Describe and explain the changes that take place in land use of the River Tees drainage basin

In the first course of the River Tees, the land is usually not usable. There is snow melt from the mountains, this causes dead area and not crops can be grown and the conditions are too harsh for any animals in Britain to live in. This also causes very snowy, rainy and cold weather which also makes it impossible for pastoral farming. There is also marshy moorlands around the source, so again the land can not be used for any form of faming. There is also the hilly situation. The land is not flat as it runs down then Pennines, the interlocking spurs cause a large difference in land angles and a v-shaped valley is formed around the river.

This is not ideal for farming, travelling and, because of the poor weather conditions, the rain will run down the lands, possibly causing floods. A bit lower down the river, the weather is not so extreme and the land is used for sheep grazing. There is not much grass so there is not much available. There is also the Cow Green reservoir, on the Tees itself built in 1970. This means that the water can be controlled by humans, therefore stopping excess water pouring through the river. This means the flood plain is going to be usable for farming because the river flow will be controlled, therefore stopping floods which would ruin the land.

This also helps the risk of flooding further down the course by lowering the hydraulic action. High Force waterfall is a large feature of the Rive Tees. It affects the land because it is constantly forming a gorge of recession. This happens because the soft rock, limestone underneath the hard rock, Whinstone is eroded by the water, this causes the hard rock to fall. This cycle is repeated and the waterfall slowly moves up the river. This is also a tourist attraction, which could cause the land to be quite rough due to walkers, tourists and their cars.

There is also pastoral farming around the waterfall, because the land is unaffected by the water, due to the low plunge pool. In the middle course, the shape of the river obviously changes. Higher up it was reasonably straight and narrow, with many small tributaries. In the middle course of the Tees, there are many large meanders and the river is very wide and with only a few large tributaries. This changes the land quite a lot. The meanders cause change in the river course. Ox-bow lakes are formed by the large hydraulic action eroding the insides of meanders, cutting of the curve.

This will then eventually dry up and leave meander scars on the land. This could mean the scars grow different land to the surrounding area and not suitable in comparison. For example if the land around a meander scar is used for arable farming, but a newly grown section is suitable for pastoral farming, there is wasted land. The meanders are so large that form Darlington to Teesmouth it is 30km as the crow flies, but going by river it is 75km long. And in the 19th centaury, some of the river was manually cut-off to shorten boat journeys up to Stockton and Yarm, so it was even longer.

In 1810, the Tees Navigation Company cut the neck of the Mandale Loop, a large meander near Stockton. This shortened the route by 4km and more was artificially straightened. The water now moves faster but the flood risk is also lower. The meanders also cause a higher risk of flood, because the water travels very fast in large quantities. This means the surrounding land is fertile and used for agriculture. In this course of the river, the meanders home a small town called Yarm which is a historic market town. Yarm has a few settlements and a local church. This means the land is civilised and is used for transport and living on.

Yarm was once an Inland Port which was prone to flooding. A Flood Defence Scheme was set up in Yarm and spent i??2. 1 million on reducing the flood risk. They reinforced concrete walls, built flood gates, used gabions to protect walls and embankments, built fishing platforms and replanted any land that was ruined by floods. In the lower part of the middle course, in-between Stockton and Yarm, a barrage was built in 1995. It cost i??54 million to build and controls 22km of river. It was built because it was harshly affecting the surrounding land because of the permanent high tide, resulting in a very high flood risk.

Because it has lowered the flood risk and there is also no tidal mix now, it is a catalyst for 500 million of investment in offices, houses, education, leisure and shopping. This obviously changes the land use as it is not used for farming but more economic purposes. The key points of how land use has changed in the Middle course to the upper because it is a lot flatter, has larger meanders and has an urban settlement. In the lower course of the river there are large areas of flat muddy land. This land is used for migratory birds and seals for example, hence why they are called Seal Sands.

However, the majority of the land use in the lower course of the Tees in industrial. It homes oil refineries, aluminium smelters, stockyard, railways and more. This causes pollution in the river and the surrounding land, and is both domestic and industrial, because there are also many settlements. This has been helped recently by the Government, who closed down some industry and waste has been cleaned. The land around the mouth of the river is very marshy with some drained land as well. It is impossible to grow crops on and to use pastorally. It is very industrial supporting many boats with imports and boats with exports.

It is very urban with large settlements and cities. It is much wider than the rest of the river and the water is very deep for shipping. Bridges have also been made, encouraging the land to be used for transport. Overall, there is a very large change of land use throughout the drainage basin of the River Tees. It starts of being very marshy and in an extremely quiet location, becoming more arable and pastoral, then small settlements are introduced. Next the farming is not longer appropriate and the settlements are larger, with a very large industrial area at the bottom of the river.

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How to Describe an Animal

Unit two – grade 12 Writing a field guide about an animal: The ……………… is one of the (most common , most dangerous , biggest , largest) (mammals, birds, reptiles, sea animals , desert animals, forest animals) in the world. It lives in …………………………… and ………………………………….. Males are ………. centimeters high and ……………… centimeters long. While females are ……. centimeters high and ……… centimeters long. It lives in (packs – families – cackles – groups – clans) of ………. to ……….. animals. Or ( It is a loner animal that doesn’t like to live in groups. )} The strongest (female-male) is the leader of the group. So, It leads them for their hunt or fighting. First of all, this animal uses different sounds to communicate together. For example, It moans to show it is unhappy. It sometimes howls to keep the group together. It usually trumpets when it is frightened or in danger. It also groans to warn its group of danger saying “Danger ahead”. It may howl to begin the hunt or to return to the den.

To sum up, this animal makes loud noises for many reasons. Most importantly, the ……… hunts at (day – night) so it is a nocturnal animal that sleeps by day and is active at night. It survives on different kinds of (animals – plants) such as ……………… Therefore it is a (herbivore – carnivore- omnivore). It lives in (dens, stables , caves , trees) . It eventually uses its (sharp claws – premolars – beaks – horns) to defend itself against its predators or to hunt and intimidate its prey.

On the other hand this animal is hunted by humans to take its (fur – tusks – feathers – skin) and make (medicine – jewelry – coats – shoes – belts – bags). As a result this animal is endangered and the governments enforced a law to stop hunting it and built natural habitats to protect it from extinction. In conclusion, When you are in the (woods – ocean – desert – forest – jungle) , you may hear their scary sounds. But don’t be afraid, they are just speaking to each others in a language that only they understand.

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Describe Australia’s Consitution

On the 1st January 1901 Australia became one nation. Prior to this Australia consisted of six separate colonies who all answered to British authority. The British government then passed the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900 (UK) and federation was achieved. The British government had provided Australia with a constitution which was a set of rules which the government had to follow in order to run the country. Parts of the constitution include the division of power between the different levels of government and the establishment of the High Court.

Australia is a constitutional monarch. This is a form of government in which a monarch acts as head of state and because the British monarchy still plays a role in the Australian parliament, the government has a Governor-General. The Governor-General is the representative of the monarch or head of state (now Queen Elizabeth II). He or she exercises the supreme power of the Commonwealth. The constitution grants the Governor-General a wide range of powers. The most important power the Governor-General has is found in section 58 of the constitution. When a proposed law passed by both Houses of Parliament is presented to the Governor-General for the Queen’s assent, he shall declare … that he assents in the Queen’s name. ” This means they have the power to decide which laws come into force. The constitution divides up the powers between the federal government and the states. This is covered in Chapter 1, Part V in sections 51 to 60. It specifies the legislative powers of the federal parliament which enables them to make laws.

Section 52 outlines the exclusive powers of the federal government. The state parliament was given residual powers, these are the remaining matters which are not referred to in the constitution on which the states can legislate. The federal parliament was given the power to make laws on all matters listed in section 51. The state government can also make laws in many of the areas listed in section 51. This is an example of concurrent power which are powers held by both the state and federal parliaments.

Each state has its own constitution along with residual powers. Some of the main powers of the state governments are in the areas of crime hospitals and public transport. When there is conflict between federal and state governments the solution is found in section 109 which states ‘When a law of a State is inconsistent with a law of the Commonwealth, the latter shall prevail, and the former shall, to the extent of the inconsistency be invalid’. This means that federal overrules state.

According to section 51, the federal government can pass laws on foreign relations and trade and commerce around the world, taxation, currency, immigration and emigration etc. They also have the power to pass laws on the naval and military defence of the commonwealth, naturalization and aliens and the provision of maternity allowances. This is just a handful of what the many areas listed in section 51 are. Overall the entire Australian government answers to the constitution. This constitution combined six colonies into one country. A country that is now one of the most powerful countries in the world.

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Describe and Evaluate Social Explanations of Aggression

Describe and evaluate social explanations of aggression. Aggression can be defined in many different ways. Bandura suggests that it is the intent to cause harm to another human being who is motivated to avoid such treatment. One of the main social psychological explanations of aggression comes from Bandura and Walters in 1963. He suggests that aggression is learned either indirectly; through observational learning and only replicated if vicarious reinforcement occurs, or directly- where aggressive behaviour is directly reinforced.

While both are a form of operant conditioning, the direct approach parallels the ideas much closer. Bandura outlined the following three steps in the modelling process of SLT: Observation- by watching the behaviour of role models and then imitating that behaviour, mental representation- the child will only display the learned behaviour as long as the expectation of reward is greater than the expectation of punishment, and production of behaviour- if the child is rewarded (maintenance through direct experience) or by building the confidence from expectancies of like likely outcomes of their aggressive behaviour (self-efficacy).

In support of this theory, Bandura et al. proved that if children watch someone else behave aggressively towards a Bobo Doll, they were more likely to be aggressive themselves later on, specifically imitating individual actions they had previously seen. When the model was rewarded, the child was more likely to reproduce through vicarious reinforcement compared to those models punished, thus showing that observational learning only results in imitation when it is vicariously reinforced. This study however, does not take into account of the nature vs. urture debate. Although it seems that Bandura’s research proves that behaviour is learnt (nurture), it must however be noted that there were many gender differences where the boys produced more physical aggression than girls, which consequently support the argument that such behaviour is innate (nature). In addition, research findings are not only culturally bound but may be due to demand characteristics. It was noted by Noble (1975), after the study occurred, that many of the parents told the children what to expect, consequently causing little face validity.

Furthermore, although this study tells us that children do acquire aggressive responses as a result of watching others, it does not tell us much about why a child would be motivated to do so in the absence of the model, nor does it include the cognition or biology of these behaviours. This study also holds many ethical issues. It was carried out in the knowledge that children may reproduce the aggressive behaviours they were exposed to and therefore it is difficult to establish the scientific credibility.

It is also difficult to further test the social learning theory experimentally due to the concern of needing to protect participants from psychological and psychical harm. Moreover, a weakness of the Social Learning Theory is that people are never consistently rewarded for aggression. Often, and if not in most cases they are punished, not rewarded. While media can sometimes portray certain acts as ethically ambiguous, it is rare to find these days aggressive behaviour rewarded in a mainstream way to suggest that the population are learning this behaviour through SLT.

Deindividuation, another social psychological theory is defined as the loss of a sense of personal identity that can occur when, for example, in a crows or wearing a mask. It is associated with a reduced sense of personal responsibility and increased anti-social behaviour. The theory relies heavily on two components; anonymity and reduced self-awareness. Anonymity describes the presence of crowds (or groups) leading individual members to feel anonymous and act according to a different set of norms and values which are imposed or encouraged by them (Zimbardo 1969).

The alternate explanation for deindividuation to cause aggression is reduced self-awareness. Proposed by Prentice-Dunn ; Rogers 1982, they suggest that crowds do not lead necessarily to anonymity or public awareness (while this may contribute) but instead lead to a lack of private awareness, often strengthened by the presence of drugs and alcohol. Normally, people are aware of their personal morals, however within a group it is argued that they may lose sight of such ‘private’ principles and instead follow the group.

The majority of research evidence in deindividuation comes from the work of Zimbardo. He repeated the Milgram paradigm, where female participant were either wearing a nametag (individuated) or in a hood (deindividuated) and it was found that by wearing a hood, participants were much more likely to give shocks to the learner. Furthermore, Diener et al. observed the behaviour of over 1000 children on Halloween. The children were asked their name, and for those that didn’t give it, rates of stealing candy or money when alone rose ramatically. These studies support the idea of anonymity and how they are more likely to carry out antisocial behaviour when they cannot be identified. Cannavale et al. (1970) found that male and female groups responded differently under deinviduated conditions and therefore reflecting gender bias in Zimbardo’s research. This can further be linked to the biological approach as it fails to consider the biology of aggression, such as the hormones.

The male sex hormone, testosterone, is thought to influence aggression from young adulthood onwards due to its action on brain areas involved in controlling aggression. This is supported by Dabbs et al. (1987) who measures salivary testosterone in violent and non-violent criminals. They found that those with higher levels of testosterone had a history of violent crime whereas those with the lowest levels had committed only non-violent crime. Dramatic support for the deadly influence of deindividuation comes from a study by anthropologist Robert Watson (1973).

He collected data from tribes on the extent to which they killed, tortured or mutilated their victims. He found that societies where warriors changed their appearance (through the use of war paint and tribal costumes etc. ) were more destructive towards their victims compared to those who did not change their appearance. This study not only provides research support for the idea of anonymity, but also gives evidence that this theory takes account of cultural differences.

However, most of the research focuses on the relationship between deindividuation and antisocial behaviour. But Spivey and Prentice-Dunn (1990) found that deindividuation could lead to either prosocial or antisocial behaviour depending on the situational factors. When prosocial environmental cues were present (such as a prosical model), deindividuated participants preformed significantly more altruistic acts (giving money) and significantly fewer antisocial acts (giving electric shocks)c compared to a control group.

Furthermore, desirable effects of deindividuation can be found on cyberspace. Adolescents reported feeling significantly more comfortable seeiking help with mental health problems under deindividuated circumstances of Internet chat rooms as opposed to individuated circumstances of a personal appointment with a health professional (Francis eta al. 2006). This lends support to the deindividuation theory and displays the positive aspect of deindividuation.

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Describe an Experience That Influenced Your Career Choice

Having grown up in a country where the prevalence of the shadow economy is on par with the continual political problems due to the mismanagement by autocrats. Public administration has surrounded me for as long as I can remember. On graduating ,i went to possess insight into many issues such as the way people and businesses react to the development and management of government programs by public administrators.

I had some practical experience working at a hospital in Nigeria with sometime spent in the accounting department, this enabled me gain a practical experience of how the laws/duties/decisions made by public administrators affects people/individuals in real life situations such as explaining why people in less developed countries are prepared to pay for healthcare with private hospitals rather than using the national institutions which usually have worse service and deplorable equipments mainly due to mismanagement, wrong fiscal policies and corruption.

The issues of customer satisfaction and equity were studied first hand and when comparing with the UK system, one would only praise the NHS(National Health Service) for its equitable approach unlike many other countries were only those than can afford treatment get it. During my university years, I was a part of the committee through whom student members voiced their opinion in reviving the Osun State Student Association at Bowen university ,which had lost his finesse.

I was appointed the Financial Secretary and was indeed a challenge, as we had to work hard as a team creating and implementing programs and reforms, managing and allocating our own time and finances to ensure success, I was also part of the team that assisted the students to get there bursary from the State Government, and trust me it wasn’t easy in the sense that we had to keep writing letters and going out of our way to ensure the students get paid because its part of their civil right. During my National Youth Service Corps(NYSC) as a member of the Sports Community Development Group.

Having acquired the silver award after the torment of hiking over double figure mileage distances to raise funds for the homeless children in Enugu State of Nigeria, it has enabled me to be more organized and helped me develop my ability to make quick, accurate and appropriate decisions in peril. Currently I am an accountant and a Guardian counselor in a primary and nursery school in Nigeria which goes by the name Macro Nursery and Primary school, I assist the younger generations in making right,responsibe,reputable and reasonable decisions in life.

Leadership is also an important quality at succeeding in most areas, hence my appointment as one of the prefects in my secondary school has definitely helped me develop as a young adult. These duties are very rewarding and will be vital skills in preparing for life after public administration, studying this course in your university will enable me further my interest in economic issues as well as fulfilling my life time ambition.

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Describe and Evaluate Lifespan Changes in Sleep

Describe and Evaluate Lifep changes in Sleep As humans grow from infancy to old age there are major changes in the amount and kind of sleep experienced. Babies sleep a lot more than children and adults also have different sleep patterns and different stages of sleep. They tend to sleep about 16 hours a day. But their sleep is not continuous. By the age of six months a circadian rhythm has become established (one main sleep wake cycle). By the age of give, children have EEG patterns like those of adults but they are still sleeping more and having more REM activity.

During childhood, it is not uncommon for children to experience a variety of sleep disorders such as sleep walking and night terrors. During childhood, the need for sleep decrease, but in adolescence, it increases, to about nine of ten hours a night. Circadian rhythms also change so that teenagers feel naturally awake later at night and have more difficulty getting up early (a phase delay). Adult sleep is typically about eight hours a night, with 25% REM sleep. Childhood parasomsineas are rarer in adulthood but there is an increasing frequency of other sleep disorders, such as insomnia and apnoea.

With increased age, the pattern of sleep changes; REM sleep decreases to about 20% of total sleep time. Older people also experience a phase advance of circadian rhythms – feeling sleepier early in the evening and waking up earlier. This approach to psychology is called the developmental approach and is important in highlighting the changes across a person’s lifep. One suggestion as to why babies’ sleep patterns are so different from those of adults is that their sleep is an adaptive mechanism to make their parents life easier – daytime sleep means that parents can get on with their chores which enhances survival.

Infants’ greater amount of active/REM sleep may be explained in terms of the relative immaturity of the brain, and is related to the considerable amount of learning taking place. The change of sleep patterns in adolescence may be linked to changes in hormone production at this age. These hormones are primarily released at night and therefore sleep patterns are disturbed leading to sleep deprivation. Hormone changes can also explain the upset to the circadian clock, which has been described as a delayed sleep phase syndrome by Crowley et al. ome researchers go as far as saying that schools should begin later to accommodate the poor attention p of adolescents in the early morning (Wolfson and Carskadon). In adults, the common perception is that a good night’s sleep is related to good health. To test this, Kripke et al surveyed over a million adults and found that there in an increased mortality risk associated with too much sleep. However, this was a correlational theory, and therefore does not account for extraneous variables. This means that a casual relationship cannot be established.

It could be the sae that underlying illness may lead to increased sleep needs and to increased mortality. Reduced sleep in old age is partly a consequence of physiological changes, but may also be explained in terms of actual problems staying asleep, such as sleep apnoea or medical illnesses. The resulting sleep deficit in old age might explain why older people experience impaired functions, for example, of their alertness. Various treatments can be used to increase sleep at night, including relaxation techniques and melatonin to increase sleepiness.

The research in this area shows that sleep patterns vary considerably with age, but these patterns are also influenced by cultural values as well as lifestyle habits (such as consumption of a alcohol, amount of exercise and so on). Tynjala et al found that sleep may also reflect cultural differences/ moreover in Korea, the mean sleep time was about 6. 5 hours (Shin et al) and the mean sleep time in Iran was 7. 5 hours (Glanizadeh et al), both supporting the view that sleep duration is shorter in Asia then Europe.

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Describe and Compare the Two Forms of Cubism

According to the Tate Gallery’s exposition (1979) Cubism has remained the most important and influential movement of the 20th century, notwithstanding the movement’s short duration. According to Read (1994) the major period for Cubism was from 1907 to 1914, with Picasso and Braque as the main originators of the movement. The rationale for the Tate’s statement is given as “the artists associated with [Cubism] took some of the most decisive steps towards abstraction”, and this extreme development “has become the archetype of later revolutionary movements” (p. 84).

The movement, according to Read, was the first abstract style of the 20th century, and named by the art critic Louis Vauxcelles, who took up a remark by Matisse about “Braque’s little cubes” (p. 100). One source (artlex. com) cites Vauxcelles as saying: “M. Braque scorns form and reduces everything, sites, figures and houses, to geometric schemas and cubes. ” One of the most innovative developments is that the creators of Cubism sought to replace a single viewpoint and light source, normal within the western art world since the Renaissance, with a much more complete representation of any object, combining many ‘aspects’.

Initially colours were temporarily abandoned and shapes were simplified and flattened. Space was furthermore rendered by means of oblique lines and overlapping forms (The Tate Gallery, 1979). According to Belton (2002, p. 109) Picasso and Braque both struggled with the problem of representing three dimensional objects and figures in the two dimensional medium of painting; “their solution was to create an abstract form that could display two or more sides of an object simultaneously”.

Whilst Picasso’s Demoiselles d’Avignon is generally viewed as the first Cubist painting, Read (1994) argues that the painting might be more usefully viewed as ‘pre-Cubist’, or ‘proto-Cubist’, as it was so heavily influenced by Iberian or African art. Cezanne’s later work is often viewed as the catalyst for the development of Cubism, and Read cites Cezanne’s advice to Bernard “to deal with nature by means of the cylinder, the sphere and the cone” (p. 100). Cezanne, by trusting his eyes and attempting to express natural, binocular vision, allowed for the ‘truth’ of the shifted viewpoint (Moszynska, 1990).

Cubism gives the artist a way of depicting the world in a way that goes beyond what can be seen, and attempts to deal with the energies of objects. According to Read (1994) Cubism could be categorized into various divisions, including ‘analytic’, ‘hermetic’ and ‘synthetic’. This essay will mainly concentrate in the analytic and synthetic forms of Cubism. The term ‘hermetic’ refers to the largely or wholly indecipherable way of representing an object in the flatter type of abstraction, as typical of both Braque’s and Picasso’s later way of working.

In this phase the allover pattern became more important. Other sources (including artlex. com) refer to ‘analytic’ cubism as ‘facet’ cubism. Analytical and Synthetic Cubism acquired their names through the comments by art historian Einstein, and in effect are retrospective labels. Einstein wrote that the “simplistic distortions” employed by Picasso, as typified by his portrait of Gertrude Stein, led to “a period of analysis and fragmentation and finally to a period of synthesis” (as cited in Foster, Krauss, Bois and Buchloh, 2004, p. 106).

The analytical phase of Cubism, as developed by Braque and Picasso, was characterised by a number of different features, starting with the contraction of the painters’ palettes, away from the full colour spectrum to rather monochrome selections, which Foster et al. term ‘abstemious’. The second characteristic is the extreme flattening of the visual space, “as though a roller had pressed all the volume out of the bodies” (ibid. , p. 106). The third characteristic identified by Foster et al. is the visual vocabulary used to describe “the physical remains of this explosive process” (p. 06).

Foster et al. illustrate these features with Picasso’s portrait of Daniel-Henry Kahnweiler (1910) and Bracque’s painting The Portuguese (The Emigrant, 1911-12). The grey or tonal scale, the traditional tool of representing volume, is used very differently by the Cubists. Kahnweiler, the art dealer who exhibited both Braque and Picasso’s work, identified the “bringing about the unity of the pictorial object” as the exclusive concern of Cubism (Foster et al. , 2004, p. 107).

Kahnweiler’s view as upheld by Greenberg, who saw Analytical Cubism as the fusion between two types of flatness: the “depicted flatness”, shoving the fragmented objects closer to the surface, and the “literal flatness” of that surface (ibid. , p. 109). Foster and his colleagues however question this: they note a number of differences between the evident intentions of Braque and Picasso in relation to the flat plane, with Picasso, being more ‘tactile’, more focused on exploring the possibilities of using Cubism for sculpture, and Braque more concerned with transparency.

Steinberg too, urged against the blurring of Picasso and Braque’s pictures. The two exponents of Cubism saw themselves as being ‘roped together’ like mountaineers in their exploration of this new way of working, with the ebullient Spaniard referring to Braque as his ‘wife’. However, Braque was loyal to ‘passage’, the practice of visual slippage between adjacent elements, whereas Picasso, according to Foster et al. , had an “overwhelming concern with a vestigial kind of depth” (ibid, p. 109).

Picasso seemed more focused on making depth tactile, as Foster et al. demonstrate with showing Picasso’s central plunging depth in Houses on the hill: Horta de Ebro (1909). They go on to argue that Braque is more concerned with the ‘diaphanous’ quality of Cubism, with the loss of traditional notions of figure and ground The Tate Gallery (1979, p. 85) presents Braque’s Clarinet and a Bottle of Rum on a Mantelpiece (1911) as a crucial point in Cubism, “when the breaking down of objects had been carried to a point very close to complete abstraction”.

After this point Braque and Picasso started to introduce areas of wood-graining, the use of collage, and a re-introduction of colour, thereby representing objects in a more recognisable, but also more symbolic way. According to Gersh-Nesic (n. d. ) Synthetic Cubism integrates “high” and “low” art (art made by an artist combined with art made for commercial purposes, such as packaging), and according to some can be considered the first Pop Art. Even before 1912 Braque and Picasso had introduced stenciled lettering into their paintings. These stencils were not fine art, they were used for packaging and pub signs.

The stencils draw attention to the surface of the canvas, since the uniform letters appear independent of what’s painted underneath them. Two technical innovations exemplify new development in Cubism: papier colle and collage. Papier colle involves sticking coloured paper onto the canvas and was invented by Braque. Collage was developed by Picasso, and involved sticking all sorts of materials, such as leather, newspaper, material and rope, onto the surface. Sticking different materials, such as woodgrain, onto the surface of the painting playfully confused what was real and what was an illusion (Tate, n. d. ).

New, provocative questions are raised with the use of collage, namely: what is more realistic, to perfectly simulate the look of a newspaper in oil paint, or to stick actual newspaper onto the canvas? (Tate, n. d. ). Wadley (1970, p. 13) holds that “technically and conceptually” Synthetic Cubism was “a denial of the European tradition”, in that the surface was now the furthest point from the spectator, not the nearest. Artists working in a synthetic way started with the terms of painting, and from them composed an image which they could justly claim was more real, “since it in no sense distorted or imitated something else” (ibid. p. 14).

Gris, who was the clearest formulator of cubist theory, stated: I work with the elements of the intellect, with the imagination. I try to make concrete that which is abstract. I proceed from the general to the particular, by which I mean that I start with an abstraction in order to arrive at a true fact. Mine is an art of synthesis, of deduction. (ibid. , p. 129) Gris was called a ‘demon of logic’ by Apollinaire. Indeed, his way of working and thinking was different from his Cubist colleagues.

According to Wadley the integration in Gris’ work is tighter than in comparable Picassos or Braques. Gris used collage only in his paintings, and its effect is always to strengthen the rigid division of the surface. [ ]There is no hint of Picasso’s ragged edges and random encounters, nor of Braque’s simple elements floating in a spacious arena. The total effect is of tight concentration. (Wadley, 1970, p. 82)

Gris’ meticulous style is evident in how he has painstakingly arranged the letters in ‘Le Matin’ in Man in the Cafe, to correspond with the diagonal columns and echo the horizontal line elow (ibid). Foster et al. (2004) make a ‘semiotic’ reading of Picasso’s use of material in his Violin (1912): the ‘twin’ pieces of newsprint paper represent on the one hand the frontal, opaque (wood of the violin), as well as the transparent, amorphous ‘ground’ (background colour). They go on to claim that a similar visual play of meaning is evident in Picasso’s Bottle of Vieux Marc, Glass and Newspaper (1913), where a piece of wallpaper is used to represent the liquid in the glass, the rim of the glass, and the ground of the table-cloth.

The cut out piece used for the liquid (looking like a chef’s top hat) represents transparency, whilst the ‘negative shape’ left by the incision represents the solid stem of the glass. The viewer might be left with the question whether the ever playful Picasso was just enjoying a visual pun, or whether he intended any of this to be read as ‘signs’. The artist himself stated: “Mathematics, trigonometry, chemistry, psycho-analysis, music and whatnot, have been related to cubism to give it an easier interpretation.

All this has been pure literature, not to say nonsense, which brought bad results, blinding people with theories. (Wadley, 1970, p. 128) During its lifetime both Analytical and Synthetic Cubism encompassed and influenced many artists – the most notable of these being Leger, the three Duchamp/Villon brothers, Robert and Sonia Delaunay, Gleizes and Metzinger (who published a book on Cubism). For some of these artists Cubism functioned as a transition, although Picasso would hold that “Cubism is neither a seed, nor a foetus, but an art dealing primarily with forms, and when a form is realized it is there to live its own life” (Wadley, p. 28).

It led artists like Piet Mondrian to what he saw as its logical end, complete abstraction. Cubism may have been short-lived as a movement, but it continues to influence contemporary art to this day. Collage, for instance, has become a widely practiced form of art. And in terms of form, the practice of reducing everything to the ‘cylinder, the sphere and the cone’ was brought to mind on viewing some of Manolo Valdes’ work, in an exhibition in The Hague this summer.

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