English Language

Accept / Except Affect / Effect A Lot / Alot Allusion / Illusion All Ready / Already Altogether / All Together Apart / A Part Ascent / Assent Breath / Breathe Capital / Capitol Cite / Sight / Site Complement / Compliment Conscience / Conscious Council / Counsel Elicit / Illicit Eminent / Immanent / Imminent Its / It’s Lead / Led Lie / Lay Lose / Loose Novel Passed / Past Precede / Procede Principal / Principle Quote / Quotation Reluctant / Reticent Stationary / Stationery Supposed To / Suppose Than / Then Their / There / They’re

Through / Threw / Thorough / Though / Thru To / Too / Two Who / Which / That Who / Whom ACCEPT-to receiveex: He accepts defeat well. EXCEPT-to take or leave outex: Please take all the books off the shelf except for the red one. AFFECT-to influenceex: Lack of sleep affects the quality of your work. EFFECT-n. , result, v. , to accomplishex: The subtle effect of the lighting made the room look ominous. ex: Can the university effect such a change without disrupting classes? A LOT (two words)-many. ALOT (one word)-Not the correct form.

ALLUSION-an indirect referenceex:The professor made an allusion to Virginia Woolf’s work. ILLUSION-a false perception of realityex: They saw a mirage: that is a type of illusion one sees in the desert. ALL READY-preparedex: Dinner was all ready when the guests arrived. ALREADY-by this timeex: The turkey was already burned when the guests arrived. ALTOGETHER-entirelyex: Altogether, I thought that the student’s presentation was well planned. ALL TOGETHER-gathered, with everything in one placeex: We were all together at the family reunion last spring.

APART-to be separatedex: The chain-link fence kept the angry dogs apart. OR My old car fell apart before we reached California. A PART-to be joined withex: The new course was a part of the new field of study at the university. OR A part of this plan involves getting started at dawn. ASCENT- climbex: The plane’s ascent made my ears pop. ASSENT-agreementex: The martian assented to undergo experiments. BREATH-noun, air inhaled or exhaledex: You could see his breath in the cold air. BREATHE-verb, to inhale or exhaleex: If you don’t breathe, then you are dead.

CAPITAL-seat of government. Also financial resources. ex: The capital of Virginia is Richmond. ex: The firm had enough capital to build the new plant. CAPITOL-the actual building in which the legislative body meetsex: The governor announced his resignation in a speech given at the capitol today. CITE-to quote or documentex: I cited ten quotes from the same author in my paper. SIGHT-visionex: The sight of the American flag arouses different emotions in different parts of the world. SITE-position or placeex: The new office building was built on the site of a cemetery.

COMPLEMENT-noun, something that completes; verb, to completeex: A nice dry white wine complements a seafood entree. COMPLIMENT-noun, praise; verb, to praiseex: The professor complimented Betty on her proper use of a comma. CONSCIENCE-sense of right and wrongex: The student’s conscience kept him from cheating on the exam. CONSCIOUS-awakeex: I was conscious when the burglar entered the house. COUNCIL-a group that consults or advisesex: The men and women on the council voted in favor of an outdoor concert in their town. COUNSEL-to adviseex: The arole officer counseled the convict before he was released. ELICIT-to draw or bring outex: The teacher elicited the correct response from the student. ILLICIT-illegalex: The Columbian drug lord was arrested for his illicit activities. EMINENT-famous, respectedex: The eminent podiatrist won the Physician of the Year award. IMMANENT-inherent or intrinsicex: The meaning of the poem was immanent, and not easily recognized. IMMINENT-ready to take placeex: A fight between my sister and me is imminent from the moment I enter my house.

ITS-of or belonging to itex: The baby will scream as soon as its mother walks out of the room. IT’S-contraction for it isex: It’s a beautiful day in the neighborhood. LEAD-noun, a type of metalex: Is that pipe made of lead? LED-verb, past tense of the verb “to lead”ex: She led the campers on an over-night hike. LIE-to lie down (a person or animal. hint: people can tell lies)ex: I have a headache, so I’m going to lie down for a while. (also lying, lay, has/have lain–The dog has lain in the shade all day; yesterday, the dog lay there for twelve hours).

LAY-to lay an object down. ex: “Lay down that shotgun, Pappy! ” The sheriff demanded of the crazed moonshiner. ex: The town lay at the foot of the mountain. (also laying, laid, has/have laid–At that point, Pappy laid the shotgun on the ground). LOSE–verb, to misplace or not winex: Mom glared at Mikey. “If you lose that new lunchbox, don’t even think of coming home! “LOOSE–adjective, to not be tight; verb (rarely used)–to releaseex: The burglar’s pants were so loose that he was sure to lose the race with the cop chasing him. x: While awaiting trial, he was never set loose from jail because no one would post his bail. NOVEL-noun, a book that is a work of fiction. Do not use “novel” for nonfiction; use “book” or “work. “ex: Mark Twain wrote his novel Adventures of Huckleberry Finn when he was already well known, but before he published many other works of fiction and nonfiction. PASSED-verb, past tense of “to pass,” to have movedex:

The tornado passed through the city quickly, but it caused great damage. PAST-belonging to a former time or placeex: Who was the past president of Microsquish Computers? x: Go past the fire station and turn right. PRECEDE-to come beforeex: Pre-writing precedes the rough draft of good papers. PROCEED-to go forwardex: He proceeded to pass back the failing grades on the exam. PRINCIPAL-adjective, most important; noun, a person who has authorityex: The principal ingredient in chocolate chip cookies is chocolate chips. ex: The principal of the school does the announcements each morning. PRINCIPLE-a general or fundamental truthex: The study was based on the principle of gravity. QUOTE-verb, to citeex: I would like to quote Dickens in my next paper.

QUOTATION-noun, the act of citingex: The book of famous quotations inspired us all. RELUCTANT-to hesitate or feel unwilling ex: We became reluctant to drive further and eventually turned back when the road became icy. RETICENT-to be reluctant to speak; to be reserved in manner. Note that The American Heritage Dictionary lists “reluctant” as a synonym for “reticent,” as the third definition. For nuance and variety, we recommend “reticent” for reluctance when speaking or showing emotion (after all, even extroverts can become reluctant). ex: They called him reticent, because he rarely spoke.

But he listened carefully and only spoke when he had something important to say. STATIONARY-standing stillex: The accident was my fault because I ran into a stationary object. STATIONERY-writing paperex: My mother bought me stationery that was on recycled paper. SUPPOSED TO-correct form for “to be obligated to” or “presumed to” NOT “suppose to”SUPPOSE-to guess or make a conjectureex: Do you suppose we will get to the airport on time? When is our plane supposed to arrive? We are supposed to check our bags before we board, but I suppose we could do that at the curb and save time.

THAN-use with comparisonsex: I would rather go out to eat than eat at the dining hall. THEN-at that time, or nextex: I studied for my exam for seven hours, and then I went to bed. THEIR-possessive form of theyex: Their house is at the end of the block. THERE-indicates location (hint: think of “here and there”)ex: There goes my chance of winning the lottery! THEY’RE-contraction for “they are”ex: They’re in Europe for the summer–again! THROUGH-by means of; finished; into or out ofex: He plowed right through the other team’s defensive line.

THREW-past tense of throwex: She threw away his love love letters. THOROUGH-careful or completeex: John thoroughly cleaned his room; there was not even a speck of dust when he finished. THOUGH-however; neverthelessex: He’s really a sweetheart though he looks tough on the outside. THRU-abbreviated slang for through; not appropriate in standard writingex: We’re thru for the day! TO-towardex: I went to the University of Richmond. TOO-also, or excessivelyex: He drank too many screwdrivers and was unable to drive home. TWO-a numberex: Only two students did not turn in the assignment.

WHO-pronoun, referring to a person or personsex: Jane wondered how Jack, who is so smart, could be having difficulties in Calculus. WHICH-pronoun, replacing a singular or plural thing(s);not used to refer to personsex: Which section of history did you get into? THAT-used to refer to things or a group or class of peopleex: I lost the book that I bought last week. WHO-used as a subject or as a subject complement (see above)ex: John is the man who can get the job done. WHOM-used as an objectex: Whom did Sarah choose as her replacement? Back to ‘Commonly Confused Words’ or ‘Clarity and Style’Copyright 2010

Introduction The theme of the present paper is “The Present Perfect”. The main goal of the work is to identify the main features of the Present Perfect and to present the cases of its use, basing on the theoretical and scientific works of Russian, English linguists. The objectives of the work, in their turn, represent ascending steps to the main goal of the project: 1. to give the definition to the present perfect; 2. to present the ways of formation of the present perfect tense; 3. to investigate cases of its use in the sentence and in American and British English compare them ; 4. o draw the line of demarcation between the use of the Present Perfect and the Past Simple Actuality of the work is the significance of the present perfect tense in the English language. That is a linguistic phenomenon, which exists not in every language and which is replaced by other tenses while translated into other languages appears to be one of the main constituents of English grammar. Novelty of the paper lies in communicative approaches to linguistic analysis of the use of the present perfect tense aimed at acquiring the communicative competence.

Theoretical value of the paper is based on the analyzed data taken from the works of American and English prominent linguists. Practical value of the work may be useful in practical grammar or in a daily use. The course paper consists of 4 parts; Introduction, Main Part, Conclusion and Bibliography. The Main Part consists of 2 chapters. Thus, Chapter I of the present paper is devoted to the general remarks the present perfect tense and comprises 3 points: 1. History of the Present Perfect Tense 2.

The Formation of the Present Perfect 3. Differences between the Past Indefinite and the Present Perfect In this chapter we can find out general information about the origin of perfect tenses and the present perfect tense itself, and the ways of forming the present perfect, and the differences between the past simple and the present perfect in use. Chapter II includes 2 points: 1. The use of the Present Perfect in the sentence 2. Differences in use of the Present Perfect in American and British English.

This chapter is devoted to the practical side of the work. We investigate the use of the present perfect in the sentence and the differences of the use of the present perfect in American and British English. Chapter Two can be interesting with the presentation of peculiar characteristics of the use of the present perfect of two main trends of English: American and British English. The reason I chose the theme “The Present Perfect” was the situation of not having this tense in the for us familiar languages: Russian and Kyrgyz.

The Past Simple and The Present Perfect are replaced by only one tense in Russian called “????????? ?????”. The nature of this tense seems to be familiar for the learners of English at first sight, but there are many exceptions and special cases of their use. CHAPTER I: What the Present Perfect Tense is 1. 1 History of Perfect Tenses and the Present Perfect The Present Perfect is an analytical form which is built up by means of the auxiliary verb to have in the Present Indefinite and the participle of the notional verb (e. g. I have worked. He has worked, etc. The word “perfect” in the name came from a Latin root referring to the idea of completion—of being now finished—rather than to perfection in the sense of “no flaws” (although the latter sense of “perfect” actually evolved by extension from the former, because something [for example, a drawing or a piece of pottery] is finished when it no longer has any flaws). So perfect tenses were named thus because of the idea that (in some uses in some languages, at least) they referred to actions that were finished with respect to the present (for example, “I have eaten all the bread” involves a sense of finality).

However, as seen above, the name is a misnomer in the sense that not all uses of present perfect constructions involve an idea of completion. In Old English the verb to have, used as the predicate in the sentence, was sometimes followed by direct object with participle II of a transitive verb attached to it on the function of a predicative adjective. The participle agreed in number, gender, case with the direct object. He has that book written= ?? ????? ?? ????? ??????????. As the state of the object ( written) was the result of the accomplished action, the mind of the speaker began to be interested in he action. The construction did not show whether the action expressed by participle II was performed by the subject of the sentence or by some other agent. It was from constructions where the subject of the sentence was the doer of the action denoted by the past participle, that the modern English perfect form developed. The participle lost its form of agreement with the noun-object and changing its place (He has written), became closely connected with the verb to have. Both elements lost their independent meaning and merged into one sense unit –the analytical form of the Modern English Perfect.

He has written that book – the action of writing is accomplished by him at present and as a result of it the book is in a written state. Thus, what was originally a free syntactical combination has now turned into an analytical tense form. Such constructions, in which the doer of the action expressed by the participle was not the subject of the sentence, have still survived in Modern English as free syntactical combinations: He had three horses killed under him. I have my dress made here. Killed and made are still predictive adjectives to the direct object horses and dress.

In construction with the verb to be, participle II of an intransitive verb was used as the predicative to the subject with which agreed in number, gender and case, and the verb to be had the function of a link-verb in a compound-nominal predicate: He is ? ecumen = O? ???? ?????????. When to have and to be –forms turned into perfect, the verb to have began gradually to be used as an auxiliary verb with both transitive and intransitive verbs: I have seen her. I have come. As a survival of the old constriction, to be is still used when the state is stressed: May Fielding was already come; and so was her mother. Dickens) When he was gone, my mother asked me all about the day I had had… (Dickens)He is gone to the Leas… (Bronte) The present perfect is a grammatical combination of the present tense and the perfect aspect, used to express a past event that has present consequences. An example is “I have eaten” (so I’m not hungry). Depending on the specific language, the events described by present perfects are not necessarily completed, as in “I have been eating” or “I have lived here for five years. The present perfect is a compound tense in English, as in many other languages, meaning that it is formed by combining an auxiliary verb with the main verb. In modern English, the auxiliary verb for forming the present perfect is always to have. * I have eaten * You have gone * He has arrived In many other European languages, the equivalent of to have (e. g. , German haben, French avoir) is used to form the present perfect (or their equivalent of the present perfect) for most or all verbs. However, the equivalent of to be (e. g. German sein, French etre) serves as the auxiliary for other verbs in some languages such as German, Dutch, French, and Italian (but not Spanish or Portuguese). Generally, the verbs that take to be as auxiliary are intransitive verbs denoting motion or change of state (e. g. , to arrive, to go, to fall). In many European languages, including standard German, French and Italian, the present perfect verb form usually does not convey perfect aspect, but rather perfective aspect. In these languages, it has usurped the role of the simple past (i. . preterite) in spoken language, and the simple past is now really only used in formal written language and literature. In standard English, Spanish, and Portuguese, by contrast, the present perfect (perfect) and simple past (perfective aspect) are kept distinct. The Present Perfect form denotes an action completed before the present moment (and connected with it) or before a definite moment in the past or future. It is formed by means of the auxiliary verb to have in the required tense and Participle II of the notional verb 1. The formation of the Present Perfect 1. The Present Perfect is formed by means of the Present Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to have and Participle II of the notional verb. 2. In the interrogative form the auxiliary verb is placed before the subject. In the negative form the negative particle not is placed after the auxiliary verb. Affirmative| Interrogative| Negative| I have workedHe has workedShe has workedWe have workedYou have workedThey have worked| Have I worked? Has he worked? Has she worked? Have we worked? Have you worked? Have they worked? I have not workedHe has not workedShe has not workedWe have not workedYou have not workedThey have not worked| 3. The contracted affirmative forms are: I’ve worked He’s worked You’ve worked The contracted negative forms are: I haven’t worked He hasn’t worked You haven’t worked 4. The negative-interrogative forms are: Has she not worked? Hasn’t she worked? Have you not worked? Haven’t you worked? 1. 3 Differences in between the Past Indefinite and the Present Perfect It follows from the rules above that the Present Perfect is not used when there is an indication of past time in the sentence.

It is the Past Indefinite that is used in this case because the mention of the definite past time ties the action to the past- time sphere as it were, and it cannot break through to the present. e. g. “Put on your clothes at once and come with me. ” “But what is it? Has something happened? ” “I’m afraid so. Your husband was taken ill this afternoon. ” “M. Poirot, you have no idea of what I have gone through. ” “I know your wife died just over a year ago. ” Similarly, it is the Past Indefinite that is used in questions introduced by when. e. g.

When did you actually arrive? When did you change your mind? The Past Indefinite is also used in special questions beginning with where and how when they refer to the past events. The Present Perfect is not common here because the attention in such sentences is drawn to the circumstances of the action rather than to the occurrence itself, which means that the speaker has a definite action in mind. e. g. “Where did your uncle receive his guests? ” “Right here. ” “How did he get in? ” I asked, and Evans said, “Oh, he has a key. ” “Where is my hat?

Where did I leave my hat? ” Note. The question Where have you been? can be asked of the person who has just come. e. g. ‘Hello, Mum. I’m sorry I’m late” “Where have you been? ” In all other cases it should be Where were you! e. g. “Did the party go off nicely? ” “I don’t know. I wasn’t there. ” “Where were you? ‘ In special questions beginning with interrogative words other than those mentioned above (e. g. who, what, why, what … for and other), both the Present Perfect and the Past Indefinite are possible. The choice depends on the meaning to be conveyed.

If reference is made to an action which is past or definite in the minds of the people speaking, or if there is a change of scene, the Past In definite is used; if reference is made to an action which is still valid as part of the present situation, the Present Perfect should be used. e. g. “What have I done against you? ” she burst out defiantly. “Nothing. ” “Then why can’t we get on? ” “I know she gave him a good scolding. ” “What did he do? ” Looking up at her he said: “Dorothy’s gone to a garden party. ” “I know. Why haven’t you gone too? Why didn’t you speak to my father yourself on the boat? Note 1. As to general questions, the Present Perfect as well as the Past Indefinite may be found in them because they may inquire either about new facts which are important for the present or about events that are definite in the mind of the speaker. Note 2. In the following example the verb to be is used in the meaning ‘to visit’, ‘to go’. Hence it takes the preposition to after it. It is noteworthy that to be acquires this meaning only if used in the Present Perfect or the Past Perfect. e. g.

Renny said: “He has been to Ireland too” “Have you been to a symphony concert? ” he continued. Note 3. The combination has/have got may be used as the Present Perfect of the verb to get (which is not very common, though). e. g. I don’t know what’s got into Steven today. He has got into financial difficulties and needs cash. But it is often used as a set phrase which has two different meanings — ‘to possess’ (a) and ‘to be obliged’ (b). e. g. a) “Have you got a telephone? ” she looked round the room. “I don’t think we’ve got any choice,” said Francis, ) “No” he said loudly, “there are some risks you’ve got to take. ” “It doesn’t matter what caused it,” said Martin. “We have got to take the consequences” In this case the time reference also changes — has/have got is the Present Perfect only in form; it actually indicates a present state of things. Note 4. She is gone is a survival of the old Present Perfect which was formed with certain verbs by means of the auxiliary to be. In present-day English it is to be treated as a set phrase meaning ‘she is not here any longer’. CHAPTER II : The Use of the Present Perfect . 1 The use of the Present Perfect in the Sentence The Present Perfect falls within the time sphere of the , present and is not used in narration where reference is made to past events. It follows from that that the Present Perfect is used in present-time contexts, i. e. conversations, newspaper and radio reports, lectures and letters. The Present Perfect has three distinct uses. They will be further referred to as Present Perfect I, Present Perfect II and Present Perfect III. 1) Present Perfect I is the Present Perfect proper.

It is used to express an accomplished action which is viewed from the moment of speaking as part of the present situation. Attention in this case is centred on the action itself. The circumstances under which the action occurred appear unimportant and immaterial at the moment and need not be mentioned. e. g. He is very sensitive, I have discovered that. I’ve had a talk with him. He says he has all the proof he wants. Such news! We’ve bought a racehorse. “I’ve spoiled everything,” she said. His secretary said tactfully: “I’ve put off your other appoint- ments for a while. It should be especially noted that though the action expressed in the Present Perfect is regarded as already accomplished, it belongs to the present-time sphere and is treated as a present action. It becomes obvious from the periphrasis: I’ve heard the doctor’s opinion —> I know the doctor’s opinion. She’s gone off to the woods —> She is in the woods. A similar idea of an accomplished action is also traced in such expressions referring to the present as He is awake. I’m late. The work is done. The door is locked, etc.

Since it is the action itself that the Present Perfect makes im- portant, it is frequently used to open up conversations (newspaper and radio reports, or letters) or to introduce a new topic in them. However, if the conversation (report or letter) continues on the same subject, going into detail, the Present Perfect usually changes to the Past Indefinite, as the latter is used to refer to actions or sit- uations which are definite in the mind of the speaker. Usually (but not necessarily) some concrete circumstances of the action (time, place, cause, purpose, manner, etc. are mentioned in this case. e. g. “You are all right. You are coming round. Are you feeling better? ” “I’m quite all right. But what has happened? Where am I? ” “You’re in a dug-out, You were buried by a bomb from a trench-mortar. ” “Oh, was I? But how did I get here? ” “Someone dragged you. I am afraid some of your men were killed, and several others were wounded. ” “Pussy Cat, Pussy Cat, Where have you been? ” “I’ve been to London To look at the Queen. ” “What did you see there? ” “I saw a little mouse Under her chair. “

As is seen from the above examples, the Present Perfect is used to name a new action, whereas the Past Indefinite is used to refer back to a definite action and the attention in this case is often drawn rather to the circumstances attending the action than to the action itself. Note. The functions of the Present Perfect and the Past Indefinite may be in a way compared with those of the indefinite and the definite articles. The indefinite article is used when an object is just named (e. g. Glue me a book. She is a teacher. I have a brother).

Likewise the Present Perfect serves to name an accomplished action (see the examples above). Both the definite article and the Past Indefinite are used when an object or an action, respectively, is definite in the mind of the speaker (e. g. The book is on the table. The teacher returned the compositions,) As has been said, Present Perfect I is mainly used to introduce a new topic. But it may also be used to sum up a situation. e. g. “I’ve done bad things,” I said, “but I don’t think I could have done some of the things you’ve done. ” “You’ve so often been helpful in the past. “I’ve tried,” said Joseph. We’ve all been young once, you know. We’ve all felt it, Roy. “I’m afraid I’ve been horribly boring and talked too much,” she said as she pressed my hand. “Agatha has told me everything. How cleverly you have both kept your secret,” “You and your wife have been very good to me. Thank you. ” In accordance with its main function — just to name an accomplished action — the Present Perfect is generally used when [the time of the action is not given. e. g. He sat down. “You have not changed,” he said. “No? What have you come for? ” “To discuss things. “Mr ???? has told me such wonderful things about you. Walter. ” “I haven’t thought about it,” she returned. However, sometimes, even though there may be no indication of past time in the sentence, the Present Perfect cannot be used because reference is made to happenings which are definite in the mind of the speaker (either because the action has already been mentioned or because the situation is very well known to the listener). In this case the use of the Past Indefinite is very common. e. g. Did you sleep well? I didn’t understand you. Did you enjoy the play?

Did you have a good journey Did you like the book? (trip, ride, flight, day, time)? What did you say? Did you see the accident? Did you hear what he said? I’m sorry I lost my temper. I didn’t hear your question. It is possible, however, to use the Present Perfect when there is an adverbial modifier of time in the sentence that denotes a period of time which is not over yet, e. g. today, this morning, this week, this month, this year, etc. e. g. What Rosanna has done tonight is clear enough, (Tonight is not over yet. ) This year we have taken only one assistant. (This year is not over. I have had only one new dress this summer,” exclaimed June. (This summer is not over yet. ) Conversely, if the period is over or reference is made to a particular past point of time within that period, the Past Indefinite is used. e. g. “Did you see the letter in the “Times” this morning? (It is no longer morning. ) “No. I haven’t had time to look at a paper today,” (Today is not over yet. ) “Whom do you think I passed in Richmond Park today! ” (Today is not over, but the action took place at a particular point of time within today, namely when the person was in Richmond Park. “I wasn’t very well this morning, but I’m perfectly all right now. ” (This morning is over. ) Note. It should be noted that sometimes an adverbial modifier of place points to a past period of time. e. g. Did you see him at the theatre? (= when you were at the theatre) I ran into her in Oxford Street. (= when I was in Oxford Street) The Present Perfect may be found with certain adverbs of indefinite time and frequency such as just (‘?????? ???’), not … yet, already, before, always, ever, never, often, seldom, recently, late ly, of late, etc. e. g. She’s just missed being run over.

I haven’t even had coffee yet. He has never made a sixpence by any of his books. Have you heard of him lately? “What is the point? ” “I’ve made it clear enough before. ” However, the use of the Present Perfect is by no means obligatory with the above mentioned adverbs, because any other finite form may be used with these adverbs if it is required by the situation. e. g. He was studying to be a pianist, but he never touches the piano now. He noticed that the leaves of the chestnut were already beginning to turn yellow and brown. His room was not yet furnished, and he liked it to remain empty. Note 1.

Note the use of the Past Indefinite with just now. e. g. I told you just now I had never had time for much fun. Note 2. Russian students of English, under the influence of the Russian language, tend to use the adverb already nearly in every sentence containing the Present Perfect. That is not characteristic of the English language as it is sufficient to use the Present Perfect alone to express an accomplished action. The addition of already appears redundant in many cases. Present Perfect II serves to express an action which began before the moment of speaking and continues into it or up to it.

This grammatical meaning is mainly expressed by the Present Perfect Continuous. However, the Present Perfect Non-Continuous is found in the following cases: a)Its use is compulsory with stative verbs. e. g. I’ve known the young lady all her life. I’ve loved her since she was a child. “But we’ve been in conference for two hours,” he said. “It’s time we had a tea break. ” b)With some dynamic verbs of durative meaning the Present Perfect is sometimes used instead of the Present Perfect Continuous with little difference in meaning. e. g. “It’s a pretty room, isn’t it? “I’ve slept in it for fifteen years. ” “I’m glad to meet you,” he said. “I’ve waited a long while and began to be afraid I’d not have the opportunity. ” He’s looked after Miss Gregg for many years now. As to terminative verbs, they can only have the meaning of Present Perfect I and never of Present Perfect II. Since it is often difficult to draw the line between durative and terminative verbs, it is recommended that students of English should use the Present Perfect Continuous with all dynamic verbs to express an action begun in the past and continued into the present. )The Present Perfect is preferred to the Present Perfect Continuous in negative sentences, when it is the action itself that is completely negated. e. g. “Shall we sit down a little? We haven’t sat here for ages. ” “I was just having a look at the paper,” he said. “I haven’t read the paper for the last two days. ” “She hasn’t written to me for a year,” said Roy. It is noteworthy that Present Perfect II is associated with certain time indications — either the whole period of the duration of the action is marked or its starting point.

In the former case we find different time indications. Some expressions are introduced by the preposition for and sometimes in (e. g. for an hour, for many years, for the last few days, for a long time, for so long, for ages, in years, in a long while, etc. )- Other expressions have no prepositions (e. g. these three years, all this week, all along, so long, all oneys life, etc. ). e. g. The picture has been mine for years and years. I’ve felt differently about him for some time. “Why haven’t I seen you all these months? ” said Hankins.

We haven’t had any fun in a long while. I’ve wanted to go to the sea all my life. The starting point of the action is indicated by the adverb since, a prepositional phrase with since or a clause introduced by the conjunction since. e. g. “But, Dinny, when did you meet him? ” “Only ten days ago, but I’ve seen him every day since. ” The sun has been in the room since the morning. But she has seemed so much better since you started the injections. In the clause introduced by since the Past Indefinite is used to indicate the starting point of an action.

However, we sometimes find in both parts of such complex sentences two parallel actions which began at the same time in the past and continue into the present. In this case the Present Perfect is used in both clauses, e. g. I’ve loved you since I’ve known you. It should be noted that the indication of time is indispensable to Present Perfect II because otherwise its meaning in most cases would be changed. It would come to denote an accomplished action which is part of the present situation. Cf. I’ve been taught to do it for three years. I have been taught to do it. But we met him here about a month ago.

We haven’t heard from him since. We haven’t heard from him. Care should be taken to distinguish between the use of the Present Perfect and the Past Indefinite when the period of duration is expressed by a prepositional phrase with for. If the period of duration belongs to the past time sphere, the Past Indefinite should be used. It is only if the period of duration comes close to the moment of speaking or includes it that the Present Perfect is used. Cf. “I have lived like this,” he said, “for two years, and I can’t stand it anymore. ” “I teach History at a secondary school.

I went to the University here for four years and got a degree. ” The same is true of questions beginning with how long. “Are you married? ” “Yes. ” “How long have you been married? ” “Are you married? ” “No. I’m divorced. ” “How long were you married? ” 3) Present Perfect III is found in adverbial clauses of time introduced by the conjunctions when, before, after, as soon as, till and until where it is used to express a future action. It shows that the action of the subordinate clause will be accomplished before the action of the principal clause (which is usually expressed by the Future Indefinite).

This use of the Present Perfect is structurally dependent as it is restricted only to the above mentioned type of clauses. e. g. “You’ll find,” said Fred, “that you’ll long for home when you have left it. ” As soon as we have had some tea, Ann, we shall go to inspect your house. I’ll take you back in my car but not till I’ve made you some coffee. Sometimes the Present Indefinite is found in this type of clauses in the same meaning as the Present Perfect. The choice of the form depends on the lexical meaning of the verb. With durative verbs the Present Perfect is necessary. e. g. When you have had your tea, we’ll see about it.

I can tell you whether the machine is good or bad when I have tried it. With terminative verbs the use of both forms is possible, Cf. He says when he retires he’ll grow roses. When I’ve finished this I must go and put the baby to bed. Mother will stay at home until we return. “Your mother wouldn’t like me. ” “You can’t possibly say that until you’ve met her. ” 2. 2 Differences in Use of the Present Perfect in American and British English In British English the present perfect is used to express an action that has occurred in the recent past that has an effect on the present moment.

For example: I’ve lost my key. Can you help me look for it? In American English the following is also possible: I lost my key. Can you help me look for it? In British English the above would be considered incorrect. However, both forms are generally accepted in standard American English. Other differences involving the use of the present perfect in British English and simple past in American English include already, just and yet. British English: I’ve just had lunch I’ve already seen that film Have you finished your homework yet? American English:

I just had lunch OR I’ve just had lunch I’ve already seen that film OR I already saw that film. Have your finished your homework yet? OR Did you finish your homework yet? American English speakers do not use the present perfect for events that are still connected to the present. However, most Americans have a narrower perception of such connections than do other English speakers, particularly the British. For example, the British will say “have you had breakfast this morning,” but Americans will often say “did you have breakfast this morning. There is no difference in grammar; the difference is in the fact that Americans often think of the morning as being past history, whereas the British tend to see breakfast as still being part of the day, at least for a longer time than Americans do. Both groups use the past simple to describe things that they perceive to be unconnected with the present, and both groups use the present perfect to describe things that they perceive to be connected with the present. The difference is in the perception, not the grammar.

Some Americans may well use the present perfect, if that’s how they perceive the action in question. Conversely, some British speakers may use the past simple, if they think of the action in question as being isolated in the past. The important thing to remember is that, in many expressions, the choice between present perfect and past simple depends solely on what the speaker has in mind. If the speaker perceives something as being completely finished and unconnected to the present, he’ll use the past simple; if he still sees some sort of connection to the present, he’ll use the present perfect.

Two different people talking about the exact same thing may choose to use two different tenses to describe it. There are some cases in which one tense or the other is gramatically necessary, of course, but there are many cases in which both are acceptable. If you specify a particular time in the past, for example, you normally use the past simple (“I did it yesterday”). And if you say “I’ve lived here for a year,” the implication is that you still live here, whereas if you say “I lived here for ayear,” the implication is that you no longer live here.

Similarly, if a woman says “I’ve had two children,” things are going well, but if she says “I had two children,” it might be a good idea to change the subject. The distinction between present perfect and past simple is difficult to explain in terms of rules because the rules are quite complex. I usually explain it in terms of the speaker’s perceptions and via specific examples that illustrate the different ways in which the tenses can be contrasted. If someone says “John went to the movie,” it tells me several things. It tells me that John is not with the speaker, for example.

It implies that the speaker probably does not expect to encounter John while he is at the movie. It implies that nothing the speaker is doing right now is connected to John’s trip to the movie. If someone says “John has gone to the movie,” that, too, tells me several things. It implies that John’s trip to the movie is recent. It implies that something about John’s action is connected to some present state or action in the speaker’s mind (for example, she may be planning to join him, or she may be describing the reason for his absence in the present, as when answering the telephone).

In many cases, the choice between the two is almost arbitrary. In isolation, the present perfect sounds more recent, and/or implies that something may have happened more than once in the past, and implies a connection with the present somehow, but in many contexts these distinctions are unimportant. If someone answers the phone and is asked about John, she will probably say “He has gone to the movie,” but she might also very well say “He went to the movie,” particularly if she is American (Americans have a narrower perception of “present time” than do many other English speakers).

Conclusion After investigation of the theme “The Present Perfect Tense” I came to the conclusion that although the perfect tenses are called as the secondary tenses in the works of Russian scientists Ganshina and Vasilevskaya, it appears to be one of the main and indispensable constituents of the English language tense form. Every action leads to the results. Without results the action is not valuable. So the essence of using the perfect tenses is in expressing the results, consequences and the level of accomplishment and duration of the action.

The present perfect tense and its use follow the learners of the English language from the first stage of the learning and of a great importance on the same level as the verb ‘to be’ or there is/ there are constructions. So, on the basis of the theoretical and practical investigation of the use of perfect tenses in the works of prominent Russian and English scientists and within American and British fiction conforming to the examined theory, we have reached the following results of the research work: The Perfect form denotes an action completed before the present moment (and connected with it) or before a definite moment in the ast or future. It is formed by means of the auxiliary verb to have in the required tense and Participle II of the notional verb. The Present Perfect is used in the following cases: 1. The Present Perfect denotes a completed action connected with the present. 2. The Present Perfect is used in adverbial clauses of time after the conjunctions when, till, until, before, after, as soon as to denote an action completed before a definite moment in the future. 3. The Present Perfect denotes an action which began in the past, has been going on up to the present and is still going on.

In this case either the starting point of the action is indicated or the whole period of duration. The preposition for is used to denote the whole period of duration. Since is used to indicate the starting point of the action. If the conjunction since introduces a clause, the verb in this clause is in the Past Indefinite. In British English the present perfect is used to express an action that has occurred in the recent past that has an effect on the present moment. For example: I’ve lost my key.

In American English the following is also possible: I lost my key. In British English the above would be considered incorrect. However, both forms are generally accepted in standard American English. Other differences involving the use of the present perfect in British English and simple past in American English include already, just and yet. British English: I’ve just had lunch American English: I just had lunch OR I’ve just had lunch American English speakers do not use the present perfect for events that are still connected to the present.

However, most Americans have a narrower perception of such connections than do other English speakers, particularly the British. Bibliography 1. ?????????? ?. ?. , ?????????? ??????????? ?????, ??????, 1968, 227 ???. 2. ??????? ?. ?. , A Grammar of Present Day, ??????, ???????????? «???????????»,1990, 100 ???. 3. Greenbaum Sidney, Oxford English Grammar, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1996, 652 p. 4. Greenbaum Sidney, Quirk R. , Leech G. , Svartvik J, A University Grammar of English, Moscow, 1982, p. 158 5. Newsperson Otto, University of Grammar, Chicago and London, The

University of Banja Luka Banja Luka Faculty of Philology January 2013 English Language and Literature Seminar paper Topic: Noun phrase premodification by participles Student: Mentor: Jelena Galic Dejan Milinovic Table of contents 1. Introduction 2. Participles in premodification 2. 1. ed participle 2. 2. –ing participle 2. 3. The difference 3. Possible translations into Serbian 4. Conclusion 5. References 1. Introduction This paper will briefly explain participles on the morphological level and give examples for both of them (-ed and -ing participles). Then it will show how and when they can be used in different semantic and grammatical structures. During the explanation of their use in a sentence, it will also mention the differences between them, by what they are different and also the exceptions when they can be almost synonymous.

Of course, the translation of these structures, which are not common in most Slavic languages including Serbian, will also have to be explained. Sometimes it can be a word for word translation, but in most cases an additional effort is needed to translate the given structures. One of the aims of this paper is to introduce the morphosyntax learners to the possibility of using participles in noun phrase premodification. This is a rarely used syntactic possibility by non-native English speakers. Also, one of the aims is to show them how participles can be correctly interpreted and translated into Serbian.

And last but not least, we have to learn about noun phrase in general and especially about its constituents because it is the most complex and important phrase in the English language. 2. Participles in premodification Participles in general are words formed out of verbs and functioning almost exactly like adjectives. There are two types of participles that we are concerned with: the present participle (which ends with –ing and is used to create the present progressive tense and the past progressive tense) and the past participle (which ends with –ed and is used to create passive).

Of course, there are irregular verbs (such as go – gone, do – done, etc. ) which do not conform to these suffix rules, but the rules of using use are the same. 2. 1. –ed participle The past participle or –ed participle is often used in premodification and postmodification. It can be active and passive, but passive is far more used. For example: The passenger who has departed ? The departed passenger This first sentence cannot be transformed into the second one. Of course, there are exceptions. Some of them are: The vanished treasure A retired teacher Increased prices

However, if we insert an adverb, we can make a grammatically acceptable phrase: The recently-departed passenger A newly-born baby The latter example is also an example of statal passive or the passive of state (as opposed to the actional passive) which cannot stand without a modifying adverb unless it denotes a permanent feature of the noun, for example: A born musician A married man We also have participles that cannot be used with every noun. For example, we cannot say: He was a surprised person However, the following sentence is perfectly acceptable: He had a very surprised expression

In the first case, we cannot attribute “shocked” permanently to a person since it is hardly permanent, but with nouns such as “expression” or “look” we certainly can. An important thing to remember is that not all premodifiers ending with –ed are participles. Some are denominal words, i. e. they originate from nouns and not verbs at all, for example: A wooded hillside A flowered yard But some of these cannot stand alone and need a modifier: A green-haired monster A one-legged puppet On the other hand, we also have borderline examples: A trained dog / A well-trained dog

Here we can ask ourselves if the former phrase is semantically correct, since there is no concrete answer in linguistics. 2. 2. –ing participle Similar to –ed participle, the –ing participle can also be used in premodification and postmodification. However, -ing participle tends not to show permanence as opposed to –ed participle. When it comes to –ing participle, we also have difference concerning the use of definite and indefinite articles. While the indefinite article is usually connected to permanency, the definite article is connected to temporariness. Thus we may find this sentence a little bit awkward and the one after just ine: The approaching train is from Liverpool He was frightened by an approaching train. We can also use the definite article for some kind of generalization: The beginning student should not be encouraged that much. The participle here, although we have the definite article before it, shows us that this statement applies to every student who is a beginner in that particular field, not that it is about a certain student. The definite article can be intensified using the –ing participle after it, for example: A proposal offending many members = the offending proposal This intensifies both the noun and the adjective/participle. . 3. The difference Now, if we want to differentiate –ed and –ing participles, we can easily do that through these examples: I am very bored in class ? I am very boring in class The former sentence means that I find the class boring and the latter one means that I am boring, i. e. that I make people in class bored. In other words, -ed denotes a condition or a feeling and -ing denotes action or a characteristic of a person or thing. The best way to show the difference is to use both participles/adjectives in the same sentence: I am annoyed by how annoying that person is. She was confused by the confusing instruction.

Of course, it is unlikely that we will hear these kinds of sentences since these adjectives seem redundant in the same sentence, but they are good examples for this matter. Also, there are cases where participles in premodification show that the characteristic given to the noun is permanent or attached only to the time of speaking: We caught the falling tiles. The fallen tiles remained intact. In this case, the –ing participle shows simultaneity of the verb and the feature. However, in the second sentence it shows that the action has already finished when the noun gained the feature.

When it comes to differences, it is very important to remember that not all participle-like words are actually participles. At the beginning of this chapter it is stated that participles function almost exactly as adjectives. That is true but only to a certain extent. According to Laczko, there is no unique set of rules for analyzing participle-like premodifiers in a noun phrase: there has to be one for true –ing and –ed participles and the other one for participles converted into adjectives. 3. Possible translations into Serbian Translating is one of the skills that are pretty hard to master.

Not everyone is a born translator. However, some things follow a pattern while being translated. Premodification in noun phrase is one of those things. Since Serbian does not have a strict word order and Serbian noun phrases differ from the English ones, we mostly have to seek for another way of translating sentences. To make it easier, as it is already mentioned, sample sentences will be used. There are phrases structured as the following ones: The vanished treasure = Blago koje je nestalo/Nestalo blago Increased prices = Cijene koje su u porastu

A retired teacher = Penziosani ucitelj/Ucitelj koji se penzionisao As we can see, in almost every case we can translate –ed participle with a relative clause in Serbian that starts with “koji/koje/koja”. Then, we have phrases we can translate word for word: A born musician = Rodeni muzicar A married man = Ozenjeni covjek There is a similarity between English and Serbian in the following two sentences: He was a surprised person = Bio je iznenadena osoba He had a very surprised expression = Imao je veoma iznenaden izraz lica In both of these languages, there is something off with the first sentence, whereas the second one sounds natural.

However, there are many phrases where our only option is descriptive translation. A green-haired monster = Cudoviste sa zelenom kosom A one-legged puppet = Lutak s jednom nogom The translation of –ing premodified noun phrases is somewhat similar to the translation of the –ed premodified noun phrases. But there are cases where a sentence in Serbian sounds natural although its English equivalent sounds wrong. The approaching train is from Liverpool = Voz koji se pribizava je iz Liverpula However, we also have phrases that are three words long in English and one in Serbian:

The beginning student should not be encouraged that much. = Pocetnik ne treba toliko da se ohrabruje All this shows that a lot of factors influence the translation. We have to pay attention to words as well to semantics, syntax, etc. Nothing is to be neglected. Conclusion Through the examples that are presented in this paper, the basics of the use of participles in noun phrase premodification should be explained. Although the area of participles themselves, that is, of their use, was tapped into, it is essential to know the basic difference between the present and the past participle.

Without knowing that, there is no way to correctly construct a noun phrase. The other thing emphasized here is the translation of the premodifiers. It is essential to know how to draw parallels between two languages for all English as Second Language learners. Also, it is important for us to practice transferring our “sense for language” from our mother tongue to English. References 1. Quirk and S. Greenbaum. A University Grammar of English. London: Longman, 1973 2. Quirk, Greenbaum and Others. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language. London: Longman, 1985 3. Tibor Laczko.

Another look at participles and adjectives in the English DP. Hong Kong: CSLI Publications, 2001 ——————————————– [ 2 ]. Quirk, Greenbaum and Others. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language (London: Longman, 1985) [ 3 ]. ibid [ 4 ]. ibid [ 5 ]. Quirk and S. Greenbaum. A University Grammar of English. (London: Longman, 1973) [ 6 ]. Quirk, Greenbaum and Others. A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language (London: Longman, 1985) [ 7 ]. Tibor Laczko. Another look at participles and adjectives in the English DP. (Hong Kong: CSLI Publications, 2001)

AP® English Language and Composition 2011 Free-Response Questions About the College Board The College Board is a mission-driven not-for-profit organization that connects students to college success and opportunity. Founded in 1900, the College Board was created to expand access to higher education. Today, the membership association is made up of more than 5,900 of the world’s leading educational institutions and is dedicated to promoting excellence and equity in education.

Each year, the College Board helps more than seven million students prepare for a successful transition to college through programs and services in college readiness and college success — including the SAT® and the Advanced Placement Program®. The organization also serves the education community through research and advocacy on behalf of students, educators and schools. © 2011 The College Board. College Board, Advanced Placement Program, AP, AP Central, SAT and the acorn logo are registered trademarks of the College Board.

Admitted Class Evaluation Service and inspiring minds are trademarks owned by the College Board. All other products and services may be trademarks of their respective owners. Visit the College Board on the Web: www. collegeboard. org. Permission to use copyrighted College Board materials may be requested online at: www. collegeboard. org/inquiry/cbpermit. html. Visit the College Board on the Web: www. collegeboard. org. AP Central is the official online home for the AP Program: apcentral. collegeboard. om. 2011 AP® ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND COMPOSITION FREE-RESPONSE QUESTIONS ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND COMPOSITION SECTION II Total time—2 hours Question 1 (Suggested time—40 minutes. This question counts for one-third of the total essay section score. ) Locavores are people who have decided to eat locally grown or produced products as much as possible. With an eye to nutrition as well as sustainability (resource use that preserves the environment), the locavore movement has become widespread over the past decade.

Imagine that a community is considering organizing a locavore movement. Carefully read the following seven sources, including the introductory information for each source. Then synthesize information from at least three of the sources and incorporate it into a coherent, well-developed essay that identifies the key issues associated with the locavore movement and examines their implications for the community. Make sure that your argument is central; use the sources to illustrate and support your reasoning. Avoid merely summarizing the sources.

Indicate clearly which sources you are drawing from, whether through direct quotation, paraphrase, or summary. You may cite the sources as Source A, Source B, etc. , or by using the descriptions in parentheses. Source A Source B Source C Source D Source E Source F Source G (Maiser) (Smith and MacKinnon) (McWilliams) (chart) (Gogoi) (Roberts) (cartoon) © 2011 The College Board. Visit the College Board on the Web: www. collegeboard. org. GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE. -2- 2011 AP® ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND COMPOSITION FREE-RESPONSE QUESTIONS Source A Maiser, Jennifer. 10 Reasons to Eat Local Food. ” Eat Local Challenge. Eat Local Challenge, 8 Apr. 2006. Web. 16 Dec. 2009. The following is an article from a group Weblog written by individuals who are interested in the benefits of eating food grown and produced locally. Eating local means more for the local economy. According to a study by the New Economics Foundation in London, a dollar spent locally generates twice as much income for the local economy. When businesses are not owned locally, money leaves the community at every transaction. Locally grown produce is fresher.

While produce that is purchased in the supermarket or a big-box store has been in transit or cold-stored for days or weeks, produce that you purchase at your local farmer’s market has often been picked within 24 hours of your purchase. This freshness not only affects the taste of your food, but the nutritional value which declines with time. Local food just plain tastes better. Ever tried a tomato that was picked within 24 hours? ’Nuff said. Locally grown fruits and vegetables have longer to ripen. Because the produce will be handled less, locally grown fruit does not have to be rugged” or to stand up to the rigors of shipping. This means that you are going to be getting peaches so ripe that they fall apart as you eat them, figs that would have been smashed to bits if they were sold using traditional methods, and melons that were allowed to ripen until the last possible minute on the vine. Eating local is better for air quality and pollution than eating organic. In a March 2005 study by the journal Food Policy, it was found that the miles that organic food often travels to our plate creates environmental damage that outweighs the benefit of buying organic.

Buying local food keeps us in touch with the seasons. By eating with the seasons, we are eating foods when they are at their peak taste, are the most abundant, and the least expensive. Buying locally grown food is fodder for a wonderful story. Whether it’s the farmer who brings local apples to market or the baker who makes local bread, knowing part of the story about your food is such a powerful part of enjoying a meal. Eating local protects us from bio-terrorism. Food with less distance to travel from farm to plate has less susceptibility to harmful contamination.

Local food translates to more variety. When a farmer is producing food that will not travel a long distance, will have a shorter shelf life, and does not have a high-yield demand, the farmer is free to try small crops of various fruits and vegetables that would probably never make it to a large supermarket. Supermarkets are interested in selling “Name brand” fruit: Romaine Lettuce, Red Delicious Apples, Russet Potatoes. Local producers often play with their crops from year to year, trying out Little Gem Lettuce, Senshu Apples, and Chieftain Potatoes.

Supporting local providers supports responsible land development. When you buy local, you give those with local open space—farms and pastures—an economic reason to stay open and undeveloped. Jennifer Maiser, www. eatlocalchallenge. com © 2011 The College Board. Visit the College Board on the Web: www. collegeboard. org. GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE. -3- 2011 AP® ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND COMPOSITION FREE-RESPONSE QUESTIONS Source B Smith, Alisa, and J. B. MacKinnon. Plenty: One Man, One Woman, and a Raucous Year of Eating Locally.

New York: Harmony, 2007. Print. The following passage is excerpted from a book written by the creators of the 100-Mile Diet, an experiment in eating only foods grown and produced within a 100-mile radius. Food begins to lose nutrition as soon as it is harvested. Fruit and vegetables that travel shorter distances are therefore likely to be closer to a maximum of nutrition. “Nowadays, we know a lot more about the naturally occurring substances in produce,” said [Cynthia] Sass. It’s not just vitamins and minerals, but all these phytochemicals and really powerful disease-fighting substances, and we do know that when a food never really reaches its peak ripeness, the levels of these substances never get as high. ” . . . Yet when I called to confirm these facts with Marion Nestle, a professor and former chair of nutrition, food studies, and public health at New York University, she waved away the nutrition issue as a red herring. Yes, she said, our 100-mile diet—even in winter—was almost certainly more nutritious than what the average American was eating.

That doesn’t mean it is necessary to eat locally in order to be healthy. In fact, a person making smart choices from the global megamart can easily meet all the body’s needs. “There will be nutritional differences, but they’ll be marginal,” said Nestle. “I mean, that’s not really the issue. It feels like it’s the issue— obviously fresher foods that are grown on better soils are going to have more nutrients. But people are not nutrient-deprived. We’re just not nutrient-deprived. ” So would Marion Nestle, as a dietician, as one of America’s most important critics of dietary policy, advocate for local eating? Absolutely. ” Why? Because she loves the taste of fresh food, she said. She loves the mystery of years when the late corn is just utterly, incredibly good, and no one can say why: it just is. She likes having farmers around, and farms, and farmland. © 2011 The College Board. Visit the College Board on the Web: www. collegeboard. org. GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE. -4- 2011 AP® ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND COMPOSITION FREE-RESPONSE QUESTIONS Source C McWilliams, James E. “On My Mind: The Locavore Myth. ” Forbes. com. Forbes, 15 Jul. 2009. Web. 16 Dec. 2009.

The following is excerpted from an online opinion article in a business magazine. Buy local, shrink the distance food travels, save the planet. The locavore movement has captured a lot of fans. To their credit, they are highlighting the problems with industrialized food. But a lot of them are making a big mistake. By focusing on transportation, they overlook other energy-hogging factors in food production. Take lamb. A 2006 academic study (funded by the New Zealand government) discovered that it made more environmental sense for a Londoner to buy lamb shipped from New Zealand than to buy lamb raised in the U.

K. This finding is counterintuitive—if you’re only counting food miles. But New Zealand lamb is raised on pastures with a small carbon footprint, whereas most English lamb is produced under intensive factory-like conditions with a big carbon footprint. This disparity overwhelms domestic lamb’s advantage in transportation energy. New Zealand lamb is not exceptional. Take a close look at water usage, fertilizer types, processing methods and packaging techniques and you discover that factors other than shipping far outweigh the energy it takes to transport food.

One analysis, by Rich Pirog of the Leopold Center for Sustainable Agriculture, showed that transportation accounts for only 11% of food’s carbon footprint. A fourth of the energy required to produce food is expended in the consumer’s kitchen. Still more energy is consumed per meal in a restaurant, since restaurants throw away most of their leftovers. Locavores argue that buying local food supports an area’s farmers and, in turn, strengthens the community. Fair enough. Left unacknowledged, however, is the fact that it also hurts farmers in other parts of the world.

The U. K. buys most of its green beans from Kenya. While it’s true that the beans almost always arrive in airplanes— the form of transportation that consumes the most energy—it’s also true that a campaign to shame English consumers with small airplane stickers affixed to flown-in produce threatens the livelihood of 1. 5 million sub-Saharan farmers. Another chink in the locavores’ armor involves the way food miles are calculated. To choose a locally grown apple over an apple trucked in from across the country might seem easy. But this decision ignores economies of scale.

To take an extreme example, a shipper sending a truck with 2,000 apples over 2,000 miles would consume the same amount of fuel per apple as a local farmer who takes a pickup 50 miles to sell 50 apples at his stall at the green market. The critical measure here is not food miles but apples per gallon. The one big problem with thinking beyond food miles is that it’s hard to get the information you need. Ethically concerned consumers know very little about processing practices, water availability, packaging waste and fertilizer application.

This is an opportunity for watchdog groups. They should make life-cycle carbon counts available to shoppers. Reprinted by Permission of Forbes Media LLC © 2010 © 2011 The College Board. Visit the College Board on the Web: www. collegeboard. org. GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE. -5- 2011 AP® ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND COMPOSITION FREE-RESPONSE QUESTIONS Source D Loder, Natasha, Elizabeth Finkel, Craig Meisner, and Pamela Ronald. “The Problem of What to Eat. ” Conservation Magazine. The Society for Conservation Biology, July-Sept. 2008. Web. 16 Dec. 2009.

The following chart is excerpted from an online article in an environmental magazine. © 2011 The College Board. Visit the College Board on the Web: www. collegeboard. org. GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE. -6- 2011 AP® ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND COMPOSITION FREE-RESPONSE QUESTIONS Source E Gogoi, Pallavi. “The Rise of the ‘Locavore’: How the Strengthening Local Food Movement in Towns Across the U. S. Is Reshaping Farms and Food Retailing. ” Bloomberg Businessweek. Bloomberg, 20 May 2008. Web. 17 Dec. 2009. The following is excerpted from an online article in a business magazine.

The rise of farmers’ markets— in city centers, college towns, and rural squares—is testament to a dramatic shift in American tastes. Consumers increasingly are seeking out the flavors of fresh, vine-ripened foods grown on local farms rather than those trucked to supermarkets from faraway lands. “This is not a fringe foodie culture,” says [Anthony] Flaccavento. “These are ordinary, middle-income folks who have become really engaged in food and really care about where their food comes from. ” It’s a movement that is gradually reshaping the business of growing and supplying food to Americans.

The local food movement has already accomplished something that almost no one would have thought possible a few years back: a revival of small farms. After declining for more than a century, the number of small farms has increased 20% in the past six years, to 1. 2 million, according to the Agriculture Dept. . . . The impact of “locavores” (as local-food proponents are known) even shows up in that Washington salute every five years to factory farming, the Farm Bill. The latest version passed both houses in Congress in early May and was sent on May 20 to President George W.

Bush’s desk for signing. Bush has threatened to veto the bill, but it passed with enough votes to sustain an override. Predictably, the overwhelming bulk of its $290 billion would still go to powerful agribusiness interests in the form of subsidies for growing corn, soybeans, and cotton. But $2. 3 billion was set aside this year for specialty crops, such as the eggplants, strawberries, or salad greens that are grown by exactly these small, mostly organic farmers. That’s a big bump-up from the $100 million that was earmarked for such things in the previous legislation.

Small farmers will be able to get up to 75% of their organic certification costs reimbursed, and some of them can obtain crop insurance. There’s money for research into organic foods, and to promote farmers’ markets. Senator Tom Harkin (D-Iowa) said the bill “invests in the health and nutrition of American children . . . by expanding their access to farmer’s markets and organic produce. ” Reprinted from the May 20, 2008 issue of Bloomberg BusinessWeek by special permission, copyright © 2008 by Bloomberg L. P. © 2011 The College Board. Visit the College Board on the Web: www. ollegeboard. org. GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE. -7- 2011 AP® ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND COMPOSITION FREE-RESPONSE QUESTIONS Source F Roberts, Paul. The End of Food. New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2008. Print. The following is excerpted from a book about the food industry. [T]he move toward local food, for all its trendiness (the more adamant adherents, known as “localvores,” strive to buy products that have traveled the least “food miles”), highlights one of the problematic pieces of the modern food economy: the increasing reliance on foods shipped halfway round the world.

Because long-distance food shipments promote profligate fuel use and the exploitation of cheap labor (which compensates for the profligate fuel use), shifting back to a more locally sourced food economy is often touted as a fairly straightforward way to cut externalities, restore some measure of equity between producers and consumers, and put the food economy on a more sustainable footing. Such a shift would bring back diversity to land that has been all but destroyed by chemical-intensive mono-cropping, provide much-needed jobs at a local level, and help to rebuild community,” argues the UK-based International Society for Ecology and Culture, one of the leading lights in the localvore movement. “Moreover, it would allow farmers to make a decent living while giving consumers access to healthy, fresh food at affordable prices. ” While localvorism sounds superb in theory, it is proving quite difficult in practice.

To begin with, there are dozens of different definitions as to what local is, with some advocates arguing for political boundaries (as in Texas-grown, for example), others using quasi-geographic terms like food sheds, and still others laying out somewhat arbitrarily drawn food circles with radii of 100 or 150 or 500 miles. Further, whereas some areas might find it fairly easy to eat locally (in Washington State, for example, I’m less than fifty miles from industrial quantities of fresh produce, corn, wheat, beef, and milk), people in other parts of the country and the world would have to look farther afield.

And what counts as local? Does food need to be purchased directly from the producer? Does it still count when it’s distributed through a mass marketer, as with Wal-Mart’s Salute to America’s Farmer program, which is now periodically showcasing local growers? The larger problem is that although decentralized food systems function well in decentralized societies—like the United States was a century ago, or like many developing nations still are—they’re a poor fit in modern urbanized societies.

The same economic forces that helped food production become centralized and regionalized did the same thing to our population: in the United States, 80 percent of us live in large, densely populated urban areas, usually on the coast, and typically hundreds of miles, often thousands of miles, from the major centers of food production. © 2011 The College Board. Visit the College Board on the Web: www. collegeboard. org. GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE. -8- 2011 AP® ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND COMPOSITION FREE-RESPONSE QUESTIONS

Source G Hallatt, Alex. “Arctic Circle. ” Comic strip. King Features Syndicate, Inc. 1 Sept. 2008. Web. 12 July 2009. The following is a cartoon from an environmentally themed comic strip. ARCTIC CIRCLE © 2008 MACNELLY. DISTRIBUTED BY KING FEATURES SYNDICATE © 2011 The College Board. Visit the College Board on the Web: www. collegeboard. org. GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE. -9- 2011 AP® ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND COMPOSITION FREE-RESPONSE QUESTIONS Question 2 (Suggested time—40 minutes.

This question counts for one-third of the total essay section score. ) Florence Kelley (1859-1932) was a United States social worker and reformer who fought successfully for child labor laws and improved conditions for working women. She delivered the following speech before the convention of the National American Woman Suffrage Association in Philadelphia on July 22, 1905. Read the speech carefully. Then write an essay in which you analyze the rhetorical strategies Kelley uses to convey her message about child labor to her audience.

Support your analysis with specific references to the text. We have, in this country, two million children under the age of sixteen years who are earning their bread. They vary in age from six and seven years (in the cotton mills of Georgia) and eight, nine and ten years (in the coal-breakers of Pennsylvania), to fourteen, fifteen and sixteen years in more enlightened states. No other portion of the wage earning class increased so rapidly from decade to decade as the young girls from fourteen to twenty years.

Men increase, women increase, youth increase, boys increase in the ranks of the breadwinners; but no contingent so doubles from census period to census period (both by percent and by count of heads), as does the contingent of girls between twelve and twenty years of age. They are in commerce, in offices, in manufacturing. Tonight while we sleep, several thousand little girls will be working in textile mills, all the night through, in the deafening noise of the spindles and the looms spinning and weaving cotton and wool, silks and ribbons for us to buy.

In Alabama the law provides that a child under sixteen years of age shall not work in a cotton mill at night longer than eight hours, and Alabama does better in this respect than any other southern state. North and South Carolina and Georgia place no restriction upon the work of children at night; and while we sleep little white girls will be working tonight in the mills in those states, working eleven hours at night. In Georgia there is no restriction whatever! A girl of six or seven years, just tall enough to reach the bobbins, may work eleven hours by day or by night.

And they will do so tonight, while we sleep. Nor is it only in the South that these things occur. Alabama does better than New Jersey. For Alabama limits the children’s work at night to eight hours, while New Jersey permits it all night long. Last year New Jersey took a long backward step. A good law was repealed which had required women and [children] to stop work at six in the evening and at noon on Friday. Now, therefore, in New Jersey, boys and girls, after their 14th birthday, enjoy the pitiful privilege of working all night long.

In Pennsylvania, until last May it was lawful for children, 13 years of age, to work twelve hours at night. A little girl, on her thirteenth birthday, could start away from her home at half past five in the afternoon, carrying her pail of midnight luncheon as happier people carry their midday luncheon, and could work in the mill from six at night until six in the morning, without violating any law of the Commonwealth. If the mothers and the teachers in Georgia could vote, would the Georgia Legislature have refused at every session for the last three years to stop the work in the mills of children under twelve years of age?

Would the New Jersey Legislature have passed that shameful repeal bill enabling girls of fourteen years to work all night, if the mothers in New Jersey were enfranchised? Until the mothers in the great industrial states are enfranchised, we shall none of us be able to free our consciences from participation in this great evil. No one in this room tonight can feel free from such participation. The children make our shoes in the shoe factories; they knit our stockings, our knitted underwear in the knitting factories.

They spin and weave our cotton underwear in the cotton mills. Children braid straw for our hats, they spin and weave the silk and velvet wherewith we trim our hats. They stamp buckles and metal ornaments of all kinds, as well as pins and hat-pins. Under the sweating system, tiny children make artificial flowers and neckwear for us to buy. They carry bundles of garments from the factories to the tenements, little beasts of burden, robbed of school life that they may work for us. We do not wish this. We prefer to have our work done by men and women.

But we are almost powerless. Not wholly powerless, however, are citizens who enjoy the right of petition. For myself, I Line 5 45 50 10 55 15 60 20 65 25 70 30 75 35 80 40 © 2011 The College Board. Visit the College Board on the Web: www. collegeboard. org. GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE. -10- 2011 AP® ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND COMPOSITION FREE-RESPONSE QUESTIONS shall use this power in every possible way until the right to the ballot is granted, and then I shall continue to use both. What can we do to free our consciences? There is one line of action by which we can do much.

We can enlist the workingmen on behalf of our enfranchisement just in proportion as we strive with them to free the children. No labor organization in this country ever fails to respond to an appeal for help in the freeing of the children. For the sake of the children, for the Republic in which these children will vote after we are dead, and for the sake of our cause, we should enlist the workingmen voters, with us, in this task of freeing the children from toil! 85 90 95 © 2011 The College Board. Visit the College Board on the Web: www. collegeboard. org.

GO ON TO THE NEXT PAGE. -11- 2011 AP® ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND COMPOSITION FREE-RESPONSE QUESTIONS Question 3 (Suggested time—40 minutes. This question counts for one-third of the total essay section score. ) The following passage is from Rights of Man, a book written by the pamphleteer Thomas Paine in 1791. Born in England, Paine was an intellectual, a revolutionary, and a supporter of American independence from England. Read the passage carefully. Then write an essay that examines the extent to which Paine’s characterization of America holds true today.

Use appropriate evidence to support your argument. If there is a country in the world, where concord, according to common calculation, would be least expected, it is America. Made up, as it is, of people from different nations, accustomed to different forms and habits of government, speaking different languages, and more different in their modes of worship, it would appear that the union of such a people was impracticable; but by the simple operation of constructing government on the principles of society and the rights of man, every difficulty retires, and all the parts are brought into ordial unison. There, the poor are not oppressed, the rich are not privileged. . . . Their taxes are few, because their government is just; and as there is nothing to render them wretched, there is nothing to engender riots and tumults. STOP END OF EXAM © 2011 The College Board. Visit the College Board on the Web: www. collegeboard. org. -12-

The English Language And Its Impact On Identities Of Multilingual Malaysian Undergraduates By Lee, Su Kim, Lee, King Siong, Wong, Fook Fei and Azizah Ya’acob Lee Su Kim is an associate Professor at the School of Language Studies and Linguistics, UKM. Lee King Siong, a senior lecturer with the School of Language Studies and Linguistics, Wong Fook Fei is a senior lecturer at the School of Language Studies and Linguistics, Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.

Azizah Yaacob is a lecturer at the School of Language Studies and Linguistics, Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. Article Summary In this paper, the author explored an investigation in selected private and public universities to find out the impact of english on the identities of young Malaysian undergraduates in selected private and public universities in Malaysia. The author wanted to explore on a larger scale the role of English in the identity construction of a younger Malaysian cohort from both public and private universities.

The researcher chose from both public and private universities consists of 20 Malaysian undergraduates, in their early 20’s till mid 20’s . They were from different races(Malay Chinese, Indian s and Singhalese), different family backgrounds, different learning experiences and different everyday experiences when using english. Out of the 20 undergraduates, seven were Malays, eight were Chinese, four were Indians and one was Singhalese. There were four males and sixteen females. Twelve undergraduates were from public universities and eight were from the private universities. re from different families, races, backgrounds, and experiences were involved in the study. Based on the analysis of the data, it suggests that for a significant number of the respondents, English can quite easily be considered the dominant language in all domains. In most cases, English has empowered its users as it has opened up their world and in some cases has improved their self-esteem, improved their social status, and made them appear more knowledgeable. Critical reflection The organization of the article was easy to understand as it follows step by step.

For instance. At the beginning of the paper, the author gave us a brief and simple abstract, it helped us to get the gist of the study. This article falls under the linguistic category of . Basically, this article discusses about the impact of English on the identities of young Malaysian undergraduates in selected private and public universities in Malaysia. The author focuses on how different multilingual and the impact of english language in constructing their identity and everyday negotiation.

The article firstly explained the concept of identity especially in a multilingual society. The author stated that identity construction is an on-going process and is influenced by many factors. In Malaysia context, where its is a multilingual country, involves the formation of bicultural identities, where the self defined by local meanings and more traditional practices is maintained alongside a self defined by global culture (Arnett, 2002). As such, a learner must not dispute its ‘imposed identity but to preserve its ethnic identity.

Next, the author introduces the concept of othering The concept of “othering” refers to the practice of comparing ourselves to others and at the same time distancing ourselves from them (Palfreyman, 2005) The article is written based on a study done by one of the authors, related to the impact of English on the identities of young Malaysians. This study is conducted based on the three research objectives which are mainly to identify the impact of English language on the identities of young

Malaysians as bilingual and multilingual speakers, to seek the empowerment of english language in globalized world and to address any threats of english language to their cultural identities. The article is guided based on these four important research questions: In what ways does English affect the identities of young adults in Malaysia as bilingual/multilingual speakers? 2. How does English empower young Malaysians in this globalized world? 3. Is English viewed as a threat to their cultural identity?

In what ways does English affect or marginalize local languages and local identities? The authors state that the study is done a qualitative method. Data was obtained from interviews with from mature undergraduates from the second or final year because the author believe that these students were able to give more mature reflections on the issue. The interviews were semi-structured and Carspecken’s (1996) critical ethnography interviewing techniques were applied. The data were taped ad the collected data were transcribed.

The finding of this research proves 3 dominant themes that emerges form the analysis of the case studies, which are Multilingualism with English emerging as the dominant language, how English is viewed as a pragmatic language and a language of empowerment and the varying degrees of ‘Othering’. For the first dominant themes, half of the respondents reported that they are far more comfortable in using English than any other language in their daily lives. This dominant themes are substantiate with a few reasons. Firstly is he use of english language as the main language at home regardless whether they are Malay, Chinese and Malay.

Secondly, most of the respondents have at least a parents who are english educated and they have been using the english language since an early age and their parents have been encourage them to use english when they were young. Thirdly, most of the respondents went to a school where they mixed around with other children from english speaking homes. Lastly, the english-speaking social environment gives them ample opportunities to use english to socialize with their friends who are also english speaking. The second dominant themes the author suggested is english is viewed as a pragmatic language and a language of empowerment.

Some of the respondents stated that speaking english is viewed as intellectually superior and more knowledgeable. Some Malay respondents too agree that speaking english elevated their status in the eyes of some people. Speaking english too is seen as an ego-boosting for some of the respondents. When some of the respondents regard speaking english a a mechanism for them that opens up a window to another world and enables them to share differences in world views, another group of respondents feels that english has a modernizing influence and it helps them to develop a sense of confidence in themselves.

Additionally, the last dominant themes from the finding is the varying degrees of othering and this depends on ones fluency in the other languages. Some Chinese respondents who are not fluent in english will try to improve themselves in their language to make sure they are accepted and to close any barrier between the mandarin speaking and the English speaking. Others, feels that as compared to Malay-centric, Tamil-centric and Mandarin-centric, there are difference in thinking, attitude and behaviors between the english ones.

For instance, the english speaking are more vocal and more optimistic whereas the Mandarin speaking are more cautious. From the findings too, the data suggested that the respondents experienced a mild ways instances of orthering. They are often perceived as trying to show off, proud and others. It appears that the multilingual speakers are the one being orthered by those who do not have the same spoken proficiency in english. Referring to the second research question, the authors would like to identify how english language empowers young Malaysian is the globalized world.

From the findings, it is proven that english empowers young Malaysian socially. They use english everyday in their daily lives their self-esteem and how they are perceived in the society are the factors that encourage them to use english in their lives. Although some may perceived them differently, in this globalized world, english is seen as a tool that empowers every aspect in their lives. This article states that English evidently a plays a dominance factor in their identity negotiations. Majority of the respondents admitted english as the dominant language in their daily lives.

Though some of the respondents are bilingual or multilingual, english is not use just for communication purposes instead it has become their first language. The respondents to acknowledged that being competent in english give them a positive position socially. They are aware that proficiency in english is valued bot academically and socially. People around them perceived them differently and they receive better respect. As a result the respondents are more confident in perceiving themselves.

Not only that, it is found that the respondents believed the knowledge of english played a part in making them more “open-minded” taking on more neutral views towards values that are perceived to be markers of cultural identity. Additionally, some respondents english is a tool that allows them to communicate more directly. In other words the knowledge of english contributed towards a more reflective and critical outlook towards the culture of the respondents. This article also suggests that there are differences in those who are proficient in english and those who are proficient in the ethnic language.

Those who are less competent in english are perceived as “more closed up” and ethnocentric and those who are more proficient in the ethnic language thought them to be “arrogant”, “showing off”, and “mat salleh celup ”. these are similar in Lee Su Kim study where both Malay and non Malay respondents who are more proficient in english are perceived as “boastful ” and “Westernized” by their peers who are more proficient in the ethnic language. Moreover, there were some similarities between this article and Lee Su Kim (2000 study.

However there are some differences especially in the attitude towards english. In this study, the theme that features more prominently is the subjects’ awareness of the pragmatism and social advantage in being well-versed in English, along with the indication that a significant number of subjects amongst the 20 interviewed were found to be multilingual with English featuring as a dominant language. although orthering between english speaking and native speaking are evident, it doesn’t seem to factor as prominently as the resentments that were reported by the subjects in Lee Su Kim’s (2003) study.

This may be due to the attitude towards english as english is pertinent international language of the world and they are accepting the language as a relevant too in their lives rather than a second or foreign language. To conclude, the author agrees and found that to some of the respondents, english seem to be a dominant language in all domains. English too has empowered them in improving their self-confident, social status and made them appear more knowledgeable. That is why some respondents may prefer to use english in their daily lives than their own language.

Not only that, as english is seen as a prominent language in the world nowadays, thus, this act as a factor for suing english more in their daily lives. Besides that english too does affect their social status in the society. People who use english is regard as someone who are knowledge and some may been intimidated by the english speaking people. In the beginning of the article, the authors mentioned that there is little research on how the use of english affects the identity of Malaysian speakers. it is hoped that i n future, more research will be done in finding the impact of english to the Malaysian society.

The authors suggests a similar study on the impact of English on identity could be beneficially carried out in other areas of Malaysia, particularly East Malaysia for its rich and highly unique sociocultural composition. the author also suggests A study on the impact and roles of the English language in other traditionally ‘non-native speaker’ or ‘outer circle’ countries would also prove beneficial in contributing to the body of knowledge towards understanding the implications of the spread of English as the language of the world today.

In my point of view, I found that this article is easy to read because the choices of word that the authors use are simple and understandable. Besides that, I think that the discussion of the findings also proven that english has becoming a dominant language in young Malaysian today. I especially like the discussion past as it discusses the findings and relate them to the reality of english in young Malaysian today. Based on what i have read, i found that some of the respondents’ experiences re similar to mine. I believe that when using english, it helps to build my self-esteem and confidence socially. I too believe that when using english, I am being perceived differently by other people. Hence, I strongly believe that using english in my daily lives to makes me appear more knowledgeable and people do look highly on me. And because English has become global today, to have a competent knowledge of the language is seen as a useful key for opening many doors.

I found that i learned a lot from this article, firstly is that it is such an eye opener for me as how young Malaysian and the society perceived one that is fluent in english. I take it as a motivation for me to improve myself to be better speaker of english and also to be a better language teacher for my students to make sure they too will be able to be a proficient speaker of english. However i believe that no matter how fluent one in english an how important english is in the society today and to the future society, it should not shape ones identity.

flower arranging. It may be greeted with much derision because the prevailing opinion is that the hobby is more for the elderly. However, I feel that flower arranging provides me the chance to think in a creative way and develop my artistic potential. To me, turning a bunch of flower into a beautiful artwork is a source of pride and gratification; and, it indeed creates a continued interest. As I have engaged myself in this hobby, I have a lot more of quality time with my parents who share the same interest with me.

My father is a professional florist who has a flower shop of his own. His shop features many types of flower bouquets, most of them are for special occasions such as birthdays, anniversaries and weddings. Since I do help him out at his shop sometimes, I can see that he is financially prospering! After much thought, I realise that flower arranging is an interesting hobby to pursue. Using only a few plant and flower materials and a pair of skillful hands, a person can actually produce many eye-catching flower banquets and reap much profit.

Thus, I want to know more about this beneficial hobby. Perhaps, if I fall to achieve my dreamed profession of being a , I can happily pursue this alternative career path! My last trip (My summer vacation) The summer vacation is a long time which for myself take a rest. It is a special summer vacation because I have just passed the exam. Next month, I’m a freshman. When I passed the exam, I visited my home town.

My home town , to me, is very beautiful. There are Co Loa temple, Soc Son temple, Duong river, Bat Trang village and so on. I visited my grandmother, my relatives. I went fishing, cutting flowers, sightseeing, eating some special dishes. I love people in my home town so much because of their kindness, and their lovely smile, very friendly. My summer vacation finished so fast but it is interesting and leaves me many sweet memories. I never forget it, I sure that I’ll come back next summer.  I’m a third year student in the English of Business and Tourism at Sai Gon University right now. I like my specialty because I will have many chances to go travel abroad and work in hospitality field. After graduating, I hope to find a good job with a good salary in an environment I could use my abilities. My older brother said that I could be an exporter or leader of a foreign company if I try, it sounds very interesting.

Of course, I also want to work in a foreign company, I think it’s a good environment to develop my skills: speaking English, writing faxes or emails and contracts with customers, especially communication skills, and the method of working is very professional. I also want to earn much money from my work in the future, so I will work hard to earn a higher salary than expected. I’m trying to learn English, because it’s an international language and I can’t help but use it when I working with foreigners.

I also want to find a part time job to earn extra money be in contact with the environment outside my university. I’m only just 20 years old, too young to get married soon. I would love a job with many opportunities to travel many places, other countries in the world, to know new cultures there, specially eat much good food. In the future, when I have enough experience I’d like to build my own restaurant, or a store where I can earn money by myself. I will employ many people and give them work in order to contribute to the development of my country. I hope my .

How does the English language vary at the individual, societal and international levels? English has become the first `truly global language. As a result of advances in technology and transport, varieties of English have spread throughout the world. This internationalization has been described by Shreeve as an `identified phenomenon. English now underpins the lives and cultures of a broad spectrum of people, with one in four people in the world now fluent users of English. Language involves making meaning and individual identity. It has been defined by Emmit et al. as mediating `between self and society […], a way of representing the world to ourselves and others. There are strong links between how individuals use different varieties of English and the social implications of why they do so. According to Swann: `Language varieties are not simply linguistic phenomena. They carry important social meanings. Many social factors have affected the English language, leading to the numerous varieties that are recognized and used today.

Variety can be seen in the way every individual uses the English language, the interaction between social groups, and the way different countries are utilizing the language. The numerous dialects in use in the UK demonstrate the diverse nature of the English language. Dialects include variations in syntax, morphology, lexicon, and phonology. It has been argued from a prescriptive perspective, by linguists such as Quirk and Greenbaum, that dialects are not true forms of English and that there needs to be a `common core of English. This is the pure and stringent form known as Standard English, which is traditionally linked to an educated society. Standardization consists of `language determination, codification, and stabilization. It is a model to be consulted; a unified code to refer to. Standard English is a publicly recognized, fixed form, a mastery of which affords `social and educational advantages. It was formed by a particular social group, the group with the highest degree of social capital, power, and prestige.

Rhys, however, perceives that Standard English is a `social dialect0+ and argues that it is not superior to other dialects. Labov states that: `all languages and dialects should be viewed as equal in terms of their ability to communicate. While a standard form of English can be seen as a social and communicative necessity useful for educational and international affairs, vernacular forms should not be discounted or regarded as inferior. Dialects represent a smaller locality and are therefore more personal. A relevant example is the use of dialects in regional BBC news broadcasting. While the national news is presented in Standard English, a code with a particular grammar, pronunciation, and register, the BBC’s regional programmes showcase a local identity that cannot be found in national broadcasting. Interviewees and `talking heads` often have strong regional accents and speak in the dialectal forms familiar to their viewers. The regional programmes are personalized to their audience and emphasize the benefits of language variation. Dialects represent social bonds and form because of linguistic choice. The formation of dialects has been explained by Freeborn: `Different choices were made among the varied speech communities forming the speakers of English in the past. These choices are not conscious or deliberate, but pronunciation is always changing and leads in time to changes in word form. The English language has fragmented into pockets of dialect due to social differences and geography. This is a microcosm of how international languages form; distance causes change. Freeborn believes that `all dialects of a language are rule-governed systems. All vernaculars are consistent, although they may not have the written grammar core that Standard English can boast. There is great variation in dialect throughout the United Kingdom. In 1921, Sapir classified his notion of `dialect drift`. He explained how `language moves downtime in a current of its own making. It has a drift. This idea relates to how language evolves; lexical and phonological elements are absorbed and new dialects are formed.

However, while language is ever-changing, it is apparent in some cases that dialects are actually becoming more similar. This is defined by Rhys as dialect leveling (2007); when `regular contact between speakers of different dialects [causes them to] lose linguistic features of their dialect. In the modern world, this leveling process is a consequence of improved transport links, migration, and the growth of media and broadcasting. The urbanization of the UK means that rural areas are not as isolated from cities as they were when Sapir wrote of a dialect drift. Advances in technology and that the boundaries of dialect, known as `isoglosses, are being broken down. People within dialect boundaries hear more varieties of English than they used to, so they naturally accommodate words and pronunciations into their speech. This process of change, however, occurs over a long period of time. Therefore, making sweeping statements about the future of dialects is difficult. Major changes to language and dialect will not be visible for decades. Different speech communities will always make different language choices, so there will always be regional variation. While language varies because of social groupings, there is also great variety within the speech patterns of an individual. Cheshire has found evidence that `speakers continually reassess the context and adjust their speaking style accordingly. People alter the way that they speak depending on the person or group that they are speaking to, the location that they are in, the type of conversation, and the topic being discussed.

Bell is adamant that the `person or people you are speaking to will have the greatest effect on the type of language you will use`. He believes that the presence of another person or group causes people to change their linguistic code. This is known as the theory of `Audience Design`. People feel the urge to fit in and adapt their language to meet their social and psychological needs. Audience Design can also be related to the idea of language performance. People take on a variety of roles in their conversations due to a feeling of being watched and critiqued. Swann and Sinka perceive that `speakers can be seen as relatively creative designers of language`. Language is a creative medium, in which the performer changes their approach depending on the recipient. The way that we utilize language and make choices suits our individual discursive requirements. People improvise with language as they try to adapt to new linguistic codes. Individuals feel the need to inhabit certain conversational personas and to adopt the linguistic features of their interlocutors. This phenomenon is an element of `Communication Accommodation Theory`. Giles and Powesland explain that accommodation can be `a device by the speaker to make himself better understood` (1997, p. 234) and that it can also be regarded as: `an attempt on the part of the speaker to modify or disguise his persona in order to make it more acceptable to the person addressed` (1997, p. 234). The concept of disguise is often associated with deception, but the linguistic adaption proposed by Accommodation Theory derives from constructive ideals. The ability to alter and weave linguistic codes in different situations is a socially integrative mechanism.

Variety in an individual’s use of language exists to meet the expected communicative requirements of society. The English language is forever evolving and is gradually becoming a global language. This is due, in part, to globalization. Contemporary globalization is often associated with the ‘shrinking’ of time and space. This has affected international trade and industry and also the way that the English language is used at the global level. Rapid developments in technological and digital communications have led to the description of the world as a global village. As the world becomes theoretically smaller, the development of English as a global language mirrors how our own standard form has developed in the UK. The world requires a stable and recognizable common code for effective global communication in sectors such as business, science, politics, and commerce. It could be argued that both Standard English and a new international standard are impersonal varieties of English. These language forms are functional; a means to an end, whereas dialect and variety within a country could be seen as representative of more personal identity. Crystal perceives that there are the `closest of links between language dominance and economic, technological and cultural power`. In the case of English developing into a global language, the dominant force in the USA, which holds economic and political power. Due to the global position of the USA, countries which hold a lower international status are driven to adopt the English language. It appears that a universal, international standard is developing from an `urgent need to communicate at world level`.

An example is Kenya, which holds English as a joint official language with Swahili. While English is `not necessarily welcomed`, it is learned in Kenyan schools and `enjoys a high status` associated with social and economic success. The Kenyan adoption of the English language demonstrates a need for their country to function in an international realm. There are opposing views on the idea that English should become the first global language. Some see it as an encroachment on culture and diversity, while others regard it as imperative to communication in a modern world.

In 1994, French legislation was passed in order to halt the advance of English into French language and culture. The `loi Toubon` (named after the Minister for Culture, Jacques Toubon), called for a ban on: `the use of foreign [English] in business or government communications, in broadcasting, and in advertising if “suitable equivalents” existed in French`. This law was a linguistic intervention, an attempt to prevent the fragmentation of the French language and to retain national identity. In this case, the `borrowings` that the French language had taken from English were becoming too frequent and were seen as being detrimental to France’s status as a historical and international power. The arrival of the internet, however, led French lawyer Thibaut Verbiest to enquire: `How can the Cuban law be applied to internet sites created in languages other than French, that may be needed for the discharge of someone’s duties. As France and other countries have discovered, the adoption of the English language for global means is a modern, national necessity.

The positive effects of English are apparent in other countries around the world. In India: `English acts as a leveling rather than divisive agent, smoothing out the intra-vernacular conflicts of a multi-lingual nation`. While language variety in every country is vital to the culture and national identity, English as an international language offers a common form to be consulted and utilized. Evidence that a global language does not encroach on national identity can be seen in forthcoming changes to the English National Curriculum.

Andalo reports that: `from 2010, it will be a compulsory part of the National Curriculum for children from the age of seven to fourteen to study a modern foreign language` (2007). The English government holds foreign languages in high regard and sees them as vital to a rounded education. The English language is a stabilizing force, rather than a dominating one. The evolution of global English is linked to linguistic `stabilization` (Trudgill, 1992, p. 117); a question of international need in a digital age, rather than a means of eliminating international language diversity and national identities. Language helps us to form ideas and process information on an individual level. It gives us our identity and allows us to make meaning within our social groups. The language will develop further as globalization continues, as we strive to share meaning and communicate internationally. Crystal has suggested the idea of a `universal bidialectal` (2002, p. 294). His perception is that: `We may all need to be in control of two Englishes – the one which gives us our mutual or local identity, and the one which puts us in touch with the rest of the human race` (2002, p. 284). However, it could be suggested that we will be universally tridialectal. There is the descriptive regional variation within our national language, the prescribed standard form required for educational purposes, and then the newer globalized form of English with which we communicate with the world. The evolution of the English language will derive from international necessity, but will not eliminate the fact that language always returns to the individual and their place in the world.

Reference

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