Dune

There are six main physical types of dunes which rely on the position of the system in relation to the direction of the shoreline. Three of these being spits, offshore islands and nesses project towards the sea and are generally extending seawards. They are characterstic where the prevailing wind is offshore so in England would be the East Coast. The other three types which are bay dunes, hind shore dunes and machair are found found where the prevailing wind is onshore so a constantly being driven back on to the land behind the shore by the wind and are found on the west coast.

Dunes are known as sub-maritime coastal habitats as they are not plagued by occasional flooding and are not very salty. Dunes can very in size greatly with the height increasing over 25 meters on some coasts and can vary greatly in width and length.

Dune Vegetation

Dune vegetation varies according to stability, moisture content and calcium carbonate content of the sand the dune is made up of. In order for vegetation on the dunes to grow plant succession has to occur. Marram grass colonises the dune (fore dunes) and spreads its tuberous roots just under the surface of the sand, and forms an underground web that helps hold the sand in place. Though marram grass stabilizes the soil for its own survival, an inadvertent side effect is that it makes it possible for other kinds of vegetation to begin to take hold. Other plants take advantage of the increased stability of the soil surface and start to colonize areas the marram grass helped make safe

Embryo Dune Formation

Sand is blown onshore from exposed beaches at low tide. As the wind slows due to obstacles on the land being met the sand is deposited. Large amount of sand are deposited just beyond the highest water mark. This is due to the friction occurring where drift line vegetation is growing and by the accumulating sand deposits present. Eventually low sand hills build up on the shoreline and slowly move inaland.

These embryo dunes become colonized by Agropyron Junceforme which can tolerate saline apray, posses’ a large root system allowing more binding of the sand and rapid growth to avoid burial by the sand. The embryo dune vegetation increases sand deposition and they hills increase in size and advance further inland and develop into first fore and then yellow dunes.

Fore Dunes and Yellow Dunes

Above the driftline and embryo dunes there is often a seaward strip of low dunes with an open growth of plants still tolerant of short immersion during especially high tides. These fore dunes grade into main dunes further inland where Marram grass is the main colonist encouraging the growth of the dunes upwards. This grass is and efficient dune builder but does not form a layer of litter or bind the sand surface so later erosion occurs.

As the colonists have made the sand more stable forther vegetation now grows such as Calystegia soldanella. This grows in the sand between the marram tussocks. Many species of plans which find a coastal niche also appear as open sand colonists. Some of these grow on mainly calcerous dunes, but the effect of varying lime content of the sand becomes more obvious as a closed vegetation develops and stabilization is accompanied by leaching.

Fixed or Grey Dunes

A vegetation of low growing grasses, lichens and mosses are present at this stage. Where contains less lime the characterstic species which occurs amongst the marram are red and sheeps fescue. Lichens such as Cladonia impexa also may become abundant

Dune Heath and Dune Pasture

The oldest and most stable parts of the non-calcerous dunes are eventually invaded by dwarf shrubs. This forms a heath which approaches that of many inland lowland areas with sandy soil. Lichen heaths also develop with species such as cladonia impexa growing in great abundance in dwarf shrubs, it is also possible for bracken to become abundant in this area and large areas of it may develop.

During the early stages of closed sward formation marram may remain very abundant, but with further development of the succession it gradually thins out and eventually disappears. The development of the dwarf shrub heath is also marked by the sand surface becoming acidic and the formation of an acidic humus layer.

Further development involves a thickening of the grassy swardm extension of these herbs into the moss and lichens, and the dissapearance of species such as marram grass. Rabbits can be numerous on these undes and their grazing can produce a close cropped species rich area hardly distinguishable from that on many inland grasslands.

This report will also include the decision making processes considered by the management (both local and state), as well as the descriptions of their actions/ strategies, and thus the results of their polices. The Allocations site of interest, Collator beach is located in the suburbs of Northern Sydney, In the state of New South Wales, Australia. Collator Is part of the local government area of Warring Council and part of the Northern Beaches region. Collator is well known for its excellent surf beach which Joins with Narrate Beach in the north and Long Reef and Dee Why Beach in the south.

Also in close proximity is the Dee Why Lagoon as well as the Long Reef Head. Collator beach is the most highly capitalized shoreline in the Warring local government area, featuring beachfront houses and apartments built on the edge of the sand including the famous Flight Deck Apartments. Geographical Processional erosion is the loss of land along the shoreline due to the natural removal of beach and dune material In response to changing wave and water conditions.

Buildings and facilities located within the ‘active’ beach system, or areas subject to coastal erosion can be undermined and may even collapse. Approximately 60 percent of the NEWS open coastline is characterized by sandy caches. These beaches are dynamic environments undergoing continual cycles of erosion and accretion in response to the action of tides, wind and waves. In many places, existing foreshore development has been built within the ‘active’ beach system and is at risk from coastal erosion.

The extent of beach erosion during a particular storm event depends upon a variety of factors that wave conditions and elevated water levels generated by the stormed most prominent of these processes involves waves and the currents that they generate, along with tides Waves are generated by wind blowing over a odd of water and are ultimately responsible for the construction and erosion, as well as transportation of beach sediments. FIFO a wave is called a swash while the outgoing tide is called a backwash.

Swell waves are more powerful and cause erosion, whereas sea waves are less violent and encourage deposition. Large swell waves are usually accompanied by a storm, and the swell may become big enough to be classified as a ‘king tide’. A king tide’ arrives at Narrate-Collator Beach once or twice annual and has a devastating effect on the beach, eroding the beach until a near vertical erosion scarp is exposed. The sand than is deposited offshore to form a sand bar. Immediately following coastal erosion events on sand beaches, a near vertical erosion scarp of substantial height can be left.

If buildings are located close to the vertical erosion scarp, they may be at-risk of structural damage. Instability of the escarpment may pose a hazard to beach users following storms with recorded instances of children and beach users buried by the collapsing sand face. ;The presence of rip cells rip cell is a area with a strong surface flow of water returning seaward from near the shore). It is often called a “rip tide” However along with water returning seaward, much of the beach sediments are eroded as well helping to hasten the process of erosion. The condition of the beaches condition of the beach is also a factor in the severity of the erosion. The condition of the beach is determined by the amount of erosion that has occurred on the beach at that state of time. One indicator of condition is the identification of the beach profile. A beach which possesses a relatively large amounts of sand in the incipient dune, as well the stability of the fore dune, are in a re-storm form. A beach that has been recently eroded by a storm has a storm profile.

The features of a storm profile are the erosion of incipient dune and the exposure of the near vertical erosion scarp, near the fore dune of the beach, as well as a large offshore bar. This beach would therefore have a storm profile. A beach in which the sea waves have gradually restored the sand to the incipient dune from the sandbar, as well a stable fore-dune are the tell-tell signs of a post-osteoporosis. A beach which is in better conditions is more suited to fight sand erosion, while a second wind’ of a storm after the beach being in a storm profile could be devastating for the beach. The condition of dune vegetation which can influence the volume of sand in the dunes which help to buffer the effects of storm irresponsible sand dunes play an important part in protecting the coastline. They act as a buffer against wave damage during storms, protecting the land behind from salt-water intrusion. This sand barrier allows the development of more complex plant communities in areas protected from salt-water inundation, sea spray and strong winds. The dunes also act s a reservoir of sand, to replenish and maintain the beach at times of erosion.

When people build homes or resorts on beaches, the buildings interrupt this natural may build. In the diagram below the red line shows the extent of the danger zone. Key Interest Grouper’s key interest groups involved with the issue of the erosion of Collator include groups such as Sydney Coastal Councils Groups, which have criticize the non-actions of the Warring Council to set up a plan in the long term, instead focusing on short term relief such as sand replenishment, which CSCW deems as unsustainable in the long run. However, CSCW may be the only interest group targeting the issue.

However when it was announced that the sea wall was planned for construction two other peer groups, Surf rider Foundation Club, as well as the local Collator Surf Club Joined in action to stop the construction of the seawall. Decision Making Processes find a solution for the erosion of Collator Beach was a complicated process involving decision making and assistance in many levels. The NEWS and Commonwealth government provided assistance to Warring Council by roving material to help it construct an effective Management Strategy.

Material included in this state and commonwealth package Included 1990 the NEWS Government released its Coastline Management Manual, a guideline to help local council’s development, Coastal management plan by them. It also provided Commonwealth inquires such as reported on’ The Injured Coastline’ and’ The Coastal Zone Inquiry’. In 1993 the Warring Council set up the Warring Coastal Committee which has various stakeholders as members including: a WAC councilor, A NEWS Gobo Rep, a Surprised Rep, a SOLS Rep, Beachfront and other Local residents.

This diversity in the committee instead of Just containing members of the council helped to foster unbiased views on the opinions of the stakeholders as well increase the community involvement which helps to better serve the purpose of the community, making the ideas of the community in which is ultimately the council’s purpose anyway. The Committee meets once every two months to advice Council on the next action to stop the erosion. In August 1997 the Collator/Narrate Coastal Management Plan was adopted. Throughout this process and before any major strategies are implemented the public are invited to comment and provide community feedback.

However there have been criticisms of the committee as consensus-based Coastline Management Plan was pursued by Council but not achieved, with strong differences of opinion emerging within the community, and between the Warring Coastal Management Committee and Counterargument Actions and Strategies (and Consequences)There have been many different management strategies that could have been implemented to protect from or at least slow down the effects of erosion, enough to guarantee the safety of the dwelling.

Preliminary studies reviled that the existing rock seawalls are not strong enough to withstand a major storm. There are two long term solutions to this issue. They are voluntary purchase of high risk dwellings, and the protection of the beach through the building of a seawall or an erosion problem temporary solution involve minor to moderate sand nourishment, which are used in conjunction with either of these actions. The sand comes from the mouths of the Dee Why and Narrate Lagoons.

The management strategy of repurchasing high risk single homes has been a popular strategy amongst those whom want to protect and enhanced the recreational amenity of the beach. This method was successful back in 1945 when the council bought back 7 houses that were damaged by the storm. However in recent years, the price of backside property skyrocketed with high demand, and the strategy is currently not economically feasible at this point in time. With an average home in 2005 located on the fore dune of Collator Beach coasting a whopping 2. 7 million- the plan is estimated to cost more than 100 million dollars.

Even though the Tate government is willing to match the contributions the state government made, this strategy if implemented could take anywhere between 50 to 100 years to purchase every single home that is in the high risk zone. The alternative strategy is to develop a seawall on the beach to protect the property located on the fore dune. The sea wall would be approximately 1 km long and will be sufficient to protect the fore dune from collapsing. However the cost of the sea wall cheap in comparison to the ‘repurchase’ strategy costs approximately 11 million dollars to build.

In addition, the council expects at least 40% of the 11 million to be paid by the owners of the units, making it an unattractive deal for the residents. The seawall is also not environmentally friendly either. It is known for speeding up the process of erosion, as the energy of the storm waves is not absorbed but reflected, meaning the backwash will be stronger, and eventually the shore profile will retreat, removing what’s left of the beach. However this idea also seems to be out of reach, as after the successful “Line in the Sand” community protest in November 2002, the nuncio voted 4 months later not to proceed with the sea wall option.

So with the ‘repurchase’ strategy unlikely, and the seawall not likely to be built, how is the council going to solve the problem. Right now, the plan is to get by on minor beach nourishment from the mouth of Narrate and Dee Why Lagoons for now, while the council investigates new strategies, with the help of newly implemented coastal imaging cameras on top of Flight Deck. One of the new strategies being investigated includes an artificial surfing reef, which is basically a seawall underneath the water to amplify the surf.

There are two long groynes here. These are really effect at doing their job. Although it is not clear from the image how well these work, if you go there you will see it quite evidently how well they do their jobs. In some areas with long groynes, there have been large parts of beaches rebuilt. They are made out of rubble in order to slow down the weathering caused by the waves hitting the groynes. These work by stopping sediment from being dragged across the shore by the effects of Longshore drift. Their sole purpose was to protect the beach what was already there but have surpassed expectations and added a lot of material to the beach.

For a clear understanding of all the different sea defences I did an evaluation of the effectiveness and Environmental (looks). Looking at the graph, there is no doubt that the groynes are effective at what they do. For the effectiveness they received the highest rating of 2. The size of the beach been restored back and the amount protected is a large amount. With a total mark of 3 from a potential 4, it is definite that the groynes are assisting in the protection of the beach. The groynes did lose a mark for the way they look aesthetically. Being a tourist destination it was important that Hengistbury Head is pleasing to the eye.

200m Gabion:

At the top, there is an image of the 200m Gabion which has been built at the South Cliff. The result of placing the Gabion here is not clearly seen but an explanation will be given. The Gabion at Hengistbury Head is a long cage which has been put in place to hold back the rocks that have been filled behind them. Also the cages absorb the force of the waves and hold back the material behind them. The Gabion is working brilliantly to protect the South Cliff. The people walking on the land at the top of the cage would not be able to walk there if it wasn’t for the Gabion.

The Gabion prevents slumping which stops the material falling onto the beach and keeps it in one steady place. The gabion stops the waves eroding the ground further down. There is a footpath which is not visible in this image. This footpath wouldn’t be there since the waves would have reached there if the Gabions weren’t built and eroded the rocks and made large cracks, making it dangerous to walk on. In the end the purpose of the Gabion is to stop the waves force reaching too close to the land and destroying it.

As a total score, the 200m Gabion faired quite well, but not too well. This is because of the -1 it received for its Environmental Score. After understanding how the Gabion works the picture displays more than clearly that the effectiveness of it is brilliant. It does what it is supposed to do more than perfectly. It has prevented the waves from reaching inland and in doing so ensured that the South Cliff remains safe. The Environmental Score for the 200m Gabion was very low. This is because it conflicts with the natural beauty at Hengistbury Head. This is because it is clear that it has been placed there and looks out of place at the Top of the beach.

Rubble Groynes:

This is a plan view of the East facing cliff and the groynes that have been built to prevent Longshore Drift. Unlike the other image, this image shows very clearly how the groynes have affected the beach. The red arrows point out the sediment that has been caught thanks to the groynes. It might not look like much but if you consider the material each groyne has picked up, it adds up a lot. These groynes have the same purpose as the gabion, i.e. stop he waves from eroding certain parts of the beach. The groynes prevent the waves from carrying beach material out to sea. This eventually builds up to a major part of the beach.

At the top there is a graph portraying the evaluation the gryones received. Since there were so many groynes present, I worked out the means by assessing each groyne then calculating the mean. The total score of the groyne is similar to other defences, but the other defences lost marks due to the way they look and at the same time gained marks from their effectiveness. The image does show that the groynes are working well, but there is more that needs to be taken into consideration.

Since the groynes are just piles of rubble, it is more than likely that a piece of rock will be taken out into sea by a strong wave causing the rocks on top of it to tumble and fall. It will also not be able to withstand the force of powerful waves. They could crumble during a storm completely. This defeats their purpose since they are most needed during storms since that is when most material is taken out to sea. Environmentally the groynes would have got a higher score if they were not so many of them present. The natural beauty of the East Cliff is questioned when so many of these groynes are built

Sand Dunes:

The sand dune at the top here is present at South Cliff. These are naturally occurring and have a wide range of sizes. They can be anything from small hills to huge mounds. They are most commonly found at the top of beaches. These are formed when winds lift the sand from the beaches surface and are blown to the top. The sands are caught by materials that come in their way such as driftwood. Over a long period of time, the sand keeps getting deposited in the same area. This eventually grows bigger and bigger and builds up into big mounds. These dunes are a perfect place for vegetation such as Marram Grass to mature and thrive successfully. Some wildlife might also be found to nest in these dunes. These dunes are extremely prone to erosion naturally as well as human contact. These dunes absorb the force from powerful waves keeping things behind them safe.

At the top you can see the sand dunes scored top marks, the best score compared to all the other sea defences present at Hengistbury Head. Because the dunes form near the cliff and are so big (in most of the cases), it protects it from erosion from the sea. Because of this I though the sand dunes deserved top marks for effectiveness. Since they form naturally it definitely deserved top marks for Environment as well. These dunes do not look out of place since they are formed from material that is found at the sea. They blend into the surroundings perfectly and add to the natural beauty of the South Cliff.

Causeway:

At the top here you can see an image of the causeway at the East Cliff. From the picture here you can see that the causeway is having no effect at all on the beach. It is just present there. It is a pointless waste of money, time and effort. It was put there in the intention to work like the gabion cages i.e. hold the east cliff back. Since the causeway was placed at a ridiculously low height there is no effect at all in preserving the beach.

The causeway has scored the worst compared to all the sea defences present at Hengistbury Head. It achieved an overall score of -3. As you can see from my above explanation there is no reason why the causeway should get a higher score. The causeway could possibly have been a great sea defence but the fact is that this was certainly not the right place for it. It got the lowest effectiveness score for this reason. Environmentally, I did not give it the worst possible score since looking at the picture carefully, if it wasn’t built there, some people could have difficulties coming down from such a tall gabion. It could possibly be used as a step from the top of the gabion to the beach surface. That is why I think it did not look that bad environmentally. The first time I saw it, I thought it was built for that purpose. Overall the causeway was a total waste of time, effort and money that could have been used for other ways of protecting Hengistbury Head.

Drainage Weir:

At the top you can see an image of the drainage weir present at East Cliff. The drainage weir looks like a waterfall. It is man-made and fulfils an important purpose. The purpose of the drainage weir is to drain out and down all the water (more specifically rain water) from the cliff to prevent it from becoming to saturated. If it ever does get over saturated the outcome could be major slumping. In this image you can see the drainage weir working at optimum. This is because the day we went, it was raining quite heavily. Vegetation grows very well next to the drainage weir due to the large amount of fresh water that flows from the top. Marram grass grows very well around it. The Marram grass also helps since it holds the sand together and stops it from eroding and falling. Looking at how effective it is in the weather this picture was taken in, it shows how effective it is.

The bar graph here shows that it is as effective as the sand dunes. It has also scored a 4 out of a possible four. The effectiveness is unquestionable as you can see in the above image. The sheer amount of water flowing down from the top shows its effectiveness. Without it, there would definitely be a problem with slumping. It also got top scores for environmental since it does look very good. Being a man-made object, it perfectly fits the environment and at the same time fulfils its purpose.

Gabion Cages:

At the top you can see an image of the gabion cages present at the East Cliff. If you look clearly at the image, you can see some sand at the bottom of the causeway. It is very clear that the gabion cages are doing their job. These gabion cages are filled with rocks just like the other ones. The gabion cages absorb the impact from the waves and holds them back, preventing them from reaching the east cliff and eroding it. They are doing exactly this but they are doing it well. They are stopping material being dragged into the sea and preventing erosion of the east cliff. The gabion cages have been placed on top of the causeway in order to have a much higher height. Also the causeway is not tall enough to protect the cliff. The cliffs have started to slump but the gabions have managed to drastically slow it down.

At the top you can see an image evaluating the Gabion Cages’ Effectiveness and Environmental. The total score being a 0 is not that good. The score was mainly affected by the Environmental rating, since it looked out of place completely and harshly affected the natural beauty of the Eat Cliff. Considering all this I decided to give it a -1 for an Environmental rating. It would have got a much better score if it wasn’t for the presence of the cages and ruining the final outcome, but removing the cages would allow the rocks to fall over. The gabion cages are definitely effective as you can see in the photo. But I still have it a rating of 1 instead of 2 since there is some material creeping over them. This is quite bad since over a period of time the Cliff could slump over the gabion cages.

Rip Rap:

At the image at the top you can see an image of the Rip Rap which is visible at East Cliff. Rip rap is basically a lot of rocks scattered along the beach in order to absorb the energy from very strong waves and breaks them before they reach the cliff base. This type of sea defence is very cheap to put into action but at the same time it is extremely effective. It is a very good way of reducing the damage that might have been caused if powerful waves were allowed to get to the cliff base. Because of its effectiveness it slumping caused by undercutting is very unlikely to occur and because of this expensive ways to reduce slumping can be not put in place too often. In the end the rip rap is a perfect all round way of defending the cliff base and reduces slumping.

At the top you can see an image of the Rip Rap’s (present as South Cliff) score for its defence evaluation. It got an overall score of 2 which it deserved quite fairly and is quite a good score anyways. I gave it a score of 1 for its effectiveness because there were not any excessive amounts of slumping at the South cliff where the rip rap was present. Environmentally the rip rap fitted in its environment and blended in quite well but since it was fairly obvious that the rocks were placed there since the boulders were quite large and they were not any visible cracks on the cliff big enough to fit any one of the large boulders. But it did blend into the surroundings very well. The natural beauty of Hengistbury Head was not affected by the rip rap.

Sea Wall:

The picture at the top is an image of the Sea Wall at Mudeford Spit. Sea Walls vary in size and materials in which they are made from. The sea wall at Mudeford Spit is made of large concrete slabs that have been laid on top of each other. They have been place next to the beach huts to protect them from all types of waves that could potentially erode the ground on which the huts are built on. They are barriers against weak and strong waves. Unlike some other sea other defences like the gabions, the wall does not absorb any of the waves but just prevents the waves from reaching far ahead up the beach.

The sea wall breaks the waves before they reach the huts, so even if they go above the wall the water will just spray on the huts. But if a tall and powerful wave does have the force to cover enough distance to reach the huts then it is very likely for the huts to get damaged since if it had enough force to reach up to the huts then it will definitely have enough to cause some serious damage. This is a problem because of the rather small height of the sea wall. But I think it is highly unlikely for a wave with that intensity to reach Hengistbury Head but due to the effects of Global Warming there can never be any assurance.

At the top you can see an image of the evaluation the Sea Wall received based on its Effectiveness and Environmental. Mudeford Spit’s natural beauty was already tarnished thanks to the littering, vandalism and beach huts but now thanks to the sea wall, the little left beauty has vanished. The Beach huts definitely stood out but kind of fitted into the area but this concrete slab wall does not fit in at all. It got an Environmental score of -2 for that reason. It did not deserve anything higher. I gave it a rating of 1 for its Effectiveness, because it definitely does what its suppose to do without any problems, but I didn’t give it a two since it would’ve have been better if it was higher. This would have made the beach huts feel a bit safer. But the huts are still standing strong because of the sea wall. The final score the sea wall received a -1. The environmental score dragged the score down a significant amount.

Beach Nourishment:

At the top you can see two images. Both of them are images of the equipment needed to perform Beach Nourishment. Beach Nourishment is a simple idea which entails taking sand from a source (usually another beach) and dumping it into the beach which requires nourishment. This process is important because although most of the sea defences might be working efficiently to tackle the beach erosion, there is still a lot of sand that is carried out into the sea because of the waves. It is sometimes needed in order to widen a beach.

This method doesn’t stop erosion but simply replaces what has been lost by the waves. It balances the amount of sand on the beach because the areas of the beach are unlikely to lose similar amounts of sand. By replacing the sand from the worst affected area it makes the beach look more pleasing to the eye. A problem with this method is that the sand needs to be continually replaced since the sand naturally on the beach erodes away slower than the sand that has been artificially added.

At the top you can see an image of the graph with the evaluation of Beach Nourishment. Beach Nourishment has also been awarded the top score with a four out of four. The Beach Nourishment is definitely an effective way of dealing with the wave’s strong backwash. It allows the artificially added waves to be carried out the beach rather than the natural sands. And for Environmental, it deserved a two because it just replaces what needs to be there. It makes the beach look more complete. The only environmental effect it has on the beach is to improve it.

Groynes:

The various groynes seen in the satellite image below can be found at Mudeford spit. Looking at the image below you can see just how effective these groynes really are. They are doing a fantastic job of stopping the sediment in the waves from moving down the beach. The sediment is being carried down the beach by nothing more then long shore drift. Although long shore drift created Mudeford spit it could also destroy it or make it so big that the harbour becomes closed. For these reasons these groynes have had to be put in place.

Looking at the bar graph above overall the groynes have done very well with an overall score of 3 out of 4. Environmentally on Mudeford spit because it is so crowded by beach huts I do not think that the vast amount of groynes effects the natural appearance of Mudeford spit. Nothing short of perfect describes the effectiveness of these groynes it is truly amazing how much sediment they have trapped over the years.

When the automotive industry was first founded many years ago it was all about providing transportation. People wanted a vehicle that would help them get around faster and assist them with their jobs and chores. Later, other vehicles were invented like sports cars and muscle cars where people had more fun and enjoyment driving. Some vehicles made a good impression on American automotive industry such as the “Meyers Manx”, a dune buggy created by Bruce Meyers in 1964 (Webster). Bruce Meyers developed the fiberglass dune buggy called the Meyers Manx.

Bruce decided to make the Manx after seeing a “water pumper” at Pismo Beach, CA. The “water pumper” was a heavy and crude version of a dune buggy. Bruce thought that he could make a light weight version that would be great on the beach and in the world of off-road racing, specifically at the Baja. Bruce succeeded in his goal by modifying a VW Kombi bus, popularly known as “Little Red Riding Bus”, which was equipped with wider rims and tires. He used his knowledge on boat building to make the body of the dune buggy using fiberglass. His first Meyers Manx design was named “old red” (“Our History”).

History Bruce Meyers was born in Los Angeles, California. In 1944, he served at the Navy where he survived an attack in Okinawa. After the war, he stayed in Tahiti where he spent his time building sailboats made of fiberglass. He then moved to Newport Beach, working on surfboards and boats, and trekking to Baja, Mexico. His knowledge on fiberglass and boat building greatly helped in building his own vehicles such as the Meyers Manx. When he first saw a dune buggy, he decided to re-design it into something that would not look like an old jeep.

Additionally, his dune buggy would also be an efficient vehicle for travel (Webster). In August 1966, Hot Rod – “everybody’s automotive magazine”, featured Bruce’s VW Beetle engine-powered dune buggy. The naked Beetle floorpan that he saw at Pismo Beach was now covered with lightweight fiberglass body. Everybody went crazy over it and words about Meyers Manx spread. His creation became popular reaching for about 6,000 vehicles of production (Temple). Imitations According to Hot Rod’s article “Return of the Manx”, Meyers Manx has been the most imitated car in the automotive history.

Hundreds of companies have tried copying Meyers Manx, while others tried reshaping the fiberglass. There were over 250,000 look a likes and near look a likes of Bruce’s buggy. Despite that, the uniqueness of Bruce’s dune buggy remains a trend. “When you create something with an original thought, and grace, and a sense of balance in its form and function, it’s timeless,” Bruce quoted on Hot Rod magazine (Temple). The imitation by various companies, both from US and Europe, caused a crash in profitability of Meyers Manx.

This opened the automotive market for other companies showcasing their buggy designs such as the Simca-based Shake buggy created by Carrozzeria Bertone. Buggy then became an influential vehicle especially in motor shows and as recreational vehicles (Hale 10. Pismo and nearby beaches has been the center for recreational activities for South Californians. People are used to drive over the sands with their jeeps. However, the usual jeeps were not as efficient as the buggy designed by Bruce Meyers. It is considerably lightweight with better tires and lighter body structure (Webster).

The influence of Meyers Manx has reached as far as Europe. This buggy which can travel even through the desert dunes is designed in such a way that even the youth would enjoy riding on it. It has been especially designed as off-road vehicle; but many were more astonished by its ability after winning the Mexican 1000. Even if it was patterned after the Beetle, Bruce Meyers did not fail in modernizing its design; not just a durable one, but also the stylish and sleek structure (Hale 8). Meyers Manx Bruce made his first vehicle for 18 long months.

He quit his job and worked full time on his Manx. It took him some time to finalize his buggy. His first Manx used a Beetle floorpan and engine, fiberglass monocoque bodies, with pedals, seats, windshields and lights components. His first Manx was sold for $995 until the demand increased, soaring the prize as high as $5000. However, the cost of producing one kit was expensive that’s why he re-designed it into a cheaper one, as low as $495 (Webster). Meyers did not realize that soon his business would expand until he moved to Newport Beach.

Joe Vittone, owner of EMPI – a VW company, offered a partnership with him yet he refused and made his way alone (Webster). Meyers Manx became even more popular when it was featured in famous magazines such as Hot Rod and Car and Driver. This brought a dramatic increase in the number of orders reaching over 300, but Meyers was unable to cover it all. The demand was very high that time. Meyers’ inability to produce all orders opened a chance for other companies worldwide to produce their own versions of a dune buggy.

Bruce came into battle fighting with these companies over patent infringement laws, but he lost. Nevertheless, Bruce was able to produce more than 6000 kits including 5,280 Manx, hundreds of Manx 2’s, 1000 Meyer Tow’ds, 200 Manx SR’s and 75 Resorters (“Our History”). Models Meyers Manx winning abilities, including 39 wins on slalom races, Pike’s Peak Hill Climb, and Baja off-road races, proved the buggy’s strength thus gaining more attention. Yet, Bruce never failed to improve his buggies for further expansion of his business. His second model was the Meyers Tow’d which become highly demanded.

It was equipped with evolved hood, fenders, engine cover and a soft-top weather protection. However, it did not beat the Manx even if it had smaller and lighter structure (“Our History”). Also, Bruce got into an accident after he entered a race using the Tow’d. He slammed the vehicle breaking its feet causing injuries on his left foot. He was delivered to the hospital after 22 hours of excruciating pain. It took him almost a year to recover from his injuries (Webster). Another model was produced, the Manx SR (Street Roadster). It was produced in order to halt imitators of Manx.

Just like the “old red”, it has a VW floorpan. It has an aerodynamic shape intended only for street use, using 13 fiberglass and metal pieces. Manx SR sold for about 500 kits. However, there are three other companies who also produced their SRs such as the Karma Coachworks, Heartland Glassworks and Manx Motors. Next to SR was the Resorter or Turista which were first sold in Puerto Rican hotel chains, others in Acapulco and Hawaii as vehicle carrier of tourists.. The Resorter has lower sides with fours seats. The Resorter offers an easier entrance (“Our History”).

Another design of buggy called Utility was produced where two were sold to the Los Angeles Country as Lifeguard buggies. The other was purchased by the California Forest Service. This buggy has a red bed for life-saving gears using a VW pancake engine (“Our History”). The last design on Meyers’ series was the Kuebelwagen, which used a full length floorpan. This was acopy of the car used in World Was II called German Desert Staff car. They only produced a single copy (“Our History”). By 1970, Bruce got involved in legal cases relating to tax and had losses then. Most surprisingly, the company went down in 1971 leaving Bruce with nothing.

By mid 70s to 80s, he got involved in different automotive works such as working in company producing convertibles and automobile restoration business. The Meyers Manx’s craze came into existence again in 1994 after Bruce attended a dune-buggy festival in France where he is greeted enthusiastically. His sixth wife arranged a club for dune-buggy owners (Webster). In 2000, he tried his luck by producing another set of Manx which he sold for $2000. For a month, he received 100 orders yet he is unable to adjust with the demands. In 2001 however, he made another modernized design which could accommodate four seats.

He used the same VW floorpan just like the Manx. He named it Manxter 2+2 (“Our History”). This model is an attempt to exceed the limitation if the Manx retaining its original appearance; but with modernized parts. This offers a complete seating opportunity for the whole family plus upgraded protection. Features include a removable dash cover, opening engine cover and an opening hood. Its engine has different level which is water cooled, fuel injected and turbo-charged. The Manxter is available in both “bar bones” kit for $5,395 and a standard kit for $7,500 (“Our History”).

Bruce Meyers felt the people’s need for another stylish, off-road vehicle that’s why he made another design called DualSport Manxter, with an aggressive appearance. The DualSport can use both VW engine and the water-cooled engines of the Subaru making it flexible for street and off-road use. The basic kit is sold for $9,975 only. The Manxter and the DualSport Manxter are the latest of Bruce Meyers’ which are now reviving the 60s craze for dune buggies (“Our History”). Works Cited Hale, James. The Dune Buggy Files: Past, Present, Future. 2005. November 11, 2007 <http://www.

amazon. com/gp/reader/1904788084/ref=sib_dp_pt/102-6951580-7892148#reader-link>. 8-12. “Our History”. 2006. Meyers Manx, Inc. November 11 2007. <http://www. meyersmanx. com/history. shtml>. Temple, Steve. “Meyers Manx – Return of the Manx: The Los Angeles Bruce Meyers Launches a New Version of an Old Favorite – the Manxter. ” Hot Rod 2007. Webster, Larry. “The Father of the Dune Buggy Rides Again – Features”. 2006. Hachette Filipacchi Media U. S. , Inc. November 11 2007. <http://www. caranddriver. com/features/11046/the-father-of-the-dune-buggy-rides-again. html>.

A stipulation for a successful shoreline Restoration undertaking is that all the parties involved have some apprehension of the coastal morphological procedures. They are so in a place to understand why the present state of affairs has developed and why certain solutions will work and others will non.

The followers should be considered in connexion with shoreline protection and direction undertakings:

• See the coastal country as a dynamic natural landscape. Make lone intercessions in the coastal procedures and in the coastal landscape if the involvements of the society are more of import than continuing the natural coastal resource.
• Appoint particular subdivisions of the seashore for natural development.
• Demolish inexpedient old protection strategies and re-establish the natural coastal landscape where possible.
• Minimise the usage of coastal protection strategies, give high precedence to the quality of the seashore resource, and concentrate on shore protection.
• Continue the natural fluctuation in the coastal landscapes.
• Restrict new development/housing close to the coastline in the unfastened uninhabited coastal landscape. Allow merely such installations, which require entree to the sea.
• Maintain and better the public entree to and along the beach, lawfully every bit good as in pattern.
• Reduce pollution and enhance sustainable use of coastal Waterss.

This leads to the practical guidelines for shore protection in connexion with seashore protection, shore protection and shore Restoration undertakings. They are mentioned in the following paragraph.

• Work with nature, for case by re-establishing a starving coastal profile by nutriment and by using site-specific characteristics, such as beef uping semi-hard headlands.
• Choose a solution which fits the type of coastline and which fulfils as many of the ends set by the stakeholders and the governments as possible. It is rather frequently impossible to carry through all ends, as they are frequently conflicting and because of budget restrictions. It should be made clear to all parties, which ends are fulfilled and which are non. The adviser must do it wholly clear what the client can anticipate from the selected solution ; this is particularly of import if the undertaking has been adjusted to suit the available financess.
• Propose a support distribution, which reflects the fulfillment of the assorted ends, set by the parties involved.
• Manipulate the rate and gradient of the littoral impetus rate and gradient by usage of a minimal figure of constructions. Preserve subdivisions of untasted dynamic landscape where possible. Let protection steps merely if valuable buildings/infrastructure are threatened. This policy will continue the natural coastal resources and the neighbouring subdivisions will have stuff as a consequence of eroding in the unprotected country.
• Secure transition to and along the beach.
• Enhance the aesthetic visual aspect, e.g. by understating the figure of constructions. Few and larger constructions is usually better than a batch of little constructions. Preferably allow merely undertakings which deal with an full direction unit/sediment cell and which have maximum shore protection. Individual undertakings tend to concentrate on seashore protection.
• Minimise care demands to a degree, which the proprietor ( s ) of the strategy is able to pull off. A stand-alone nourishment solution may at first glimpse appear ideal, but it will usually non be ideal for the landholders, as recharge will be required at short intervals.
• Secure good local H2O quality and understate the hazard of pin downing dust and seaweed.
• Secure safety for swimmers by avoiding constructions bring forthing unsafe rake currents. Avoid protected beaches as these give a false feeling of safety for hapless swimmers. Protected beaches at exposed sites tend to endure from sand pin downing in the sheltered country. If the H2O is excessively unsmooth for swimming, a swimming pool, perchance in the signifier of a tidal pool, is a good solution.
• Provide good beach quality by procuring that the beaches are exposed to moving ridges, as the moving ridges maintain the attractive sandy beaches. This will of class limit the clip when swimming is possible, but doing protected beaches frequently means safety jeopardies, hapless beach quality and hapless H2O quality.
• Be realistic and matter-of-fact, maintaining in head that the natural untasted coastline is utopia in extremely developed countries. Create little attractive locations at otherwise strongly protected stretches if this is the lone realistic possibility.

Overview of Types of Coast Protection, Shore Protection and Sea Defence

Protection of the seashore and the shore against the erosive forces of moving ridges, currents and ramp rush can be performed in many ways, and protection of the seashore and the backwoods against deluging adds even more types to the protection defense mechanism steps.

The pick of the step in a given state of affairs depends on the three primary conditions:

• The job (coast eroding, beach debasement or implosion therapy )
• The morphological conditions ( the type of coastal profile and the type of coastline )
• The land usage ( infrastructure/habitation, diversion, agribusiness etc. )

Some of the steps have chiefly one map, which e.g. is the instance for a revetment. It protects the seashore against eroding, but aggravates shore eroding. Beach nourishment, on the other manus, protects against seashore eroding every bit good as against shore debasement.

Management of the seashore

Dune stabilization

Dunes are a natural coastal characteristic on reasonably exposed and exposed seashores. Dunes are formed by the sand, which blows inland from the beach and is deposited in the country behind the coastline.

Background

During storm rush events, the pes of the dunes can be eroded but the dunes act as a really flexible buffer zone, which protects the backwoods from eroding and implosion therapy. The scoured stuff supplies stuff to the littoral budget understating the general eroding along the full subdivision of shoreline. During the storm and besides during more normal events, sand will be transported inland, sometimes in connexion with the formation of air current back streets in the dune row. After the storm, the damaged dune will bit by bit be built up once more, possibly somewhat more inland. This means that a dune Acts of the Apostless as a natural flexible seashore protection and sea defense mechanism steps. It moves backwards parallel with the gnawing coastline and at the same clip it maintains its signifier and volume every bit good as a broad beach. This is a natural quasi-equilibrium state of affairs. The eroding of dunes as a consequence of a terrible storm rush is besides referred to as dune eroding.

However, the natural balance will switch if the dune flora is damaged by croping or if beach-users, etc. bring forth excessively much traffic, etc. This may do the dunes to degrade ensuing in loss of the protection provided by the natural dunes. At the same clip the sand blowing inland causes assorted sorts of harm. Consequently, governments usually tend to protect dunes by modulating their usage.

In some instances governments have been really eager to protect the dunes by seting marram grass and puting fascines in the air current back street to pin down the sand. ( Fascines are the placing of pine or titivate subdivisions ) . This has, in some instances, resulted in a complete repair of the dune place and an unnatural growing in tallness. Consequently, the flexibleness of the natural dune is lost ensuing in a gradual disappearing of the dune due to eroding, whereby the protection, provided by the natural dune system, is lost.

Method

Fig. 1. Marram planting and the placing of spruce fascines in air current back streets ( Danish Coastal Authority [ 1 ] ) .

Planting marram grass and puting up spruce fascines for caparison of sand and sweetening of dune build up. Larger wind back streets can besides be filled unnaturally anterior to seting. However, as mentioned above, the protection should non be so comprehensive that it wholly fixes the dunes.

Newly planted flora in peculiar can be strengthened by utilizing fertilizer.

Restrictions for their usage can besides protect the dunes. Croping in dune countries is prohibited in most states, and governments frequently limit public entree. Such limitations may modulate the traffic in the dunes, e.g. by forbiding motor traffic. Different options are paved walk-to transitions in countries near parking tonss and fencing delicate freshly planted countries.

Functional feature

Dune stabilization is a sustainable protection step, heightening the natural protection ability of dune countries. It protects against moving ridge and storm rush onslaught and at the same clip it preserves the natural coastal landscape, if performed reasonably. Dune stabilization requires a planned and coordinated attempt.

Applicability

Dune stabilization is applicable on all coastal types where natural dunes occur. This is particularly the instance on reasonably exposed to exposed seashores with perpendicular to really oblique moving ridge ( air current ) onslaughts, types 1M to4M and 1E to 4E.

Artificial dunes are besides used as a sea defense mechanism construction.

Cliff stabilization

Coastal drops can be unstable due to the combined consequence of several factors, discussed in this article along with methods to brace them.

Background

Coastal drops can be unstable due to the combined consequence of several factors, such as:

Erosion of the pes of the drop caused by wave action and storm rush

Skiding or weathering of the incline due to geo-technical instability. The eroding of the pes of the drop usually initiates geotechnical instability, but the sliding/collapse can be of different nature depending on the geo-technical conditions of the incline. There are fundamentally three different state of affairss:

If the stuff is non-cohesive stuff, the weathering of the drop ailment usually occur at the same time with the eroding of the pes as a talus formation, which is the aggregation of fallen stuff organizing a incline at the pes of the drop.

If the stuff is a mixture of clay, silt, sand and bowlders, such as in the instance of moraine boulder clay, the incline can be really steep for a period due to the cohesive forces, but the incline will finally fall in. Smaller or bigger fractions of the drop will fall in connexion with groundwater force per unit area, frost impact or general weathering, or by skiding. Skiding will particularly happen in connexion with groundwater force per unit area.

If the stuff consists of fictile clay or silty clay, the prostration of the drop will be in the signifier of slides, which can travel far behind the top of the drop.

Weathering of the drop by air current conveyance of sand. This will be most marked if the drop stuff is sand ; nevertheless, besides exposed drops dwelling of other types of stuff can be eroded by sand blown over the drop from the beach.

Method

The basic cause of cliff instability is usually the marine eroding of the pes of the drop, extenuation of this is covered under the protection method: Revetment. Installing the revetment will except farther eroding of the pes, but at that phase the incline of the drop may really good be so steep that enduring and sliding may still happen. This can be counteracted by the undermentioned agencies:

• Artificial smoothing of the incline, if there is adequate infinite at the pes every bit good as at top of the drop for this. This will antagonize future uncontrolled weathering and sliding.
• Smoothing of the incline by make fulling with farinaceous stuff at the pes of the drop. This requires that there is sufficient infinite at the pes of the drop for the filling.
• Establish a flora screen on the drop. This can best be done by following the above-named smoothing of the incline. Good flora protects against enduring and groundwater ooze, and thereby to some extent against skiding
• Drain of groundwater. This can be used if the drop suffers from skiding due to high groundwater force per unit area and hapless drainage conditions. Horizontal and perpendicular drains can be used every bit good as the ordinance of the surface overflow.

Functional feature

Cliff stabilization presupposes that the pes of the drop has been stabilised. Stabilization counteracts the natural behavior of drops to skid and endure. Such an active drop is portion of the dynamic coastal landscape and should therefore in rule be maintained as an incorporate portion of this landscape.

Applicability

Cliff stabilization can be applied at all reasonably exposed to open seashores ; nevertheless, in order to continue the dynamic coastal landscape drop stabilization should merely be used meagerly. Continuing the active drop at dumbly populated seashores is usually non executable due to the limited infinite. Consequently, cliff stabilization is usually merely used when there is sufficient infinite in the backland to let some smoothing.

Repairing the coastline by constructions

Definition of Breakwater

A construction dividing land and H2O countries. It is designed to forestall coastal eroding and other harm due to beckon action and storm rush, such as implosion therapy. Breakwaters are usually really monolithic constructions because they are designed to defy the full force of moving ridges and storm rush. In pattern, breakwaters and revetments are synonyms.

Fig. 1. Examples of seawall constructions.

A breakwater is constructed at the coastline, at the pes of possible drops or dunes. A breakwater is typically a aslant concrete construction ; it can be smooth, stepped-faced or curved-faced. A breakwater can besides be built as a rubble-mound construction, as a block breakwater, steel or wooden construction. The common feature is that the construction is designed to defy terrible beckon action and storm rush. A rubble-mound revetment frequently protects the pes of such non-flexible breakwaters. A rubble-mound breakwater bears a great similarity to a rubble-mound revetment ; nevertheless a revetment is frequently used as a addendum to a breakwater or as a stand-alone construction at less open locations. An open butch, which has been strengthened to defy wave action, is sometimes referred to as a breakwater.

Functional feature

The about perpendicular breakwater, which was chiefly used in the yesteryear, had the unfortunate map of reflecting some of the moving ridge energy, whereby the eroding was aggravated, ensuing in accelerated disappearing of the beach. However, all sorts of breakwaters involve beach debasement as they are used at locations where the seashore is exposed to eroding. The breakwater will repair the location of the coastline, but it will non collar the on-going eroding in the coastal profile. On the contrary, it will to a varying grade, accelerate the eroding. It is rather normal that the beach disappears in forepart of a breakwater, and it will most frequently be necessary, after some old ages, to beef up the pes of the breakwater with a rubble revetment.

A breakwater will diminish the release of deposits from the subdivision it protects and will hold a negative impact on the sediment budget along next shorelines.

Applicability

A breakwater is a inactive construction, which protects the seashore against eroding and implosion therapy. Breakwaters were ( are ) frequently used at locations off exposed metropolis foreparts, where good protection was needed and where infinite was scarce. Promenades have frequently been constructed on top of these breakwaters. They are besides used along other less inhabited seashores, where combined seashore protection and sea defense mechanism is desperately needed. Breakwaters are chiefly used at open seashores, but they are besides used at reasonably open seashores.

Definition of Revetment

A revetment is a facing of rock, concrete units or slabs, etc. , built to protect a scarp, the pes of a drop or a dune, a butch or a breakwater against eroding by wave action, storm rush and currents. This definition is really similar to the definition of a breakwater, nevertheless a revetment does non protect against deluging. Furthermore, a revetment is frequently a addendum to other types of protection such as breakwaters and butchs.

Emergency Protection

The undermentioned article discusses exigency protection of seashores. Emergency protection steps are by nature rapidly built and non good designed steps.

Method

Typical edifice methods and stuffs are the undermentioned:

• Rock dumping. Without filter beds, frequently excessively steep and low, without proper toe protection, which means that they are unstable
• Sand sacking, sometimes supported by wooden hemorrhoids. Often excessively low and without toe protection etc. The cloth is non lasting, which means that such protection will fall in after a really short period
• Dumping of other sorts of material easy at manus, such as different sorts of concrete pieces, edifice stuffs, old tyres etc.

Functional features

Emergency protection steps are typically holding the undermentioned features:

• They are unstable and therefore non supplying proper protection
• They need changeless care and supply of new stuffs
• They are ever inactive, and promotes farther loss of beach
• They are botching the natural beauty of the beach
• They prevent transition of the beach
• They pollute the beach with unnatural elements, such concrete dust, bricks, gum elastic and plastic

Applicability

Private and public land proprietors are sometimes forced to “ build ” exigency protection at locations where “ unexpected ” eroding occurs. The exigency protection is installed in order to forestall farther harm to coastal installings. “ Unexpected ” can hold different causes as discussed in the followers:

Unexpected can be in the signifier of a rare of utmost event, such as a tidal moving ridge state of affairs or the transition of cyclone

Unexpected can be the development of ongoing eroding at locations where it has non been possible to supply financess for a proper and timely protection

Unexpected can be due to miss of cognition to coastal procedures and/or informations, whereby eroding seems to be unexpected despite the fact that it could hold been foreseen if proper monitoring and coastal probes had been practised

Emergency protection can to a great extent be avoided by proper monitoring, shaving and support.

Definition of Bulkhead

A bulkhead is a construction or divider used to retain or forestall sliding of the land. A secondary intent is to protect the seashore against harm from wave action.

The Magilligan Foreland is situated in the North West of Northern Ireland and comprises a triangular beach ridge plain that stretches from Downhill in the North East to Magilligan Point, which is the northernmost spit of the Foreland (Tillmann et al, 2015). It is the ‘largest coastal accumulation feature’ in Ireland (Wilson & Bateman 1987) covering an area of approximately 32 km² (Wilson 1996).

To the north is the Atlantic Ocean where the beach ridge plain ends in a series of dunes. Over the past fifty years extensive research has been undertaken and published on the archaeological, ecological, hydrological, geomorphological, pedological aspects of the Magilligan coastal system making it one of the most intensively studied Holocene coastal site in Ireland.

The Holocene geomorphological development of the area has been intensively reviewed and modelled by Carter (1975, 1982, 1986); Carter et al (1982) and Wilson and Carter (1984) with research undertaken on pedogenesis by Wilson and Bateman (1986); Wilson (1987) and Wilson and Farrington (1989). In recent years a more integrated approach to investigating the origins, characteristics, and management requirements of the complex has been undertaken by Carter and Wilson (1990), Orford et al (2003) and Tillmann et al (2015).

Factors that Influenced the Formation

During the post-glacial transgression (8000 to 9000 years B.P.) the sea flooded into the Foyle Valley. As the sea level fell due to isostatic and eustatic adjustment it initiated a major phase of coastal sediment deposition. The reduced wave base resulted in the onshore transfer of sand and this, together with a gradual reduction in the tidal regime of the Lough, caused the formation of a series of Atlantic shore parallel beach ridges. As the site grew with the addition of more beach ridges, the ridge depressions stabilised and peat and podzolic soils formed between 2500 and 1000 years B.P. creating a land surface which indicate a significant period of stability.

With the stabilizing sea level, the ridge building slowed and the Foreland began to be eroded on the Lough Foyle side which released sediment for redistribution by aeolian processes. These covered most of the inner surface of the foreland area. Along the northeast coast the dunes developed as sand was released by erosion of the beach ridge/dune system and was moved forward by onshore winds.

Temporal and Spatial Historical Changes

Carter and Stone (1989) have reviewed how a 15-year programme monitoring dune recession at Magilligan has highlighted both temporal and spatial contrasts in processes and morphology. The soft sedimentary coastal landscape system found at Magilligan represents a fast-responding and mobile geomorphic system that is highly sensitive to environmental change. Hansom (2001) has reviewed how the development of coastal systems similar to that found at Magilligan can be related to “fundamental changes over the Holocene and can be demonstrated at a variety of scales”.

It has been argued by landowners and others that over the years severe erosion has affected much of the Lough Foyle shore of the Magilligan Foreland with more intense erosion taking place on the Atlantic shore west of Benone. This has resulted in calls for engineered interventions to protect property. However, at the same time, photographic evidence has indicated that the distal extremity of the system at Magilligan Point is prograding with new foredune ridges developing.

Variations in the erosion of the Magilligan shore over short time periods are due to a complex interplay of climatic factors, particularly storm frequency and wind direction, tidal levels and wave refraction characteristics. Data from the Marine Institute’s East Atlantic SWAN wave model show the monthly mean wave period (seconds) for the area around Lough Foyle, Greencastle, Magilligan, and Benone for the period September 2016 to August 2017 reflects the two distinct wave/tide climates referred to in Carter (1975) and described by Carter et al (1982).

This has strongly influenced the morphological development of the site contributing to the negative feedback experienced with the region sediment budget and in particular influencing the erosion/accretion model of the subtidal ebb shoal. This supported by Carter (1979) who has detailed how the “beach ridge and dune development are directly related to erosion of the adjoining coastline and the efficiency of the sediment transport system”.

This evidence supports that the system at Magilligan experiences both spatial and temporal negative feedback whereby erosion is balanced out by accretion over a 30 to 40-year cycle (Carter et al 1982) resulting in a state of equilibrium – in the absence of new external factors (for example rising sea level as a result of global warming) this is likely to remain the case with the existing sediment budget continuing to be recycled.