. Cutting edge technology of the asses and asses was used to install conveniences unmatched in other public buildings: central heating (before the U. S.

Capitol); a flush toilet in each cell (long before the White House was provided with such conveniences); shower baths (apparently the first in the country). The system of 24-hour separation of each prisoner coupled with in-cell feeding, work and sometimes vocational instruction, came to be known as the Pennsylvania System or Separate System, and remained the official position of the Pennsylvania Prison Society throughout the 19th century, although the system and its unusual architecture -? a central hub and baking celluloses -? were seldom imitated in other states.

Model Lesson Plan Source:

Original lesson plan.

Handout #2 from David Crump, Criminal Law: Cases, Statutes, And Lawyering Strategies, Lexis Nexis 2005 pg. 117-18.

• Goals: by the end of this class students should have a strong foundation for reading criminal statutes and differentiating similar crimes.

Objectives

Knowledge objectives

as a result of this class students will be better able to:

• define “Actus Reus” and “Mens Rea”
• understand the different gradations of Mens Rea
• understand the differences between Washington’s homicide statutes

Skills objectives

as a result of this class students will be better able to:

• read a statute carefully and apply it to fact patterns
• present and defend their interpretations of the law

Attitude objectives

• Students should understand that the severity of criminal punishments can vary greatly depending on the defendant’s mental state in a manner that is largely consistent with the general societal belief that intentionally wrongful acts are worse than unintentional, but still wrongful acts.
• Students should carefully consider the potentially harsh results that occur when legislatures replace mens rea with strict liability.

Methods

• Distribute Handout #1 (Hypos)
• Read the introductory hypothetical aloud as a class. Ask for volunteers to answer the questions.

1. The class should come to the conclusion that Frank did “cause” Bill’s death in the sense that if he hadn’t moved the mirror in the particular way he did at that exact time, the window washer wouldn’t have been blinded and Bill wouldn’t have slipped. This is a good example of “but for” or “actual causation” as used in Handout #2. However, the law typically only imposes liability where the defendant’s conduct is the “proximate cause” of the harmful event/ crime.
2. However, it seems like Frank didn’t do anything “wrong. ” Try to elicit why this result seems wrong and write the class’s ideas on the whiteboard.

• Distribute Handout #2 (Elements)
• Handout #2 Walk through the Elements handout. Be careful to explain that not all of the elements are always present in a criminal statute. For example, attempted murder doesn’t have a harm element and parking violations don’t have a mens rea element, e. g. ne can receive a parking citation for parking in a handicapped spot even if it was unintentional or an accident. Furthermore, the elements aren’t perfectly discrete and there is some overlap.
• Distribute Handout #3 (Statutes)

1. a. Explain that the groups will be analyzing the hypos with respect to the statutes provided in Handout #3. The Grades of Homicide are meant to demonstrate the changes mens rea.
2. b. Walk through the statutes and give a thumbnail sketch of i.

First-degree murder

1. Premeditated killing. An intentional killing that was deliberate and contemplated prior to the killing. . Extreme Indifference. Covers the possibility that someone knows that what they are going to do will result in the death of another person, but at the same time doesn’t “intend” to kill. See the bomb hypo in handout # 1. ii. є

Second-degree murder

• Intentional killing without premeditation. The classic example is a passion killing where the homicide occurs in the heat of the moment.

First-degree manslaughter

• Recklessness. Conscious awareness of an unacceptable risk to human life. Recklessness is ssimilar to extreme indifference, but the risk that human life will be lost is less.

Second-degree manslaughter

• Criminal negligence.

Gross deviation from standard of care. v.

No mens rea. Strict liability with a limited affirmative defense where minor misrepresents age. In an effort to protect minor children, state legislatures have placed an increased burden to ascertain age on the older party.

Break into groups of 3-5 to apply statutes to Hypos 1-5. Have groups designate a reporter and a recorder. The recorder should write each of the group members’ names on the top of handout #1 and also record the group’s aanswers on the space provided. The Reporter is responsible for explaining the group’s reasoning and conclusion when the class reconvenes.

Reconvene Class

call on each group to present their analysis of one hypo. Ask questions to push them in the right direction if you think they missed something or ask questions forcing them to defend their aanswers if you think they got it right. Note to teacher: suggested answers to the hypotheticals are on a separate sheet at the end of this lesson plan.

Take-away

mens rea standards vary widely from premeditated intent to strict liability.

You need to read statutes carefully to determine the correct standard.

Evaluation

a. Group performance on written responses to Hypos1-5 and class discussion.

Assignment

a. Write a one page response to the following question:

1. Should Melvin be punished for his relationship with Laura? If not, please explain why.
2. How do you think Washington’s statutory rape statute should be changed? If you think that Melvin should be punished, please explain why.

Handout #1: Hypothetical Scenarios Introductory Hypo:

Frank is helping his friend move into a downtown Seattle condo. While unloading a large mirror from the moving truck, the bright sunlight hits the mirror and reflects against the 40th floor of the skyscraper across the street which temporarily blinds a window washer and causes him to stumble. During this moment of temporary blindness, lasting about a second and a half, the window washer inadvertently kicks over his window washing bucket onto the street below. The water and soap from the bucket hit the sidewalk right in front of Bill the jogger. Bill was unable to stop before stepping on the slippery sidewalk, causing him to lose his balance and fall.

When Bill fell, he hit his head on the sidewalk. Bill died two weeks later from his head injury. Suppose that Washington law provides: Anyone who causes the death of another person shall be guilty of murder. Would Frank be guilty of murder under this law? Should he be?

Group Exercise Hypos Instructions:

1. Nominate someone in your group to be the recorder and another person to be the class reporter.
2. Read each hypothetical and determine which statute, if any, applies to the facts of the hypothetical and whether the defendant has violated the statute.

Hypo #1:

Sarah is held at gun point by Roger on a rooftop. Roger tells Sarah that she must shoot and kill Steven. Sarah pleads with Roger to let her go and that she does not want to kill Steven. Roger tells Sarah that unless she successfully shoots and kills Steven, he will kill Sarah and her entire family. Roger has a violent reputation and Sarah has no reason to believe that Roger will not follow through with his threat. Roger identifies Steven walking on the other side of the street and tells Sarah to take the shot.

Fearing for the safety of her family and herself, Sarah takes careful aim at Steven, gauges the wind and change in elevation, and fires a precise shot penetrating Steven’s heart. What crimes if any has Sarah committed?

Tool would not be formally declared responsible until some twenty seven years later. There are four main points that will be critiqued in this paper. The complications faced by Detective Matthews in working with the Hollywood police Department in trying to solve the case. The lack of technology and experience of the Hollywood Police Department concerning the collection of evidence and witness statements. The interagency involvement in finding missing children. The efforts and resources that came about as a result of the Adam Walsh abduction and murder.

Analysis

Detective Matthews was a polygraph expert with the Miami Beach Police Department. He was asked to assist the Hollywood Police Department with the Adam Walsh case. Throughout the book, the author explains the trials and tribulations that Detective Matthews faced in trying to help the Hollywood Police Department solve the case. Detective Matthews was seen as an outsider from the beginning. He was met with hostility each time he tried to do his job. This was most notably highlighted in the case of Jimmy Campbell. Jimmy Campbell was a family friend and was Adam Walsh’s Godfather.

Detective Matthews conducted a polygraph interview of Jimmy Campbell and he was subsequently determined to not have been involved in the abduction and murder of Adam. Though, when Detective Matthews explained who Mr. Campbell was in relation to the Walsh Family, the lead detective in the case, Detective Jack Hoffman, automatically determined that Mr. Campbell was the guilty party. It was not long before Detective Matthews was taken off the case. Detective Hoffman explained to Detective Matthews that the case was winding down and that his services would no longer be needed. From the beginning, Detective Hoffman was fixated on Mr. Campbell, ignoring Detective Matthews’ expertise. Even after having been told that the polygraph indicated no deception in Mr. Campbell interview, Detective Hoffman based his acquisitions off of subjectivity. Based off of the fact that Mr. Campbell lived in the Walsh household, had had an affair with Reeve Walsh, and had been asked to leave the residence, Detective Hoffman assumed that Mr. Campbell had committed the crime.

Several years later, Detective Matthews would be asked by Hollywood PDP Chief Witt to assist with the case. Detective Matthews anally had the chance to interview Otis Tool but was abruptly removed from case by Chief Witt. It is not exactly clear though, why Detective Matthews received such opposition. The author suggests that it was possible that the Hollywood PDP wanted credit for getting Tool’s confession. It could be possible that by this time, the Hollywood Police Department was trying to do damage control and had known that they let the ball drop in moving forward with handling Tool’s confession.

It would be some twenty seven years later when Detective Matthews would be able to complete his investigation, have access to the evidence collected during the investigation, and have access to witnesses, before the Holly. Wood PDP would name Otis Tool as having been responsible for the abduction and murder of Adam Walsh. The authors argues that the lack Of technology and experience Of the Hollywood police Department concerning the collection of evidence and witness statements as a main factor in why this case took over twenty seven years to finally close.

In the book, Detective Matthews noted the disorientation of the Hollywood Police Department when it came to taken down witness tips and information. While some of the detectives seemed organized, others assigned to the case would answer incoming calls randomly, jot information given by tipsters on scraps of paper or napkins or whatever might be handy, then hurry out on unrelated assignments without bothering to log their calls. At times it appeared that there was no sort of leadership organization.

Even though Detective Hoffman was the lead investigator, he had never handled a high profile case such as this. When Otis Tool was subsequently arrested for having committed a number of there murders, he confessed to Jacksonville Police Department Detective Buddy Terry. Detective Terry contacted Detective Hoffman to advise him of the confession. From the onset, Detective Hoffman accused the Jacksonville PDP detective of feeding information on the Adam Walsh case to Tool. Detective Hoffman subsequently took numerous confessions from Tool but, it was as if he was trying to prove that Tool did not commit the crime.

Detective Hoffman Went as far as to have Detective Terry removed from the case, accusing Detective Terry of supplying with the Adam Walsh case file because the two of them planned to write a book for money. In telling the story of the unprofessional between these two detectives it highlighted what appeared to be a common problem within the Hollywood Police Department. The Adam Walsh case was the first high profile case for Detective Hoffman. He was reluctant to work with other agencies in helping solve the case. Evidence of the murder weapon, car, victim’s clothing, and even an extortion letter were improperly handled.

With Tool’s confession, the Florida State Attorneys office needed evidence linking Tool to the crime prior to an arrest warrant being issued. The strength of the evidence police roved to prosecutors is one of the most important factors influencing whether prosecutors file criminal charges. Thus, when police are able to secure tangible evidence and cooperative witnesses for the prosecution, the prosecutor is not only more likely to file charges, but is also more likely to win a conviction.

The State Attorneys office was never made aware of any evidence surrounding the murder weapon or vehicle. Detective Hoffman went as far as to go on TV to claim that they found discrepancies in Tool’s confession. In cases such as this one, it would eave been best for Detective Hoffman to have given all the information to the State Attorney’s office and let them decide what could or could not have been utilized in the case. The case of Adam Walsh involved several different police agencies. Anytime a question of jurisdiction is involved, it is important for agencies to work together and share information to solve the case.

It is not uncommon for the Federal investigators to get involved in child abduction cases. In this particular case, Florida senator Paula Hawkins tried to get the FBI involved in the search for Adam Walsh. The FBI was reluctant to interfere n the case however. If Hollywood PDP was searching for a suspect somewhere out of state then the feds would be more than happy to lend a hand. In 1 988, FBI Deputy Director Alan Burgess advised that the Adam Walsh case had entered into the new nationwide database known as VICAR, the Violent Crime Apprehension Program.

The FBI-VICAR became the national repository for violent crimes, collating data on homicides, sexual assaults, missing persons, and unidentified human remains (Stanford & Matthews, 2011, p. 164). In 1988, the Walsh family received a letter from Tool confessing to the crime and ring to extort money in exchange for the location of Adam Walsh’s bones. The letter was given to Detective Hoffman and he filed the letter away citing a lack of physical evidence. Several years later, when the Walsh Family spoke to the Michael Sat at the State Attorneys Office, he advised that he was not aware of the letter.

The book demonstrated Detective Hoffmann failure to share information based off what he considered relevant to the case. There also appeared to be do direct oversight from his superior. When John and Reeve Walsh realized that their son had been kidnapped, they used every source they could to find him. While child abduction is frequently sensationalists, exaggerated, and thus misunderstood, the myth of an epidemic does little to alleviate concern at the family level and widespread conventional beliefs about abduction have developed. The Walsh family was thrust into the spotlight and their personal lives were exposed to the world. Allegations of infidelity and mob affiliation became, at one point, more important than solving the case. Despite this, John and Reeve Walsh managed to bring about change in the way information n missing children was shared amongst law enforcement agencies in the US. While the media tends to sensationalist news, John Walsh used this to his advantage.

He became the host of America’s Most Wanted and used this as an avenue to help other victims of crimes and bring perpetrators to justice. The authors detail just how the Walsh family used their own resources, as well as, outside resources to rally support in an attempt to locate their son. They first utilized search teams and even went as far as producing fliers that were distributed at every major U. S. Airport to passengers. They worked tirelessly to aid in not only trying to find their son’s killer, but also other missing children in America.

From their efforts came the passing of the Missing Children’s Act of 1982, the Missing Children’s Assistance Act of 1 984, the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children, and the Adam Walsh Child Protection and Safety Act. While the author does not detail the effectiveness of the legislation passed as a result of the Adam Walsh abduction and murder, it’s important to note the impact this case had on America. The legislation passed as a result of any type of heinous crime is usually roughs about as a result of public outcry and scrutiny. The Adam Walsh case invoked fear and anger from the community.

Naturally the police were expected to solve the crime expeditiously and in a sense, make the streets safe again. According the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children, approximately 800,000 children are reported missing in the CSS and over 100 of these cases are stereotypical kidnappings. Meaning the child did not know the kidnapper or the kidnapper was an acquaintance. The first three hours are the most critical when trying to locate a missing child. Otis Tool was intent on kidnapping a small boy in the hopes of raising that child as his own.

According to the research by Miller et unfairly abduction is more likely to have a criminal motive such as robbery or, more often sexual assault. While Tool confessed to having customized Adam, there was no direct evidence to prove this. This study by Miller et al. , showed the difficulty in preventing unfairly abductions vs. family or acquaintance abductions. There have been studies regarding whether child abduction laws are effective in actually preventing crime or simply giving a ales sense of security. In a study conducted by Freeman and Candler (2009), the Adam Walsh Act (AWAY) was examined.

The AWAY required states to standardize their registration and community notification practices by categorizing sex offenders into three-tier levels in the interest of increasing public safety. The study examined whether or not the AWAY, as well as, other similar acts actually increased public safety. The results indicated that the AWAY failed to “increase the effectiveness of current registration and community notification practices. In fact, as indicated by the results of the rent study, the system actually decreases the ability of states to predict which sex offenders will sexually roofed and which ones will not”. The legislation passed as a result of the Adam Walsh case was meant to create organization amongst the law enforcement agencies. Although it is natural for the media to sensationalist stories such as this, the main purpose was to at least create an avenue for law enforcement to share information with each other. The author detailed the numerous times when information should have been shared but was not. The Walsh family had not received word as to what evidence had been collected. Conclusion The book Brining Adam Home sheds light on one families struggle to find their son.

The authors shed light on the reluctance of the Hollywood Police Department to work with other agencies to solve this case. The failure of the police to properly document evidence and witness statements caused this case to remain unsolved for longer than it should have. Behold, children are a heritage from the LORD, the fruit of the womb a reward. Children are God’s greatest gifts. The impact a child abduction has on a family can be detrimental and can forever impact that family. This case captured national attention and from that came a need to try and become more proactive than reactive when it came to child abductions.

A spatial analysis of neighborhood crime in omaha, Nebraska using alternative measures of crime rates. By haifeng zhang and Michael p. peterson. internet journal of criminology 2007 Many researchers – (Ackerman (1998), Anselin (2000), Kershaw and Tseloni (2005), Nagle (1995), Osborn et al (1992). ) Substantial neighborhood crime research has documented that urban crime occurs most frequently in stressful and disadvantaged areas with disproportional concentration of poverty, unemployment and minority populations. The social disorganization theory argues that socio-economic stress (e. g. poverty, racial/ethnic issues, etc) undermines social control level and strikes the foundations of social cohesion, which results in occurrence of crime. The routine activity approach/theory claims that criminal activities are related to social environment and the behavior patterns of people who live in the neighborhood or community. Unfavorable environment settings (poverty, low education or literacy and unemployment) are frequently used to evaluate the effects of crime correlates.

Crime and poverty

Fleisher (1963-1966) – (Fleisher, B. , (1966), “The Effects of Income Delinquency”, American Economic Review “The principal theoretical reason for believing that low income increases the tendency to commit crime is that it raises the relative cost of engaging in legitimate activity and that the probable cost of getting caught is relatively low, since they (low-income individuals) view their legitimate lifetime earnings prospects dismally they may expect to lose relatively little earning potential by acquiring criminal records, furthermore, if legitimate earnings are low, the opportunity of lifetime actually spent in delinquent activity, or in jail is also low (Fleisher 1966, p. 20)” Marc Hooghe, Bram Vanhoutte, Vim Hardyns and Tuba Bircan. Unemployment, Inequality, Poverty and Crime. Spatial Distribution Patterns of Criminal Acts in Belgium 2001-2006. British Journal of Criminology Oxford University Press, Oxford 2011. A concentration of poverty, a lack of resources and various indicators for social disorganization have all been invoked to explain a concentration of crime. Pg1 Kelly (2000) – (Kelly, M. , (2000). “Inequality and Crime”. The Review of Economics and Statitics, “in the economics theory of crime, areas of high inequality place poor individuals who have low returns from market activity next to high-income individuals who have goods worth taking, thereby increasing the returns to time allocated to criminal activity” “strain theory argues that, when faced with the relative success of others around them, unsuccessful individuals feel frustration at their situation. The greater the inequality, the higher this strain and the greater the inducement for low0status individuals to commit crime”

Machin and Meghir (2004) “Crime and Economic Incentives. ” National Bureau of Economic Research. When there are larger numbers of people with low wage rates, the crime rate usually goes up. Handbook of crime correlates. Lee Ellis, Kevin Beaver, John Wright. Academic Press, Oxford, UK Many of the most popular theories of criminal behavior have focused on poverty as a major causal factor (Mesnner and South 1986:977).

Deteriorated neighborhood conditions in an urban area were almost always associated with higher rates of official crime.

Crime and education

Crime appears to be strictly related to the level of education attained and to individual’s economic and social background. Freeman (1991,1996), Grogger (1995,1998) and more recently Lochner and Moretti (2001) attempt to clearly identify the relationships between crime and education.

Usher (1997) (Usher, D. , (1997). “Education as Deterrent to Crime”. Canadian Journal of Economics, “Education promotes good citizenship. Education does more than teach skills to enhance one’s capacity to earn income. It perpetuates the values of society, enculturates people to serve their communities and promotes virtues of hard work and honesty. ” Education may also have a “civilization effect,” tending to reduce the incidence of criminal activity. Ehrlich (1975, p. 333) (Elrich,I. , (1975). “On the Relation between Education and Crime”.

In Juster, F. T. (Ed. ), Education, Income and Human Behavior. New York: McGraw-Hill, pp. 313-337. ) Positive relationship between the average number of school years completed by the adult population (over 25 years) and particularly property crimes committed across the U. S. in 1960 Wilson and Herrnstein (1985) (Wilson, J. Q. and R. Herrnstein (1985). Crime and Human Nature. New York: Simon and Schuster) Several studies have shown that criminals tend to be less educated and from poorer economic backgrounds than non-criminals. Lochner (1999) (Lochner, L. , (1999). Education, Work and Crime: Theory and Evidence”, Working Paper No 465, Center for Economic Research (RCER) – University of Rchester) “crime is primarily a problem among young educated men. Individuals with low skill level are more likely to participate in criminal activities because the returns they can earn from work or school are low. Both high school graduation and ability directly lower criminal propensities”  Lochner and Moretti- (Lochner, L. and E. Moretti (2001). “The effect of education on crime: evidence from prison inmates, arrests and self-reports”, NBER Working-Paper no. 605) “Schooling increases the returns to legitimate work, raising the opportunity costs of illegal behavior. ” P. 1 “Schooling significantly reduces criminal activity” p. 30 Education and Crime. Lancer Lochner. University of Western Ontario. December 13, 2007. Empirically there is a strong negative correlation between educational attainment and various measures of crime. Using OLS, Lochner and Morretti (2004) estimate that one-year increase in average education levels in a state reduces state-level arrest rates by 11 percent. pg9 Handbook of crime correlates.

Lee Ellis, Kevin Beaver, John Wright. Academic Press, Oxford, UK The vast majority of studies have concluded that as an individual’s years of education increase, his or her probability of criminal behavior decreases. Two studies of the relationship between years of education and antisocial behavior both concluded that a significant negative correlation existed. Pg 36 The crime reducing effect of education. Stephen machin, Olivier marie. Suncica vujic. Institute for the Study of Labor discussion paper no. 5000. June 2010. IZA Bonn Germany Pg 2-4

There are a number of theoretical reasons why education may have an effect on crime. From the existing socio-economic literature there are (at least) three main channels through which schooling might affect criminal participation: income effects (education increases the returns to legitimate work raising the opportunity costs of illegal behavior therefore, those who can earn more are less likely to engage in crime), time availability (time spent in education may also be important in terms of limiting the time available for participating in criminal activity.

The time spent at school during the year is negatively correlated to the probability of arrest that year. It was found that property crime increases significantly in areas where youths have days off school) and patience or risk aversion. For most crimes, one would expect that these factors induce a negative effect of schooling on crime.

Crime and unemployment

Arvantes and Delfina 2006 High unemployment rates also provide incentives to perform all kinds of criminal acts. John P. Allison (1972) (Allison, John P. Economic Factors and the rate of Crime. ” Land Economics  Allison finds that unemployment rate is one of the biggest factors that contribute toward crime rates. Both unemployment and poverty rates have significant and positive effects on crime rate. Handbook of crime correlates. Lee Ellis, Kevin Beaver, John Wright. Academic Press, Oxford, UK Pg 107 Regarding the frequency of unemployment, numerous studies have been conducted with respect to criminality.

The majority of these studies have indicated that frequently unemployed persons are more likely to have a criminal record In Ehrlich model, individuals divide their time between legal activates and risky illegal activities. If legal income opportunites become scare relative to potential gains in crime, the model predicts that crime will become more frequent. Increased unemployment could be one such factor. Identifying the effect of unemployment and crime. Steven Raphael and Rudolf winter-ebmer. Journal of law and economics. Vol. xliv. April 2001. The university of chicago Pg 260

Declines in crime rates may be due in part to the current absence of legal employment opportunities. To the extent that increase legitimate employment opportunities deter potential offender from committing crimes, a decline in the unemployment rate such as that observed during the 1990s may be said to cause the declines in crime rate.

Crime and literacy

Handbook of crime correlates. Lee Ellis, Kevin Beaver, John Wright. Academic Press, Oxford, UK Pg 150 The vast majority of studies have found that individuals who receive high grades tend to be less criminal than those with low grades.

The academic performance of delinquents and criminals tends to be especially poor in those subject areas requiring reading and other linguistic skills rather than in areas where the primary demands are on mathematical and scientific reasoning skills. There is a strong evidence that academic performance as measured by grade point average was inversely associated with both official and self-reported criminality in nearly all investigations. Slow reading development was positively correlated with involvement in crime and delinquency. Theories the Criminological theories past to present. Essential Readings. Third edition.

Francis T. Cullen and Robert Agnew. Roxbury Publishing Company LA California, Pg 5-8 Classical theory by Beccaria Central Thesis: Crime occur when the benefits outweigh the costs – when people pursue self-interest in the absence of effective punishments. Crime is a free-willed choice Positivist theory Crime is caused or determined by sociological factors Social Disorganization/Chicago School – Shaw an McKay, Sampson and Wilson, Raudenbush and Earls Disorganized communities cause crime because informal social controls break down and criminal cultures emerge. They lack the “collective efficacy” to fight crime and disorder.

Strain/General Strain by Cohen, Cloward and Ohlin, Agnew When individuals cannot obtain success goals (e. g. , money, status in school), they experience strain or pressure. Under certain conditions, they are likely to respond to this strain through crime. The strains leading to crime, however, may not only be linked to goal blockage (or deprivation of valued stimuli0 but also to the presentation of noxious stimuli and the taking away of valued stimuli. Critical Theory by Bonger, Quinney, Currie and Colvin Inequality in material well-being creates conditions that lead to street crime and corporate crime.

Before parole becomes an option to an offender or an offender remains on parole, there are conditions and concepts and goals that must be practiced or met. Typical conditions influence parole as the inmate is released from prison. Truth-in-sentencing laws have goals in relations to parole. To understand the concepts on which parole is based, one must know and understand the definition of parole.

Parole, the early release of an inmate from correctional confinement under supervision, is a sentencing strategy that returns offenders progressively to productive lives (Schmalleger, 2011). According to Schmalleger (2011), “By making early release possible, parole can also act as a stimulus for positive behavioral change. ” Parole is based off and supports the concept of imprecise sentencing, which held that an inmate can gain early discharge through good conduct and self-improvement (Schmalleger, 2011).

The conditions of parole place general and special limitations on offenders who have been released from prison early (Schmalleger, 2011). The offender’s criminal background, as well as the circumstances of the offense, is taken into consideration when referring to special conditions, while general conditions are fixed by state statutes (Schmalleger, 2011). Under the conditions of parole, a parolee must periodically check in, or report, to parole officers, and parole officers may visit the parolees home or place of employment unannounced (Schmalleger, 2011).

While an offender is on parole, he or she must obtain employment within 30 days and continue work as it has shown to reduce the probability of repeated offenses (Schmalleger, 2011). In accordance to Schmalleger (2011), “General conditions of parole usually include an agreement not to leave the state as well to obey extradition requests from other jurisdiction. ” Truth in sentencing, a close connection linking the sentence imposed on an offender, and the amount of time served in prison, benefited offenders while infuriated victims (Schmalleger, 2011). What you get is what you serve” became the emphasis on truth in sentencing and has become an important policy focus of many state legislatures and the United States Congress (Schmalleger, 2011). The Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement set aside funds that adopt the truth-in-sentencing laws assure that certain violent offenders will serve at least 85 percent of their prison sentence (Schmalleger, 2011).

The concept of parole allows an offender to be released from confinement before the end of their sentence under certain circumstances. Conditions must be followed and maintained to ensure the offender stays on parole. The goals of truth in sentencing are based on violent criminals completing 85 percent of their time to honor the victim.

References

1. Schmalleger, F. (2011). Criminal justice today: An introductory text for the twenty-first century (11th ed. ). Upper Saddle River, NJ. Pearson Prentice Hall.

Jeffrey Dahmer When I was a little kid I was just like anybody else. I was born in Milwaukee in May 21, 1960, the son of Lionel and Joyce Dahmer. At the age of six after some minor surgery, which coincided with the birth of my brother, there seemed to be a change in me. At the time a career opportunity for my father resulted in my family moving from Iowa to Ohio. I don’t know why it started. I don’t have any definite answers on that myself. If I knew the true, real reasons why all this started, before it ever did, I wouldn’t probably have done any of it.

Though the thoughts were like arrows, shooting through my mind from out of the blue. By the time I was fourteen the compulsions to murder and necrophilia began to occur. I’d rather be talking about anything else in the world right now, but just after I graduated from high school, in June 1978, I picked up a hitchhiker named Steven Hicks, I took him home to my parents’ house, where we drank beer and had sex. When he tried to leave, I killed him with a barbell by hitting his head. That night in Ohio, that was one impulsive night. Nothing’s been normal since then. It tainted my whole life.

After it happened I thought I’d just try to live as normally as possible and bury it, but things like that don’t stay buried. I didn’t think it would, but it does, it tainted my whole life. I wish I hadn’t done it. At the same time of my first killing, my alcohol consumption became uncontrollable and in January 1979, I dropped out of Ohio State University after only one term due to my drunkenness. Thus, my recently remarried father insisted that I enlist in the Army, and I was sent to Germany. Though my drinking problem persisted and two years later the Army discharged me for alcoholism.

Following my discharge I returned home to Ohio where I went through Hicks’ decomposing remains, pulverized them with a hammer, and scattered the pieces even more widely in the woods. Later in October 1981 I was arrested for disorderly conduct and my father sent me to live with my grandmother in Wisconsin, but my alcohol problems persisted. My next arrest occurred some years later, in September 1986, for masturbating in front of two young boys, for which I received a one-year probationary sentence. In September 1987 I took my second victim, Steven Toumi, whom I met in a gay bar.

We checked into a hotel room and drank a lot. I had no intention of doing it. However, the next morning, I found Toumi dead beside me. I was in complete shock. I just couldn’t believe I had done it again after those years when I’d done nothing like that. I don’t know what was going through my mind. I have no memory of it. I tried to dredge it up but I have no memory whatsoever. I bought a large suitcase to transport Toumi’s corpse to my grandmother’s basement, where I had sex with, and masturbated on it, before dismembering it and disposing of the remains in the rubbish.

I developed a pattern of murder that persisted for the duration of my thirteen year killing spree: I sought out mostly African-American men at gay meeting places, lured them home to his grandmother’s basement with promises of money or sex, where I would ply them with alcohol laced with drugs, strangle them, have sex with the corpse or masturbate on it, then dismember the corpses and dispose of them, usually keeping their genitals or skulls as souvenirs.

I often took photos of each victim at various stages of my murder process, so I could recollect each act afterwards and relive the experience. This re-enactment included assembling the skulls and masturbating in front of them, to achieve gratification. My grandmother eventually tired of the late nights and drunkenness, although she had no knowledge of the other activities, forced me to move out in September 1988, but before that I killed another two people at her house.

At this point I had an extreme close call with authorities: I had an encounter with a thirteen-year-old Laotian boy which resulted in charges of sexual exploitation, and second-degree sexual assault, being laid against me. I pleaded guilty, claiming that the boy had appeared much older and, while I awaited sentencing, I moved back in temporarily with my grandmother, where I once again put her basement to gruesome use; in February 1989 I lured an aspiring African-American model, named Anthony Sears, and I drugged, strangled, sodomized, photographed, dismembered and disposed of his body.

In May 1989, at my trial for child molestation, to my defense the counsel argued that I needed treatment, not incarceration and the judge agreed, handing down a five year probationary sentence, with one year prison sentence on “day release”, under which I continued to work at my job, but returned to the prison at night. I was released after ten months, despite my father writing to the judge urging him that I be held until I had received appropriate treatment. Then I spent three months with my grandmother on my release before moving into my own partment in May 1990. During the next fifteen months before the time of my capture, my victim count accelerated; and I killed 12 more young men. I developed rituals as I progressed, experimenting with chemical means of disposal, and I also consumed the flesh of my victims. I drilled into my victim’s skulls while they were still alive, injecting them with Muriatic acid to see whether I could extend my control to the living. Most of my victims died instantly, but one man survived for a number of days in a zombie-like state, with limited motor function.

I was always careful to select my victims on the fringes of society, so that it was less likely for the police to search for them. In the case of my thirteenth victim I had yet another close call; it was a 14-year-old Laotian boy who was, coincidentally, the younger brother of the boy I had been convicted of molesting three years earlier. To my dismay on May 26, 1991, my neighbor, Sandra Smith, called the police to report that a young Asian boy was running naked in the street. When the police arrived, he was incoherent, and the police believed me when I told them that the boy was my 19-year-old lover who had just had too much to drink.

The police escorted me and my victim home at which point I strangled the boy and continued with my usual rituals. My luck finally ran out on July 22, 1991, when two Milwaukee police officers picked up Tracy Edwards, a young African-American, who was wandering in the streets with a handcuff dangling from one of his wrists. They decided to follow up his claims that a “weird dude” had drugged and restrained him, and they coincidently arrived at my apartment, where I calmly offered to get the keys for the handcuffs.

Edwards claimed that the knife I had threatened him with was in the bedroom and when the officer went in to corroborate the story he noticed photographs of dismembered bodies lying around. He shouted to his colleague to restrain me so I fought back but I was eventually subdued. A subsequent search revealed the head in the fridge, as well as three more in the freezer, and preserved skulls, jars containing genitalia, and an extensive gallery of macabre photographs. I think in some way I wanted it to end, even if it meant my own destruction. Yes, I do have remorse, but I’m not even sure myself whether it is as profound as it should be.

I’ve always wondered myself why I don’t feel more remorse. I was completely swept away with my own compulsion. I don’t know how else to put it. It didn’t satisfy me completely so I was thinking another one will. Maybe this one will, and the numbers started growing and just got out of control, as you can see. When you’ve done the type of things I’ve done, it’s easier not to reflect on yourself. When I start thinking about how it’s affecting the families of people, and my family and everything, it doesn’t do me any good. It just gets me very upset.

Despite having confessed to the killings during police interrogation, I initially pleaded not guilty to all charges. However, against the advice of my legal counsel, I changed my plea to guilty by virtue of insanity. My defense then offered every gruesome detail of my behavior, as proof that only someone insane could commit such terrible acts, but the jury chose to believe the prosecutor’s assertion that I was fully aware that my acts were evil, but that I chose to commit them anyway, which resulted after only five hours deliberation in the finding of me being guilty, but sane, on all counts, on February 17, 1992.

I was sentenced to fifteen consecutive life terms, a total of 957 years in prison. I adjusted well to prison life, although I was initially kept apart from the general population. I convinced authorities to allow me to incorporate more with other inmate. On November 28, 1994, in accordance with my inclusion in regular work details, I was assigned to work with two other prisoners, one of whom was a white supremacist murderer, Jesse Anderson, and the other a delusional, schizophrenic African-American murderer, Christopher Scarver.

Twenty minutes after we had been left alone to complete their tasks the guards returned to find that Scarver had crushed my skull, and fatally beaten Anderson with an object. Following my death, the city of Milwaukee was keen to distance itself from the horrors of my actions, and the ensuing media circus surrounding my trial.

In 1996, fearing that someone else might purchase my fridge, photographs and killing tools collection and start a museum, they raised more than $400,000 to buy his effects, which they promptly incinerated. This is the grand finale of a life poorly spent and the end result is just overwhelmingly depressing, it’s just a sick, pathetic, wretched, miserable life story, that’s all it is. I should have gone to college and gone into real estate and got myself an aquarium, that’s what I should have done.