Developments

This paper provides an in-depth look at the findings of an Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) with a toddler’s parents in combination with an intricate observation of the same child. Throughout the course of this paper, it is interesting for the reader to compare and contrast the strong Chinese culture at play within this family to that of their own heritage. The observation of the child was naturalistic meaning there was no contact or attempt to alter the activities by the observer and it lasted thirty-minutes with each minute’s findings noted separately on the enclosed table.

The AAI consisted of eighteen questions which are intended to provide a sense of understanding of the parent’s experience with their own mother and father while when used with the observation of the child can help to offer a clearer picture of their parenting. There are three definitions of each, parents and children, which can be used to categorize them. These include for the child: secure, insecure-ambivalent, and insecure-avoidant; and for adults: secure-autonomous, dismissing, and preoccupied.

The supporting statements that categorize each of these definitions have been carefully considered in determining which rightfully defines the parents and child in this particular case. Commentary Section During the thirty-minutes that the infant, Kevin, was being naturalistically observed in his parents’ home, a vast majority of his activity revolved around self-stimulation with toy cars with very little interaction with his mother who was also present.

Of the three categorizations for an infant—secure, insecure-ambivalent, and insecure-avoidant—I would have to say, based on the short amount of time spent with him, that Kevin showed more signs of being a secure child. This conclusion comes from monitoring his activity and interactivity with his mother in combination with things that were said and his mannerisms. The observation began with Kevin’s mother introducing three toy cars of differing sizes making the young boy incredibly excited.

She obviously brought the toys in order to make the child happy, which shows that she is caring. Kevin was unable to verbally communicate clearly. However, the noises that he did make seemed to be joyful and very animated, mostly “ya, ya. ” Initially, Kevin showed slight hesitation in his ability to play with the toy car and his mother, upon instantly recognizing this, got up from the sofa and selected a car to demonstrate to him a fun way to use the toy.

In doing so, to further substantiate my feeling that he is a secure child, he made no fuss at her grabbing a toy and was perfectly happy with her showing him what to do. Some children in this situation may have thrown a tantrum feeling insecure as though the parent was going to take the toys away or control the activity in some way. About fifteen minutes or so into the observation Kevin begins knocking on the floor with the cars. His mother informs him of the elderly lady living below the apartment and how she does not like when he makes such loud noises.

Ignoring the lengthy explanation he continues to knock out of lack of comprehension. His mother stands and once Kevin sees that her facial expression is one of displeasure he immediately stops knocking as the visual is something that he is able to recognize. As if the child is checking to see whether or not his mother is terribly upset, he goes to her clutching all three of the toy cars against his chest and says “ma, ma. ” She responds with a smile and a “yes, honey?

” He instantly giggles as he realizes that he is not in trouble but was merely scorned for his action at the time. Seeing as how he went to his mother right after the minor incident shows me that he is comfortable enough with her to run back to her immediately after she scolds him. Their relationship appears to be one of happiness and understanding for one another’s needs and wants. Kevin’s mother was born and raised in Xi’an, which is the capital city of Shanxi province located in northwest China.

When she was younger, she explains that both of her parents worked full-time, her mother as an accountant and her father for the Chinese government. She was not the only child; she also had a sister who is two years her junior. She graduated from the Xi’an Institute of Foreign Language and came to the United States to attain her MBA when she was twenty-three years old. She describes her parents as being extremely busy throughout most of her childhood as far back as she is able to remember, but she does not see it as being a problem with their relationship.

She describes her mother as the kind of person she would like Kevin to think of her as when he is older: intimate, warm, casual, relaxing, and caring. Every free minute that she had available was spent with her and her sister. Based upon the way that Kevin has responded to his mother’s discipline throughout the course of the observation, it seems as though he does not suffer from what psychologist Kagan refers to as behavioral inhibition, which often leads to anxiety in later years.

In his research, he has acknowledged the fact that per attachment theory, an infant, in this case Kevin, will become bonded to his mother or whoever provides care to him on a daily basis within the first year. It is, though, the “individual differences in the secure versus insecure quality of attachments [that] have been observed, resulting from differences in the caregiver’s availability and responsiveness to the infant and the degree of reciprocity between the infant and the caregiver” (Shamir-Essakow, Ungerer, and Rapee, 2005).

Kevin’s mother has vowed to take traumatizing experiences of her past and avoid putting her child through them so that he can develop into a more secure toddler and eventually adult. One of the questions asked of Kevin’s mother during the Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) was about a time that she remembers being separated from her mother, whom she stated she was closest to growing up. She told me of a time when her mother went away for business when she was almost seven years old.

She and her sister waited outside everyday while their mother was away, hoping that she would return soon. Finally, when she did come back she cooked a large meal for the entire family as a way to make up for her absence. Seeing as how this is something that left a lasting impression on her, it seems that she displayed some separation anxiety while her mother was away, but since her mother returned rather than abandoning her it is highly likely that any future trips caused her and her sister far less stress.

Knowing how her mother leaving negatively affected her and her sister at such a young age it is probably unlikely that she will accept any requests for leaving Kevin for an extended period of time, at least until he is old enough to understand that she will be coming home. Although he does seem secure overall, he did show great affection toward his mother and it is apparent that she would be greatly missed should she leave. As far as her disciplinarian responsibilities with Kevin, she takes cues from her parents. In the interview, she stated that her parents were never threatening whether it was in a joking or serious manner.

Yet, she mentioned that her confidence and self-esteem levels are lower than she would like and attributes that aspect of her adult life to the lack of compliments and praise received by her parents as a child. During my observation, when Kevin repeatedly knocked the cars onto the floor, his mother was stern but not condescending or threatening whatsoever. She simply gave him a look to let him know that she was not happy with his present behavior and he stopped out of an obvious subconscious respect for his mother’s wishes.

This is an insecurity that she had as a child that she is trying not to pass down to Kevin. By communicating with him and interacting with him she is definitely not displaying characteristics of a parent who would be considered preoccupied or dismissing. In Mahler’s object-relational theory of child separation-individuation, he explored this sort of relationship between parents and their children and looked further down the road to disclose the affects it would have on them in adolescence.

From his work on the subject, others have determined that it is ultimately the way that an individual is able to learn how to balance “closeness and distance in interpersonal relationships appears to have implications for a host of adjustment and psychosocial outcomes, including self-esteem, quality of family relationships, success in peer relationships, and level of depression and anxiety” (Holmbeck and Leake, 1999). These are all aspects of developmental life that can be either negatively or positively affected at early stages in Kevin’s life should his mother do too much to avoid a natural separation.

It is difficult to balance and control actions in parenting so that a child grows up to be an independent, self-sufficient adult who is able to recognize and pass on similar traits to their children and so on. There is no doubt that a parent who is constantly dismissing their child or is clearly preoccupied a majority of the time will have negative effects on their child at some point later on in their life. This can be seen in the way that Kevin’s mother’s parents dealt with her in certain situations. Granted, after returning from the business trip she made up for her absence in the eyes of her children, an underlying cut was perhaps made.

Furthermore, the lack of compliments and praise has obviously made an impression on her into adulthood. Young people are very perceptive, much more than adults give them credit for. Though their actions may not reveal the hurt and slight damage that is being caused, in the long run it may be apparent and those actions blamed after-the-fact. Kevin’s mother has taken these deficiencies and altered them to suit her desires as a parent. Based on her experiences, she has come to realize that her child needs as much physical contact as possible; including kissing, hugging, and just being held.

However, the difficulty comes in balance, if Kevin is coddled too much it may also negatively affect him later in life making him into an extremely dependent adult who constantly craves attention and lacks the self-sufficiency to handle grown up problems on his own. However, praise comes with little consequences as long as discipline is fairly and consistently provided. She has come to realize that praising Kevin on a regular basis when he does things that she would like to see him doing leads him to continually act in such a manner in the future.

In the interview she mentioned how overprotection has affected her and vows to allow Kevin to be exposed to the realities of the world around him to better prepare him for life on his own, which is ultimately what parenting is all about. Overall, this project was an extremely beneficial experience for me. It helped me to learn how insecure parents can sometimes raise an insecure child who becomes a far more secure and autonomous parent raising a secure child based on their own experiences growing up in combination with their cultural background.

This is revealed as truth in research developed by Ainsworth that found “that maternal behavior toward the infant is the critical determinant of infant attachment” (Lowinger, Dimitrovsky, Strauss, and Mogilner, 1995). When he grows up, he will have a much more positive relationship with his mother than perhaps his mother has with her own. The future appears to be bright for little Kevin who has seemingly found a healthy balance between freedom and dependency.

The view on the country’s liberty and union has been the point of contention for federalist and anti federalist parties who seek to establish their ideal form of government based on arguments that address the different issues involved and the flaws created by the opposition. During the late 1700’s, both Federalist and anti Federalist papers were published to influence the formation and the people’s sentiment on the interpretation of the government’s power, responsibility and limitation based on the newly formed constitution.

Different papers and literary propaganda were published by both Federalist and anti Federalist authors under different pseudonyms. The most notable federalist authors are James Madison, , Alexander Hamilton and John Jay who wrote the different articles contained in a collection of 85 Federalist papers. The Federalist papers were made to serve as a source to help the people understand the constitution and its implications on the government. Basically, it advocated the establishment of a federal government over the previous leadership based on the articles of confederation.

The Federalist were able to confirm and establish the significance and viability of a central government as opposed to the limitations brought about by the separate sovereignty, power and authority of local leadership established within each state (Bailyn 23). The Federal government envisioned by the Federalist Party is considered to be the balancing tool in assigning and redistributing the government powers so as to prevent abuse and misplaced authority by any person in position.

As opposed to the articles of confederation which seeks to establish the individual sovereignty and power of each state, the federalist argued that an individual state free from any sanctions and limitations by a central power could possibility overpower a neighboring state without any preemptive legal ramifications. This could be prevented by putting all of the states under one leadership which is subjected to the constitution and implements its decisions with consideration to the implications it has to all the human rights, state and government laws, equality and fairness could be preserved.

The government envisioned by the Federalist is to serve for the people and by the people. The concept of liberty and union by the federalist can be summarized through the concept of equal distribution of power within the government. The newly written constitution is interpreted in such a way that the greatest benefit of the governed people could be portrayed as the purpose of the law. The Federalist 1 written by Hamilton is the first among the Federalist papers.

The main purpose of this portion is to dispose of the articles of confederation which is depicted as insufficient and lacking of all the positive attributes to render the government effective in uniting the country. The federalist established that the key to the prosperity and development of the country is the creation of a union between the states. Conformity within the whole country will help the people achieve growth in a linear direction that will preserve a lasting relationship among all the citizens from different parts of the country.

Liberty from discrimination, poverty and conflicts could be achieved through a truthful union (Bailyn 43). Another issue addressed in the federalist papers is the existence of a faction which is considered a threat to the union and peace in the country. Specifically addressed in the federalist 10, factions could be in the form of a group of people or community which has a special interest contrasting to the general good of the population.

Considering the fact that a divide country could easily succumb to war and poverty, people should safeguard the implementation of the constitution as a part of their community and state. The establishment of the concept contained in the federalist paper has helped people define and address the present problems they are encountering under the articles of confederation. Prior to the establishment of the United States constitution, the individualism among the different states serve as the trend in which the people conducted their economic and political policies.

This led to disunity and disparity of purpose which most of the time resulted in conflicts and anarchy. The Federalist Party has seen the need to establish a unified consciousness among the localities founding the different states to avoid misunderstanding and selfish objectives which only disrupt the national process of development. The government under the new constitution is not exempt from the laws which are implemented throughout the country. One of the most important aspects of union and liberty is the equal distribution of power within the government.

This could be achieved by distributing equal power to the different branches of the government in which they have the capacity to refute and cancel out any form of excessiveness that could occur from any of the branches. The constitution is the only limiting factor that sets the borders of what the authorities and officials can do. Contrary to what the anti Federalist Party was claiming, the president is not a king since the judiciary branch could pursue a case of violation against any leader who has violated the law.

The function of equality within the government and country is made possible through the processes found within the law and constitution. Among the most famous and influential anti federalists people during the late 1700’s included George Clinton and William West. The anti federalist party was immediately established as soon as the new constitution was published. Conflicts between the viability of the new constitution and the government and its bearing on the liberty of the people have been expressed by the anti federalist as the main issue to be tackled.

The individualism created by the previously instituted articles of the confederation has established an isolated and localized form of governance within the states that has resulted in disarray and chaos which led some of the politicians to believe that a central government which has the power to govern the whole country would be much more complicated and impossible to achieve. The Federalist Party was composed of varying groups with different beliefs regarding the violation and existence of the constitution.

The Borden collection has all the 85 articles regarding the anti federalist movement and how it establishes all the facts and information which seemed to validate the claims of the people involved. Among the claims found in the Borden collection was published and written by George Clinton who was known as “Cato” during that time. He claims that the central government which was established along with the new constitution could easily violate the individual sovereignty enjoyed by the different states in the country.

He believed that the personal freedom of the people could easily be manipulated by the president which he considers as the king of the government. The federalist quickly refuted his claim, since the President elect is subjected to the same laws and restrictions which are set in place for the common person. George Clinton also claimed that the viability and survival of a single government for the whole country as an effective governing body seemed to be impossible and would only waste the resources of the nation (Borden 31).

Patrick Henry, a famous and well known revolutionary, was one of the firmest anti federalist during that time. He argues that individualism of the states is violated through the implementation of a linear constitution. He claims that the government could possibly undermine the economic viability of a state since it has no way of monitoring the condition the local conditions present in the area. It is better to have a local government since it could easily implement the ideal laws that suites the state’s condition. Development could be achieved through micromanaging since it is practical and convenient (Borden 12).

By analyzing the collective thoughts of the members of the anti federalist movement, individualism is the key issue which they argue is lost through an absolute central government. Some argue that an ideal government would target the economic viability of the whole country by using the resources of the south and the north to its advantages. Since there is only one government, objectivity to the success, growth and improvement of a state is lost. The Principles of the Declaration of independence is highly critical to the success of the government and the new constitution established.

The federal government has taken into account the existence of equality among men and the sacredness of freedom in considering the dignity of a person. That is why the federal government set in place allows the authority and power to be distributed equally and without bias to its branches to avoid excessiveness and abuse due to misplacement of power and privileges. The main concept of union and equality is perpetrated through the unified linear growth projected from a single federal government for the whole country.

The transition from a divided country based on the articles of confederation allowed the American people to view the future of a country from a single unified perspective. The existence of each state is complementary to each other allowing liberty to be preserved. The Declaration of Independence guided the federalist movement in maintaining objectivity in establish a stable and fair government through out the United States of America. Basically, the individualistic claims by the anti Federalist Party has been refuted since the unity and liberty of the country could be preserved through the establishment of equal power through the country.

The government itself is subjected to the same laws which govern the different states. The federal government confirms the existence of an absolute constitution which establishes that no man is above the law. References Bailyn, Bernard, The Debate on the Constitution: Federalist and Antifederalist Speeches, Articles, and Letters During the Struggle over Ratification Library of America, 1993. Borden, Morton, The Antifederalist Papers, Michigan State University Press, 1965.

The term development means a progressive series of changes that occur as a result of maturation and experience. This means that development does not consist merely of adding inches to one’s height or of improving one’s ability. Instead it is a complex process of integrating many structures and functions. Many theorists have proposed concepts or theories on the developmental aspect during adolescence. One of these theories is Erikson’s Eight Stages of Development.

The goal of developmental changes is to enable people to adapt to their environment in which they live. To achieve this goal, self- realization, or, as it is some times called “self- actualization” is essential. I have known an adolescent long ago, he was my neighbour. He used to be my childhood friend then. I have seen him since he was still five years old. During those times I already see him lacking the self- confidence, very pessimistic, he has fear of wrong doing and over control and over restriction of own activity.

When he was in his school age, six to twelve years old; I was just surprised seeing him very creative, and already developed a sense of competence and perseverance. When he reached his adolescent stage, I noticed that he has a coherent sense of self and always plans to actualize one’s abilities. There will be a very great difference in the development aspect of a person if he belongs to an ethnic or a dominant culture. Development is influenced by many factors and these are appearance, behaviour, cultural stereotypes, cultural values, role changes and personal experiences.

Behaviour is influenced by the environment the person has been brought up to. When behaviour changes are disconcerting, as during puberty and senescence, they affect attitudes toward the changes unfavourably. From mass media, people learn cultural stereotypes to judge people of those ages. Every culture has certain values associated with different ages. Because maximum productivity is associated with young through early middle age adulthood in the American culture of today, attitudes toward this age group are more favourable than attitudes toward other ages.

Personal experience also has profound effects on an individual’s attitude toward developmental changes. Self- esteem greatly plays an important role in identity development of an adolescent. Self- esteem is one’s perception towards his self- worth, appearance and how other’s sees him in the society. So when one has a very negative or low self esteem then that would greatly affect his development and how he interacts with the people around him.

Parents and teachers should let the adolescents explore and socialize. In that way they would develop their self- confidence. They should help them learn the degree to which assertiveness and purpose influence their environment as well as the beginning ability to evaluate one’s own behaviour. They should inculcate in their minds that every individual is unique in so many ways and that every person is indeed biologically and genetically different from every one.

Developmental assets are said to be the positive relationships, standards, opportunities and skill that every young person needs in order to grow up into a caring and responsible adult.

According to Mirowsky, as many as 40 developmental assets have been identified as developmental nutrients which all young people need. These are tangible, rational, positive experiences and qualities that are essential to bringing up successful young people. (Mirowsky, J, 2003: 16, 17)

In this paper, we are going to measure three major assets namely caring school climate, achievement motivation and cultural competence.  All these are related to positive youth development. They bring about school success and also ensure protection from behavior that may risk the youth’s health. The assets bring out the school as the major supporter.

1. Caring School Climate

This is a caring environment provided by the school that is encouraging to the young people. It makes the young people feel comfortable and wanted, hence keeps them away from risky behavior such as fighting and quarrelling.

To strengthen this asset, the school should ensure that the younger children are not bullied by the elder ones. The school administration should put in place a programme of mentoring relationships where each of the elder students has a young one to look after.

It should also put in place policies to ensure the wellbeing of the students.. When dealing with child harassment cases, it should avoid showing anger or disappointment but instead listen to the students’ point of view. (Metha, A, 2007:10)

2.  Achievement Motivation

Young people are usually motivated to do well in school in order to achieve their desired goals as well as compete with their colleagues. It helps to avoid idleness which leads to heath risks such as alcoholism and drug addiction.

To encourage motivation, the school should initiate rewards to the top performers while making sure to encourage the low performers with small tokens to boost their ambition. To make learning enjoyable, co curricular activities like games should be incorporated in the school programme.

3. Cultural Competence

This is the knowledge of people of different cultural and the love to make friends of different racial and ethnic backgrounds. Young people meet a variety of friends with whom they interact and feel comfortable with. (Ross, C, 2003:24)

This should be encouraged as it helps young people to appreciate the personal views of other people as well as the background of people of different ethnic groups and cultures, hence kills tribalism and racism.

To encourage this asset, the school should organize cultural events and ensure that there are frequent multicultural experiences for the students. It should integrate value development, service learning and cultural interrelationships into the curriculum. (Mirowsky, J, 2003: 28)

Existentialism

This is a modern philosophy that lays emphasis on the dominance of individual existence. It is the idea that thought, beliefs and ideas are created by the individual. According to it, each person has the liberty to become whatever he wants, and has the responsibility to use that liberty suitably.

In relation to existentialism, developmental assets shape the young people to give them a one can mindset of responsibility and rational thinking. It changes their attitude towards education and they become participants in the development of education as well as their own development.

The assets help students to develop good communication skills as they interact with their peers and also as they share different experiences. Finally, the development assets help the young people to express themselves and clearly state their desires while on the other hand understanding and appreciating the different views of other people.

Communities, like tribes, were traditionally considered to be the second stage of human grouping, right after families. They however now mean different things to different people, making the definition of community too broad and incapable of clear description. The notion of community, as per the Oxford English Dictionary, is defined to be “the people of a country (or district) as a whole; the general body to which all alike belong. ” This definition is however largely inadequate, considering the many contexts in which the word is used today.

At one level communities stand for clusters of persons, larger than families, who are related by specific common features like the language they speak, the gods they worship, the ethnicity they belong to, the traditions they practice and the place they stay in. Again whilst communities represent human groupings that are more populous than families, many extended families like the tribes that people the islands of the Indian Ocean can easily qualify to be treated as communities.

Communities are further known to have the same social standards, plainly discernible structures and come from specific locations. Communities are powerful entities and have on many occasions achieved remarkable goals in self determination and the pursuit of autonomy, ergo the many struggles for independence in Asia and Africa in recent decades. The sustained struggle of the Tamil community in Sri Lanka in the face of the most horrendous deprivation captures the essential resilience of community feeling and the extent to which it binds community members.

Much of this internal strength comes from the sense of solidarity, identification and support that exists within these structures, the instilling of social values, and the development of attitudes and common strengths. The growth of terrorism is clearly linked to the influence of community attitudes and values; the London bombers, for example, owe their religious fanaticism to community feelings, which superseded the influence of factors like education and financial and social well being and led them to take plainly irrational decisions.

Whilst the notion of community has attracted attention and debate from the time of Aristotle, the social, economic, and political developments that have occurred on the global platform since the 1980s have put the relevance of community into sharper focus. Globalization, a phenomenon that took off in the 1980s after the collapse of the Soviet Union and entailed the breakdown of physical, economic, and trade barriers between peoples of different regions has truly made the world a much smaller place.

Apart from the much greater interconnectedness that has happened in areas of business, trade, economics, education, travel and other areas of human activity, globalization has also led to substantial migrations of peoples from their native lands, Bangladeshis into India, East Europeans into the UK, people from South and Southeast Asia into the US and UK, and an ever increasing stream of Mexicans into the US.

Spurred on by the desire for better living standards, people from economically backward and politically unstable countries are moving into neighboring or distant areas, putting up base, and settling down, changing local demographic structures, interacting with the original inhabitants, bringing their culture and tradition with them, influencing and being influenced by their adopted lands.

By no means is this phenomenon restricted to the affluent countries, (viz. global magnets like the USA and the UK), which have traditionally attracted the deprived with their economic affluence and individual freedoms. Bangladeshis, Tibetans and Nepalese, for instance, have crossed their porous borders with neighboring India and spread out all over the country, offering cheap labor at construction sites, restaurants, and to security companies, changing local equations, provoking sympathy as well as hostility and resentment.

The United States, which has for long been known to be a multicultural and welcoming haven for the poor and needy of the world is now home to millions of people from the Latin speaking countries of South America, Asia and the Pacific Rim, who have settled down in large numbers and significantly changed what was essentially a society dominated by whites, with peripheral roles played by African Americans. The inflow of these outsiders has led to the establishment of communities, where people with commonalities cluster together, sustaining and supporting each other, and interacting in various ways with the larger society around them.

This study examines the issue of survival of such communities in the era of globalization, using readings from two distinguished and well known books, “Becoming neighbors in a Mexican American Community” (2004) by Gilda L. Ochoa and “The Politics of Diversity: Immigration, Resistance and Change in Monterey Park, California” (1997) by John Horton. Commentary and Analysis Gilda Ochoa, a professor of sociology at the California State University at Los Angeles picks up an intriguing subject, the relationships and interaction between Mexican Americans, for detailed investigation and analysis.

Referring to a variety of sources like direct interviews, observations from participating in group discussion sessions, minutes of board meetings of local schools, and other relevant papers, Ochoa presents a vivid and disturbing picture of the relationships that are emerging between established Mexican Americans and the new immigrants from Mexico, who are pouring in, legally and illegally, from across the southern border of the United States in hundreds of thousands every year.

Whilst the two communities of Mexican origin do have common historical, cultural, ethnic and religious traditions, their relationships and interaction are characterized by a number of contradictions and insecurities that include sympathy, helpfulness, and cooperativeness, as well as resentment, fear, and mistrust.

Apart from emphasizing the role played by women in the construction of communities, Ochoa deals with issues pertaining to the use of Spanish at home and English in the outside world, the formation of identity and the dynamics of group working during the interactions of the two communities in commonly frequented public places in the small and predominantly working class city of La Puente, 20 miles southeast of downtown Los Angeles in Los Angeles County.

John Horton’s book focuses on the small (just 60,000 inhabitants) town of Monterey Park; which in recent years has generated substantial media and researcher interest. At one time Monterey Park was a suburb located some distance east from downtown Los Angeles. Immigration from China, Hong Kong and other Pacific Rim countries that began in the early 1970s and gained momentum thereafter led to the city becoming the first in the United States with a majority of Asian inhabitants.

Horton’s book is actually one of a duo on the subject, the other being authored by Timothy Fong. The evolution of Monterey Park into an Asian majority city in the United States is important for the social and economic ramifications that arise out of the coming together of people of different races, different ethnic backgrounds and different classes in a nation that is becoming increasingly diverse in terms of cultures, languages, religions and income groups.

Horton refuses to see Monterey Park as another Chinatown and views it in terms of a bustling and diverse location that has witnessed the political changes that arose from the interaction of immigrants and earlier residents of Asian, Latino and Anglo American lineage; he uniquely showcases the political battles that started off on the basis of ethnicity and race, which were thereafter gradually abandoned in favor of accord and harmony.

The steady evolution of a multicultural, multiracial, and multiethnic society in the United States has led to significant demographic shifts and political changes. With the Latina/o population in Los Angeles expected to outstrip the white population by 2 million by 2010, the city is already known as the Chicano capital of the US. Such events have led to the development of complex relationships between the original inhabitants and newcomers and to the emergence of feelings of conflict as well as solidarity between different population segments.

Whilst the entry of large numbers of migrants is bound to lead to the development of complex local relationships, the impact of globalization on the modern day economy and the consequent migration of industries and jobs to low wage areas in South America and from other parts of the world have also led to escalation in hostility, resentment and the tendency to lay the blame for difficulties arising out of such events on the influx of immigrants.

Ochoa uses a number of research techniques to investigate the evolution of the Mexican immigrant community in La Puente in the face of white resentment and hostility, the many obstacles and difficulties that characterized their lives in the city and the strange and complex relationships that developed between the incoming Mexican immigrants and the established Mexican Americans who had arrived earlier, put down their roots, brought up their children, and built their homes in the face of white resistance.

Her investigations lead to the development of a piquant tale, warm and heartbreaking, and documents events that often go completely unnoticed by members of the majority and older community, for whom the newcomers often represent nothing more than unwelcome intrusions who clutter residential areas, litter streets, strain existing infrastructure, and take away jobs.

Ochoa recounts, through a number of personal interviews, the travails of the Mexican community in the face of a dominant white population that felt strongly enough about immigration to enact laws seeking to deny undocumented Mexicans “access to public services, such as excluding children from the public school system, another that denied affirmative action in schools and workplaces, and a third that stemmed from the larger English-only movement and aimed to eliminate bilingual education” (Ochoa, 2004, 3).

Ochoa’s work is unique in the sense that most studies on the Mexican community until now have been quantitative in nature, have focused on demographic and work related issues and have not, like her study, taken cognizance of the impact of the environment and local interaction on the evolution of the Mexican community. Working purely within the confines of La Puente, Ochoa addresses issues that affect the evolution of the Mexican American community and the complex attitudes and behaviors that characterize the relations between Mexican Americans and Mexican immigrant newcomers.

Her investigation also throws up the impact of the dominant culture on immigrant cultures and the probability of new cultures and new communities becoming assimilated in the culture of the majority community. With most assimilative and integrative methods practiced through local schools, Ochoa’s work focuses strongly on the working of schools and school boards, on the attitudes and impressions of local parents and how control of schooling provides the dominant community with strong weapons to suppress the expression of newer communities, take away from them the language of their forefathers and break their links with their ancestors.

Apart from the pernicious effect of schooling on the latent aspirations of incoming communities, Ochoa’s investigation of interaction between Mexican Americans and Mexican immigrants brings out the areas of conflict as well as solidarity and the extent to which the constant flow of immigrants can affect the assimilation process of older and established inhabitants from the same ethnic and geographical background. Immigrant communities from different cultures have to often face resistance to their traditions, language, and customs in their adopted homes from members of the home community.

A phenomenon that has repeatedly expressed itself in the past in various settings, it has led to the immigrant community assimilating itself with the culture of the local community, adopting their way of life, language, customs and traditions. The United States has itself played host to impoverished immigrants from Ireland and other countries of Europe like Poland and Germany, who have over decades learnt English, Anglo traditions and customs, conformed to local expectations and become Americans.

Assimilation of foreigners is not restricted to the United States and expresses itself in all societies that play host to immigrants. The United Kingdom for example is redrawing immigration procedures that now require all immigrants to take tests on their knowledge of England, English, and English society. Much of this assimilation is carried out at the level of local schools, where school policies are predominantly weighed in favor of maintaining the local language and local culture to the exclusion of alien languages and cultural influences.

Ochoa makes the point that with schools being reproductions of the larger surrounding society, their structure, policies, procedures, and regulations, in La Puente, work towards strengthening the established values, attitudes, ideologies and inherent discriminatory attitudes of the American way of life; their socialization process emphasizes the integration of children of immigrants and other colored people by teaching and inculcating values, norms, attitudes and expectations of the dominant class.

The emphasis on English to the exclusion of all other languages, including Spanish, is one of the most important tools for the gradual elimination of Mexican identity and the assimilation of children of different communities into the Anglo way of life that characterizes American society. La Puente’s investigations also lead to the inescapable conclusion of immigrant communities having to do with poorer school quality and the routing of their children to inferior career paths, conditions that tend to perpetuate existing hierarchical and power structures.

Such discomfort, which is supposedly normal in the early years of immigrant arrival in terms of the assimilationist paradigm, (Ochoa, 2004, 21) is expected to gradually lead to a betterment of conditions; the Mexicans are expected to follow in the footsteps of the Irish, Jewish, and Italian communities who came before them and gradually shed their community attributes and adopted the American way of life, i. e. entered into the activities and general life of the dominant community.

The assimilationist paradigm further postulates that with immigrant communities expected to become less distinguishable from the dominant community with the passage of generations, such assimilation leads to greater acceptance and lesser hostility and a gradual easing of difficult living conditions. Apart from the tactics of assimilation practiced in schools, Ochoa also documents the complex and dichotomous relationships that exist between Mexican Americans and immigrant Mexicans, with the reactions of Mexican Americans moving from feelings of distaste, shame and rejection to cooperation, assistance and solidarity.

With the responses of Mexican Americans being shaped by (a) their feelings about California once being part of Mexico and now occupied by Americans, (b) their experiences in La Puente, their adopted homeland, their struggles and the hostility they faced in their efforts to settle down in La Puente (c) their affinity towards their people from Mexico, and (d) their feelings of embarrassment arising out of the backwardness of the new entrants, their reactions are contradictory and, going by the interviews with Mexican immigrants, veer from goodwill and cooperation to rejection and hostility.

Much of the negative attitudes can presumably be put down to insecurity that could stem from feeling that their acceptance in American society could be adversely affected by the buildup of negative perceptions in the face of continuing influx. Ochoa also documents the struggles the Mexican community has faced and is facing in preserving their language and culture from established institutional and social culture and their need for preservation of their cultural and social identity.

Horton’s book focuses on the emergence of diversity in politics in Monterey Park from one and a half decades (mid 1980s to late 1990s) of interaction between immigrants and native residents. Employing techniques like ethnography, the use of exit polls and interviews, Horton is able to represent the process of change, which encompasses the giving way of established networks of loyalty, the increasing importance of women, minorities and newcomers, and the makeover of identities.

Horton examines the municipal elections of 1988, 1990 and 1992 to show that voters made their election choices in the first 2 elections mostly on the basis of ethnicity. By 1992 feelings of ethnic solidarity appeared to have diluted significantly and voting patterns did not appear to move along ethnic lines.

Horton furthermore also investigates areas other than those concerning politics like civic organizations and social events to assess the results of interaction between the city’s multi-ethnic residents, and seeks to show that whilst ethnicity was an important political force, it was in a state of fluidity and was mined and modified for political advantage.

Elaborating on the divisive and essentially racist approach of the Slow-Growth and the Official-English movements, (Horton, 1997, 121) Horton also points out the importance of class stating that integration at Monterey Park was furthered because both native inhabitants and immigrants belonged to the middle class. The middle class resources of the newcomers and the middle class status of the established inhabitants helped in reducing differences between the two groups. This point is extremely valid; it reinforces the force of class as a divisive factor in society and its power to overcome differences in culture, traditions and ethnicity.

Based upon a wide range of data that comprised of reviews of newspapers, exit polls, interviews and eyewitness accounts, Horton compares the issues of ethnicity, immigration and race in Monterey Park with larger regional, national, and global contexts. Opposing the view that that cultural diversity will lead to disunity among American people, Horton makes the point that diversity does not inescapably lead to lasting competition and conflict (Horton, 1997, 182) and that moreover the politics of diversity based on alliances between different ethnic groups can bring about unity and harmony.

His effort is important for the analysis that interethnic politics lead to the redefinition of ethnic identities. A community is far more than a collection of individual humans with some common bonds or purposes, such groups being more appropriately described as associations. Communities develop mores and are characterized by a sense of self identity that comes about from a common and shared past as well as a collective vision of the future, an identification with the concept of “us” and “them”, and finally of collective thought and attitudes, (features of community characteristics that are brought out very clearly both by Ochoa and Horton).

Again communities need individuals to be integrated by principles, be active, and participate strongly in the pursuit of its interests. Communities, experts say, are united by an identifying principle, which represents the value, the ideal, and the good that the community revolves around for its sustained survival, and shapes the processes for assessing such principle.

With the establishment of the values and principles and the organization of the community requiring its members to participate in such processes, interaction between community members is dependent upon communication, an essential feature of community life that is destroyed through negation of the use of ethnic languages by assimilative processes. Communities require communicating to grow and consolidate. With humans living in communities by virtue of the things they share and possess, ideal communities are restricted in size and distinguished by strong communication between its members.

Globalization, migration, and assimilation of traits of other cultures obviously work against the strengthening of communication bonds between community members and affect its furtherance. The subject of globalization and its repercussions have come to the vanguard of socio-political debate and discussion, there being a growing concern that globalization, through its various manifestations, is wiping out communities and cultures and creating an ugly similarity all over the world.

Events like the protests against the WTO in Seattle during 1999, the objection to the entry of McDonald’s in various parts of the world and other insurrections, suggest that the concept of a unified world is not just difficult but also unwanted by many peoples. It however needs to be realized that the personal and cultural impact that globalization is having all over the world is as important as its economic impact. The creation of a global society actually needs diversity in its constituents, the diversity in a society adding to its novelty and, hopefully, to its ability to be flexible.

The integrating principle of a global society should not just reject sameness but should try to represent the views of all those involved in its creation and maintenance There is an increasing feeling that globalization can lead to the destruction of a myriad ethnic cultures in favor of one common culture, which most people feel will be predominantly Euro-American, considering the soft and hard powers of the western nations and their domination of global media.

In both La Puente and Monterey Park, the cultures of ethnic communities have been subjected to a fierce assault by the dominant culture, much of which is played out in schools and by the imposition of the English language. The all pervasive effect of American advertising and television programs is also seen as a strong culturally invasive force, not just with immigrant communities in the US but all over the world; the concern about loss of cultural identity and local uniqueness is substantial and is caused by the perception of the imposition of cultural hegemony through all possible means.

With globalization impacting the world at all levels, society, community, and individual, it is not difficult to foresee that the assimilation of individual cultures and unique community traits into the folds of the dominant community can have a negative impact upon community life. It however remains a fact that the homogenization of the world, as also of different communities in the United States, is happening at a fast clip, a phenomenon that is adversely affecting the independence, growth and sustenance of a myriad communities. A number of reasons are behind this decline in community life.

With globalization involving travel and migration of labor forces in large volumes from areas of deprivation and excess labor availability to those deficient in workforce and willing to pay for the same, it is become progressively difficult for communities to retain their distinguishing characteristics in the new areas that some of their members decide to make their homes in. Whilst increases in communication technology and cheaper air travel are making communication cheap and easy between people in different areas, the absence of direct face to face communication that existed in the past is bound to affect the integrity of community life.

Limited communication will not allow for the development of relationships to levels that are needed for the continuance of communities. Apart from the deterioration in 121 relationships, community spirits are also hurt by cultures of consumption, market cultures and the cultures of dominant communities, all of which lead community members, especially those who are young to conform to what they feel to be the most popular, acceptable and esteemed culture. Market cultures affect community life adversely, leading to the dominance of commodification and the decline of neighborhoods, communities and common links of history and tradition.

The adoption of the cultural mores and ways of life of the dominant community by immigrant communities is, in many cases, as highlighted by Ochoa, due to need for increasing the self esteem and self worth of members of immigrant communities. Such feelings in the minds of new immigrants are moreover reinforced by seeing people of the same community, who had come earlier, having already adopted the culture of sameness, and consequently lead to greater assimilation with dominant communities and submersion of individual community traits.

Homogenization of individuals into persons with similar behavioral and cultural norms arises from (a) environmental forces that do not appreciate and do not tolerate any deviation from accepted norms and (b) the erroneous notion that social or national unity requires all individuals to follow the same culture; much like the concept of organizational culture in the private sector. A nation or a society is however significantly different from a private sector corporation and such notions lead to the creation of utmost confusion over concepts of homogeneity and unity.

Strong unity, most policymakers and intellectuals assert, comes from the affirmation of diversity in the context of similar objectives. Homogeneity in fact leads to dogma, intolerance, prejudice, and divisiveness and works against the concept of unity and effective progress towards common goals. Diversity has time and again been shown to be associated with the successful working and goal attainment of most groups of people.

Communities and larger societies thrive on diversity and the underlying objective for the achievement and establishment of a beneficial structure, concepts and ideas that cannot progress in the absence of tolerance for other ideas and perspectives. The necessity of changing with the times is critical for all communities and larger societies. Globalization is also steadily eliminating the sense of responsibility necessary for the growth, purpose and consolidation of community life, with most community affairs being decided by state or national governmental bodies, and even by large corporate organizations.

All this as well as the process of assimilation is leading to the steady deterioration of community life and the construction of associations that are characterized by sameness to the exclusion of oneness in the reinforcing presence of diversity. Lack of diversity, tolerance, and communication, leads to the stifling of communities. In actual fact, the concept of a truly global society allows communities to grow and flourish; it takes strength and sustenance from their various inputs and features, even as it strives for the achievement of common and not selective good.

Such a society will work optimally only after the striking of a proper balance between the needs of globalization and the dominant and minority communities in areas of political, social and economic activity. Whilst globalization does not appear to be a reversible phenomenon, actions need to be taken to ensure that it is not allowed to destroy the notion of community. Both the studies, by Ochoa and Horton, reveal that whilst immigrant communities come under enormous pressure in early years, such strains disappear with the progress of assimilation.

Although most community members show mixed approaches to the process of assimilation, resenting the taking away of the characteristic features of their life and at the same time wishing to be held in esteem by members of the dominant host community, the preservation of communities depends greatly upon the tolerance and openness of establishment members and the extent to which they are ready to respect the uniqueness of newcomers in their midst.

Assimilation can actually instead of leading to unity result in a false sense of sameness, and such societies, which press for the establishment of sameness rather than diversity, can lead to the suppression of growth and sustenance of communities. Conclusion The continuance of communities in a fast globalizing world, as is evidenced from the foregoing discussion, depends to a large extent upon the tolerance and open-mindedness of dominant communities.

Whilst most communities are formed over the ages and are by nature extremely resilient, excessive fragmentation, migration and exposure to more politically and economically powerful cultures that are furthermore negatively disposed towards alien communities can put such communities under immense strain and lead to irreversible changes.

Horton makes the point that modern day society, whilst containing elements of dogma and intolerance, are by nature receptive to the concept of multi ethnic structures; they are open to being shaped by and responding to external influences, and to the creation of freer and more vibrant social structures. The concept of a globalized world allows communities to retain their distinguishing and reinforcing features, even while it strives for the betterment of the common good.

The successful progression of such social structures work towards the advantage and benefit of the many communities that sustain its diversity and multifaceted nature and it becomes the responsibility of all individuals to ensure that diversity is not sacrificed at the altar of sameness. Communities are critical to the successful progression of human society; they facilitate the establishment and sustenance of bonds between humans at elemental levels, lead to joint and cooperative action for the betterment of society and to the continuation of different identities and cultures that have grown over centuries.

Such features of diverse and multiethnic societies need to be valued and not extinguished by narrow and insecure parochialism and the desire to create a globally similar society. Unthinking efforts to assimilate separate cultures and extinguish their unique characteristics in favor of the establishment of uniformity can lead to nothing but the detriment of globalization efforts and society needs to be ever vigilant against such regressive tendencies.

Recognizing the impact of globalization on communities and making of concerted efforts to preserve them is an imperative for the establishment of a truly globalized society and should be a priority of leading world societies. Globalization need not lead to the decline of community. Shifting of short sighted perspectives will help in the preservation, sustenance and growth of unique communities and to the diversity and strength of a truly globalized society.

References

Ochoa, G.L, (2004), Becoming Neighbors in a Mexican American Community: Power, Conflict, and Solidarity, University of Texas Press

Horton, J, (1997), The Politics of Diversity: Immigration, Resistance, and Change in Monterey Park, California, Temple University Press

In the world we are living in organizations are faced with risks and threats due to introduction of technology and thus for organizations to succeed in their operations they need to train their employees so that they can overcome these risks and threats. Training involves using an experienced person to inform, teach and to convey information to the audience so that they can acquire the necessary skills and knowledge that would enable them to perform their effectively in their organizations. If people in the organizations are trained they become satisfied with the work that they are doing and this improves their morale.

With the effective training employees can not leave their organizations because training it enables them to have the relevant skills and knowledge needed to perform their activities effectively. The image of the company can improved when the training is conducted because the employees in the organization become motivated and they enable them to talk about the positive side of the company. When an organization conducts training it enables it to develop strategies that can help the organization to achieve its objectives since training enables one to acquire new ideas of running and managing the operations of a company.

It also helps a company to manage its finance effectively since training ensures that the management determine the issues that are cost effective thus it reduces the expenses of the company. In case of a public company which is a business organization, it is owned by the shareholders who contribute money known as capital. This capital is used to finance the operations of the business and incase the organizations may lack some funds to run their businesses they can borrow funds from the commercial banks and International bodies such as International Monetary Funds and the World Bank.

The company is usually run by people known as the directors they ensure that the operations of the company are run effectively, incase the companies receive profits at the end of their financial periods they can distribute the profits in form of dividends to the shareholders and in other cases their can retain some of their money in reserves so that they can be able to do other business affairs such as expanding the company to meet the needs of the customers of the company. http://www.businessballs. com/training program evaluation.html

In companies there are many people who are employed, some of whom may be recruited directly from college and thus may lack the necessary experience to run the affairs of the company, others may have the experience to run the company but may lack relevant experience to run the affairs of the company thus there is a need to train all its employees so that they can gain the relevant experience that is required to run the company’s affairs effectively.

The company can develop in house training program this program is usually designed to suit the needs of the company’s its allows the employees to train and develop their skills without moving from their working environment thus it saves on time and money since the employees don’t need to travel from one place to the place in order for them to acquire the knowledge and skills of running the company successfully.

This training program is designed to train employees of a manufacturing company that produces horticultural products . The Company has more than one hundred employees who are trained on how to handle the product carefully because they are manufactured for export purposes and thus safety precautions must be taken because the products are manufactured using poisonous chemicals since act as preservatives and enable the product to last for a longer period of time without getting spoilt.

The Coastal Recursor Humanos is a communications computer company that sells the leading safety training videos ,cd-roms,interactive safety training programs ,safety handbooks,trairning toolkits and safety posters thus the horticultural company can access this facilities so that it can effectively train its customers on how to handle this products.

The company can identify its training needs by obtaining information from the employees of the company about problems that they experience in the company such as poor working environment that can affect the performance of the employees for example if there is inadequate working area for the employees to work on or if the employees may be under paid or over worked this can affect their performance thus the in-house training program can enable the management to address the problems of the employees of the company and they can thus take the necessary measures to rectify the problems of the company . A training need of the can be identified through looking at the position of the economy, if the economy of the country is performing well then the management need to train their employees frequently so that they can be able to cater for the demands of the customers .

When the economy is performing properly the circulation of money is usually high and this leads to high demand for goods and services thus the need for the management train to it employees on how to handle the employees , but if the economy of the company is not performing properly the training program activities of the company can be reduced due to lack of the necessary resources to develop the program since for the program to run effectively it needs money to purchase the training videos ,training tool kits and the training safety posters from the Coastal Recursors Humanos communications company and money to hire the trainers is required to cater for their wages and salaries http://www. businessballls. com/freeonlineresources. htm .

The management of the company can develop its program by establishing the training mediums that can ensure that it achieves its objectives this include internal mediums the company can access the information about improving the operations of the business by consulting the employees themselves, they can give the management the reasons why they are not performing and thus identify the problems in the organization thus a good program can be developed and structured to meet the needs of the employees in their workplaces . The management can acquire information from other parties who are not employees of the company to gather information about the policies that need to be implemented so that the company can run it activities effectively thus this can sharpen the companies effectiveness and can help improve its performance.

The training materials that can be used by the management of the company are templates, samples, resources such as articles, tools and diagrams they can provide information to help the company employees understand its operations they contain detailed information about the structure roles and responsibilities of the employees this act as a guide of how the company has been designed and thus it makes it ease for them understand the activities of the company. http://wwbusinessballs. com/workshops. htm The training materials can be created by the experts of the programs they can do this by determining the needs of the company that need to be addressed . They need to outline the skills that they intend to teach .

The skills need to be divided into groups and then into steps so that the necessary time can be allocated to the tasks that need to be urgently addressed. Once the steps have been prepared and all the necessary information that needs to be tackled by the experts of the programs they should design the presentation perfectly so that all the relevant information that needs to be conveyed to the employees is done effectively. http://wwbusinessballs. com/workshops. htm The management of the company can deliver its training through workshops that entail team building, communications, motivation, and planning these can empower the employees of the company to work more effectively since it enables them to acquire the necessary information that is needed to run the affairs of the company effectively.

Training can be delivered through conducting in-house training, by creating a tailored course and by recognizing informal training this helps the company to reduce its expenses, helps the management to deliver its information to the employees effectively and reduces wastage of time and money since the information that needs to be conveyed is always within the reach of the employees of the company. The effectiveness of a in house training program can be evaluated by the top management who ensure that training program is carried out effectively. They also ensure that training plans are properly documented so that they can give the management the direction of conducting their business.

There are evaluation materials that a company can use so that it can determine how it performs its activities these are end –of- program validation method, feedback process and follow-up instruments they determine what the employees have learnt in their in house training programs ,they give the employees time to reflect on the all that they have learnt and also enables them to apply all that they have learnt during the training section . The evaluation questionnaires can be used to evaluate whether the objectives of the company have been applied. The employees of the company need to prepare action plans so that they evaluate whether they have understood all that they have been taught in the in- house training program, incase they have not applied the necessary techniques of carrying out their activities then they can take the necessary measures to implement them.

The in-house training program for the company can be sustained through establishing long-term goals and then implementing the goals of the company so that there can be consistency in carrying out the activities of the company. The management should be involved in the development of the program since they can ensure that all the necessary information that needs to addressed is followed and finally implemented The goals of the company can be sustained if the companies results show some improvement, if the results of the company don’t improve then the management can either rectify the program or they can develop another programs that can suit the needs of the company.

An in-house training program can be enforced by the managements company through ensuring that all employees who don’t comply with the rules and regulations of the company are dealt with accordingly such as they may be punished so that they can comply with the rules and the regulations of the company. The in house training programs can bring high performance to the company because if the management of the company addresses the problems that have been identified by the management and the employees of the organization then the company can operate successfully. If in the in- house training program the trainer is able to identify the unique potentials of the employees and then be able to illustrate how the employees would be assigned with tasks they are familiar so that they can perform effectively then this can be a good sign that the in-house program is effective.

Introduction

Second language education has become a necessity in the modern world for refugees, immigrants, international students, individuals requiring advanced second language skills in their occupations and those receiving education or vocational training in a language other than their mother tongue (Long, 2005). The growing reliance on effective second language teaching programs has led to the need for more accountability in this educational environment and as such, has necessitated the evolution of the needs analysis as a means of curriculum and teaching development. The term ‘needs analysis’ or ‘needs assessment’ typically refers to a process of information gathering for the purposes of curriculum development to suit the needs of a particular group of students (Iwai et al, 1999). The effective use of a needs analysis in curriculum development will require three processes of inquiry. The first will be to understand what elements are required for an effective and efficient needs analysis, which will focus on what type of information is relevant for a needs analysis of this nature. This involves a thorough understanding of the relevant literature and purpose of a needs analysis. The second element will require correct implementation of the gathered knowledge. This requires an educator to be able to actually retrieve this information about their students. An important consideration in the implementation of a needs analysis is the highly subjective nature of the teaching environment. English as a second language may be taught in vastly different circumstances world over and as a result of this, the needs of learners may vary greatly according to these demographics. Consequently, there is a difficultly in applying a standard model of needs analysis due to the vast amount of variables in these circumstances. The final process will be to analyze the demographic of students and to develop the curriculum accordingly. This process is however generally met by restriction, as an individual needs analysis for the purposes of curriculum development is often not possible and therefore the implementation of the needs analysis may be reserved for selection of appropriate teaching methods and materials instead. The scope of this paper therefore will be to examine the evolution of means of conducting needs analysis, the relevant factors and considerations, as well as the essential elements for needs analysis primarily focused on the teaching of English as a second language. “Every language course should be considered a course for specific purposes, varying only in the precision with which learner needs can be specified” (Long, 2005: 1).

Traditional Methods and Development

The earlier methods of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) involved teaching in with use of the traditional grammar-translation method, however due to changes in the nature of psychology and linguistic studies that characterized the 1980’s, alternative methods focusing on different skills within language teaching developed, such as audiolinguilism (Malmir et al, 2011). The 1980’s saw support for the Communicative Language Teaching (CLP) rapidly increase which professed to have communicative competence as the central goal in language teaching (Richards & Rodgers, 2001). “One of the most important phenomena of language learning-teaching process is to make students reach the intended language level in a shorter time and in a better way” (Malmir et al, 2011). To this extent, language teaching places a strong emphasis on acquiring information that will better help educators to understand the needs of their students to reach the goal of competency in most the most effective manner available. For most educators in these teaching environments, needs analysis will be informal in nature. This is to be contrasted to what can be described as formal needs analysis which is a relatively new concept in the field of language teaching (Iwai, 1999). Informal needs analysis however aims to assess what language points the particular students need to master (Songhori, 2008). The earliest development of a needs analysis model, the Communicative Syllabus Design (CSD), was pioneered in the late 1970’s and although heavily criticized, still has some relevance in modern second language teaching (Munby, 1978). This Munbian model of needs analysis is still considered as socio-linguistic base for language teaching as it takes careful account of language, culture and communication purposes, however lacks the important link with actual syllabus design (Le Ha, 2005). This is so because the Munbian model does not account for classroom dynamics, resources and activities in the implementation of the assessment. Plainly stated, Munby appears able to account for the relevant important factors essential in effective language teaching, however fails to apply these methods or recommend application as they apply for syllabus and course design. Despite these limitations however, the application of the Munbian model has been applied in numerous course designs and is credited for its contribution to the field of ESP teaching (Hawking, 1980). There is undoubtedly relevance for this type of model in course design as it requires the superficial or abstract needs of the students; however the actual needs of the students may still be explored by the educators and to this extent a more critical approach for needs assessment has developed taking account of these indicators or variables.

Needs Analysis: Elements and Challenges

Critical vs. Descriptive: The Jigsaw

The purpose of the needs analysis in second language education needs to be clear: to survey the students to gather information on their background and goals, linguistic and behavioral demands, and preferred learning and teaching strategies (Jasso-Aguilar, 1999). This should provide a useful insight into what the needs of the students are, what they are trying to achieve through their second language education and what their preferred methods of learning are. The practical implications of consideration of this kind of information will have a vast effect on the teaching outcomes of the course as it may shape material design, learning strategies and classroom dynamics. It effectively takes account of the functional needs of the students and may well give a strong indication of the expected performance of those students in the course (Eslami, 2010). It must be emphasized that the process of needs analysis is on-going and calls for constant surveillance and improvement on course design (Purpura & King, 2003).

It is highly important in conducting these analyses that one defines the needs or necessities of the students, as apart from their expectations and what they want. A critical needs analysis focuses on the current state and aims to bridge the gap between the necessities and the desires of the student. It constantly aims for improvement and is far preferable to a descriptive needs analysis for this very reason and acknowledges that informal needs analysis is equally important in improving educational outcomes taking account of the subjective needs of the students (Eslami, 2010). The difference between a critical approach and a descriptive approach to needs analysis can be explained by reference the Needs Analysis Jigsaw (Appendix A) (Songhori, 2008). A critical approach will take note of the Present Situation Analysis and the Target Situation Analysis, with the aim of reducing the disparity between these two situations. The proposed Jigsaw as a combined method of analysis also takes into consideration the individual subjectivity of the students needs through the means analysis, learner needs analysis and deficiency analysis. These subjective elements, when combined with the descriptive elements of the Jigsaw will help to determine essential factors relevant to the second language education of the students.

Descriptive Elements

The Jigsaw represented in Appendix A is a proposed amalgamation of needs analysis models in second language teaching (Songhori, 2008). As noted, there cannot be a standard needs analysis for all teaching situations due to the variety and difference in demographic varying so greatly. The proposed Jigsaw with regards to needs analysis is therefore highly persuasive as an approach as it allows comparison between different models using the strengths of each to form a thorough and individualized analysis model. The Jigsaw takes account of more descriptive elements of the needs through Register Analysis which takes account of grammar and vocabulary needs of the students. This may take account of certain language and vocabulary trends, which emphasizes the important of flexibility in course structure and design, as even these formal elements will change with current social climate. This can be contrasted to the Discourse Analysis, which is similarly focused however utilizes the purpose of the speaker as the defining characteristic, rather than current trends in lexicography (Robinson, 1991). Within the realm of descriptive analysis, one also finds a model based on genre which, like the discourse analysis, recommends language, grammar and vocabulary used based on purpose, i.e. the genre of the language course such as institutional academic or professional setting. Transference of these models into practice would clearly require some kind of assessment of the purpose of the student’s language studies, particularly in the realm of second language learning.

It is often emphasized in literature that these methods of analysis have proved to be complementary rather than exclusive (Songhori, 2008). Some even go so far as to argue that a competent needs analysis will affect the most important element of the ESP-type language courses, namely material design and selection (Shamsaee & Shams, 2010). Amongst the many stated advantages of correct material selection is the interplay between this selection and the immediate needs of the students. The importance therefore of a correct means of needs analysis is highly important in terms of practical considerations and therefore the actual academic model used becomes less important than the outcome thereof.

Practical Considerations and Implementation Strategy

The main practical restraint on the implementation of a needs analysis in these learning environments is that often educators will have little impact on the actual syllabus or curriculum design. The nature of second language English courses particularly are generally quite defined and have been tried and tested over time. Often these language courses will take care of the purposive part of the analysis as they may be offered with a defined outcome, such as a business language course for example. However for the vast majority of adult education second language courses, it could be suggested that an initial information seminar between educators and students take place. This could be used as an introductory lesson where students have the opportunity to interact with their educator on their expectations, desired outcomes and preferred teaching methods. In many cases, this could be included as a kind of questionnaire before tuition begins. Songhori (2008) through his advocation of the Jigsaw, suggests that there is no one model of needs analysis, however Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998: 125) suggests a unified approach that will seek to answer the following practical considerations:

It is debatable how the best method of gaining this information would be possible, particularly if one considers the typically overburdened workload of teachers generally. The best case scenario would allow the educator to have a consultation with every student in the beginning stages of the course. This would allow the educator an opportunity to personally assess the student. It is suggested that forms of written questionnaires would not be as effective as these students may not speak the same basic language as the educator and therefore information could be misinterpreted. However, these questionnaires would serve as a useful alternative to these private consultations, as teachers may not have time due to large student-to-teacher ratio.

Standard Content

Much of the needs of the students may possibly be gained by standard information that is already available to the educator. Very often, second language courses are designated in terms of the proficiency level of the students, grouping students with similar skill levels together (beginner, intermediate, advanced, etc). By so grouping students together in this way, it may negate the need for a skills assessment by the educator. Issues of culture and nationality will also need to be considered, particularly in methods of communication, personal and environmental needs. This too is available to educators by way of class demographic information that will be available through the education institution. Ways of determining material design and selection can be simplified by use of this information however this could be problematic considering the following two scenarios. Second language English teaching in Kuwait for adult learners would result in a certain cultural intake of people from a similar nationality, religion, education level and even possibly gender and age. Having a standard intake of students from similar demographic, would make material design and selection comparatively simpler as there is a limited perspective to consider. Contrast this however to a second language English teaching program in London, England. As an English speaking nation, the class will be likely to represent immigrants of various nationality, ages, education levels, gender, etc. It is in such a scenario more difficult to predict the type of cultural idiosyncrasies that may exist in such a situation.

However this also has an impact on the types of materials that are available for students to learn from, such as authentic material sources e.g. television, radio and newspapers. Additionally, this may affect the way that students learn. Geography, often indicative of nationality and culture, therefore is very important in a needs analysis and depending on the exact specifics of this information, more or less private consultation with students may be required to obtain the necessary and relevant information for the needs analysis. Fortunately, for educators in situations such as our example of teaching in London, these tend to be courses with private tuition and therefore the teacher-student ratio is more favourable potentially allowing more occasion for interaction with one’s students in the beginning of the course and by holding such consultation with students in the beginning stages of tuition, educators will be occupying time that would otherwise be taken up by course work marking later on in the academic term. The importance however of gaining this subjective information from the students, howsoever this is effected is a vital part of an effective needs analysis as it will give critical insight into the most effective means of communication and educational strategy (Eslami, 2010).

Conclusion

It is clear that there is no particular academic consensus on the best approach to a needs analysis in second language education. Indeed, the most recent literature on the topic advocates different positions and an amalgamated outcome-based approach to determining a needs model (Benesch, 2007). It is clear that the educator needs to have a sound knowledge of the purpose of the course, the particulars of the students and an analytical and flexible approach to course design in order to be affecting the most favourable outcome. This information can be gained in a number of different ways, not least of which is the information required by education institutions for enrolment in a certain course. This can give biographical data on the students, such as nationality, race, religion, gender, age – all of which have important cultural bearing on the study of English as a second language. Having been given this information, an educator then should have the discretion to decide if they require any further information, where after they may seek private consultation with the student if necessary. By following this approach to a needs analysis, the educator will be using the information available, therefore not spending unnecessary time on certain students where this information may not be the most relevant, and can streamline the on-going process of assessment of the students. It is highly important to realize that the most relevant factor in needs analysis is the ability to have a flexible approach to teaching style, as the needs of the students may develop over time or be varied greatly necessitating the adoption of a highly flexible teaching method. Alternatively, this topic may prove to be a useful tool for teaching in the foundation phase of the course as it could form the basis for a lesson in itself to encourage interaction with the other members of the class, as well as with the educator. This has the potential for a positive effect on the classroom dynamic, which in itself is an important factor in a good needs analysis.

References
Benesch, S. (2007). ‘Needs Analysis and Curriculum Development in EAP: An Example of a Critical Approach’ TESOL Quarterly, 30(4), pp. 723-738.
Dudley-Evans, T. & St John, M.J. (1998). Developments in English for specific purposes: A multi-disciplinary approach. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Eslami, Z. (2010). ’ Teachers’ Voice vs. Students’ Voice: A Needs Analysis Approach

to English for Acadmic Purposes (EAP) in Iran’ English Language Teaching, 3(1), pp 1 – 11

Hawkey, R. (1980). ‘Needs analysis and syllabus design for specific purposes.’ In H.B. Actman and C.V.James (eds).Foreign language teaching: meeting individual needs. Oxford: Pergamon, pp 81-93
Iwai, T., Kondo, K., Lim, D., Ray, G. Shimizu, H. & Brown, J. (1999). Japanese Language Needs Analysis [pdf] Manoa: University of Hawaii. Available at [Accessed on 18 May 2012]
Jasso-Aguilar, R. (1999). ‘Sources, methods and triangulation in needs analysis: a critical perspective in a case study of Waikiki Hotel maids.’ English for Specific Purposes, 18(1), pp 27-46.
Le Ha, P. (2005). ‘Munby’s needs analysis model and ESP.’ Asian EFL Journal , 6 (1). [e-journal] Available through Asian EFL Journal Online. [Accessed on 18 June 2012]
Long, M. (2005). Second Language Needs Analysis Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Malmir, A., Sarem, S. & Ghasemi, A. (2011). ‘The Effect of Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) vs. Content-Based Language Teaching (TBLT) on the Iranian Intermediate ESP Learners Reading Comprehension’ Iranian EFL Journal, 7(6), pp 79 – 94
Munby, J. (1978). Communicative syllabus design.London: Cambridge University Press.
Purpura, J. & King, G. J. (2003). ‘Investigating the Foreign Language: Needs of Professional School Students in International Affairs.’ Working Papers in TESOL & Applied Linguistics, 4 (1), pp 1-33.
Richards, J. & Rodgers, T. (2001). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Robinson, P. (1991). ESP today: A practitioner’s guide. Prentice Hall, U.K: Prentice Hall International (UK) Ltd.
Shamsaee, S. & Shams, M. (2010). ‘ESP Teachers’ Pedagogical Agenda vs. University Students’ Educational Agenda A Needs Analysis Project’ Journal of Technology and Education, 4(4), pp 267 – 273
Songhori, M. (2008). ‘Introduction to Needs Analysis’ English for Specific Purposes World, 4, pp 2 – 25

Appendix A: Needs Analysis Jigsaw