Evidence

System forensics is the process of systematically examining computer media as well as network components, software, and memory for evidence. System forensics involves collecting, preserving, analyzing, and documenting evidence to reconstruct user actively. Appropriately collected evidence Is often presented In court to solve criminal cases and prosecute criminals. 2. How has technology improved the way criminal investigators perform their job?

Technology improved the way criminal investigators perform their jobs by making it easier to track things, there is different types of software out there today to help them with these issues, and make the Jobs easier, when you have different technology to help. 3. Why would a company report or not report a compromise case? The reason a company may or may not report a compromise because If It’s not in their favor and they may report It If It’s In their favor and vice versa. They wouldn’t want to look Incompetent. 4. Who Is In charge of labeling and securing sensitive Information?

The one In charge of labeling and securing sensitive information is the forensic specialist. 5. What is the Daubers standard? The Daubers Standard provides a rule of evidence regarding the admissibility of expert witnesses’ testimony during united States federal legal proceedings. 6. Why would someone use a hex editor in a forensic investigation? The reason someone would use a hex editor in a forensic Investigation is if the suspect has deleted files and has overwritten them on his or her hard disk, you can always use a hex editor to view any data stored In (or deleted from) both files and disk sectors.

A hex editor allows you to peek at the physical contents stored on a disk, regardless of he boundaries of files, directories, or partitions. 7. What is the largest known data loss incident to date? The largest known data loss incident to date Adobe systems, Inc – 10-3-2013, 8. What group runs tallboys? Open Security Foundation runs tallboys. 9. On the website Tallboys. Org, of the largest 20 incidents, how many of them were computer hacks as opposed to other Issues like stolen laptops and lost drives? 1% of the Incidents were computer hacks as opposed to the other Issues. 10. What built-Len Windows tool Is used to manage the Encrypted File System (FEES)? The certificates is was is used to manage the FEES.. . What is the presumption of innocence? All people accused off crime are legally presumed to be innocent until they are convicted, either in a trial or as a result of pleading guilty. This presumption means not only that the prosecutor must convince the Jury of the defendant’s guilt, but also that the defendant need not say or do anything in his own defense.

If the prosecutor can’t convince the Jury that the defendant is guilty, the defendant goes free. 2. The presumption of innocence, coupled with the fact that the prosecutor must prove the defendant’s guilt beyond a reasonable doubt, makes it difficult for the overspent to put innocent people behind bars. 3. What is hearsay and provide an example when Computer evidence can be considered hearsay? “Hearsay’ refers to statements made outside of court of law an example of Computer evidence that is considered hearsay is 4.

What is system integrity? System integrity is the state of a system where it is performing its intended functions without being degraded or impaired by changes or disruptions in its internal or external environments 5. What skills are required by an expert witness? The skills required by an expert witness are: A background in law, law enforcement, or investigation. A membership in professional associations of computer forensic examiners, formal training, and certification. A thorough knowledge of the subject matter and tools.

Investigators must understand the kind of potential evidence they sought and analyzed and understand the tools they used to gather and preserve evidence. They should be accurate, truthful and impartial. 6. Locate and read the opinion Daubers v. Merrill DOD Pharmaceuticals. What was the case about? The Daubers v. Merrill DOD Pharmaceuticals was about two children ho had been born with birth defects and their parents sue Merrill DOD Pharmaceuticals Inc, claiming that the drug Benedictine caused the birth defects. 7. What was the outcome of the case?

The district court granted summary Judgment for Merrill DOD, and Daubers and Schuler appealed to the Ninth Circuit. 8. What previous Supreme Court ruling was superseded by the Federal Rules of Evidence as the standard for admitting expert scientific testimony? The previous Supreme Court ruling was superseded by the Federal Rules of Evidence as the standard for admitting expert scientific testimony was the Fryer’s “general acceptance” Daubers puts the responsibility of the admissibility of evidence by placing the Judge in the role of “gatekeeper”.

Pseudoscience is where a claim is set forth as a reason for believing another claim but that is either logically irrelevant to the truth of the other claim or otherwise fails to provide reasonable support. In this part of the course we are beginning to examine arguments, or, stated more accurately, “would-be arguments,” where people advance reasons for their beliefs that In fact do not support them. There are two mall types of pseudoscience: those that appeal to emotions and those constructed Like real arguments but failing In the essential task of providing real support.

Lessons 10 and 1 1 will examine extemporaneousness types that appeal to emotions. Lesson 12 will study extemporaneousness types constructed Like real arguments. Because extemporaneousness Is defined negatively (what It Is not) It does not lend Itself to technical categorization. The classification offered In these lessons are not exhaustive and may overlap or fall to capture precisely what has gone wrong In an argument. While we must have a common language to communicate about different types of pseudoscience, the point of these lessons is to alert you to a number of ways in which reasoning fails.

When you have finished this course, you may quickly forget the many names and labels but remain alert to failures in reasoning. Common Forms of Pseudoscience/Fallacies 1 . Smokescreen/Red Herring 2. The Subjectivist Fallacy 3. Appeal to Belief 4. Common Practice 5. Peer Pressure and Bandwagon 6. Wishful Thinking 7. Scare Tactics 8. Appeal to Pity 9. Apple Polishing 10. Horse Laugh/Ridicule/Sarcasm 11 . Appeal to Anger or Indignation 12. Two Wrongs Make a Right The above list is not exhaustive. Each will be explained In the next section. Definitions/Descriptions of Extemporaneousness Types 1 .

Smokescreen/Red Herring: Most pseudonymous Introduce Irrelevant considerations Into a discussion, but a smokescreen or red herring does not fit Into one of the more specific categories. Typically It Involves the deliberate Introduction of Irrelevant topic or consideration In order to throw the discussion off course. Example: Professor Conway complains of Inadequate parking on our campus. Duty did you know that last year Conway carried on a torrid love affair with a member of the English Department? Enough said about Conway. Notice the change from the stoic of inadequate parking to the irrelevant topic of a torrid love affair 2.

The Subjectivist Fallacy: The structure of this fallacy is “That may be true for you, but it is not for me,” fact and matters of opinion. In the subjective world of pure opinion (for example, what I think of a particular movie), I am entitled to my opinion. However, in the objective world of facts (for example, the day of the week), I do not enjoy the same latitude. I am not entitled to my own facts. 3. Appeal to Belief: The pattern is: “X is true because everyone (many people, most societies, others) think that it is true. ” It is a distorted version of the reasonable practice of accepting the claim from a seasonable authority.

Because people may in fact be experts on a subject, you must take care in distinguishing between good and bad versions of this reasoning. For example, “Physicians consider food high in saturated fat unsafe,” is a good appeal to belief. On the other hand, “Physicians consider overseas stocks unsafe,” is a bad appeal to belief. 4. Common Practice is where an action is defended by calling attention to the fact that the action is a common one (not to be confused with appeals for fair play). It seeks to Justify an action on the grounds of its familiarity or typicality.

It differs from appeal to belief in that it specifically aims at calling an action acceptable, without mentioning the beliefs people may have about what they commonly do. The most common form of this pseudoscience is, “Everyone does it. ” For example, “Everyone cheats on their taxes,” is used as Justification for me cheating on my taxes. 5. Peer Pressure/Bandwagon is a pattern of pseudoscience in which you are in effect threatened with rejection by your friends, relatives, etc. , if you don’t accept a certain claim. People often act in a certain way because their friends do.

A rood has often been swept up behind a candidate or consumer product, the victim of fashion. But this behavior in itself is not pseudoscience. When you go along with friends or a mob to gain social acceptance, you are reasoning correctly about what will get you accepted, whether or not that acceptance is what is best. The phenomenon turns into pseudoscience only when one cites the peers’ or crowd’s activity as a reason for the truth of a claim. Voting for the most popular political candidate in order to feel at one with your community is, though unwise perhaps, not pseudoscience.

Arguing that the candidate is the best one on the grounds of that popularity is pseudoscience. 6. Wishful Thinking: Believing that something is true because you want it to be true (or believing that it is false because you don’t want it to be true). For example, I refuse to believe that too much exposure to the sun causes skin cancer, because I would have to give up my habit of sunbathing at the beach. 7. Scare Tactics is a pattern of pseudoscience in which someone says, in effect, “X is so because of Y (where Y induces fear in the listener). The emotion being appealed to is fear. However, you need to watch for the difference between Justified and unjustified appeals to fear. “If you don’t check your parachute before Jumping out of the plane, you may die” is an excellent argument. But the pressure used by car salesperson, for example, indicating that the deal offered is only available today usually involves scare tactics, the inducing of fear in order to make a sale. 8. Appeal to Pity is where someone tries to induce acceptance of a claim by eliciting compassion or pity.

The appeal to pity works exactly like a scare tactic, except for the different emotions at stake. As in the appeal to pity, this appeal becomes pseudoscience when the pity is irrelevant. Logic and Critical Thinking does not hold to the notion that you can show no pity and pity is not always irrelevant! 9. Reason for accepting a claim. ( It also has less “flattering” names! ) Note that apple polishing can take subtle forms, for example, “You’re too intelligent to believe in mental telepathy. ” Appeals to flattery have fewer legitimate versions than the last two (appeals to fear and pity), but they do exist.

For example, “You should wear the gold sweater instead of the red one, because it brings out your beautiful eyes. 10. Horse Laugh/Ridicule/Sarcasm is a pattern of pseudoscience in which ridicule is disguised as a reason for rejecting a claim. It is a way to avoid arguing about a position by simply laughing at it. “Support the Equal Rights Amendment? Sure, as soon as the ladies start buying the drinks! Ha, ha, ha. ” Rush Lumbago relies heavily on this one. 11. Appeal to Anger or Indignation: A pattern of pseudoscience in which someone tries to induce acceptance of a claim by arousing indignation or anger.

It obscures the relevant issues by arousing one’s anger, particularly at some person or group. Keep in mind that expressions of anger (like emotionally charged language) do not by themselves make something an appeal to anger or indignation. The appeal to anger or indignation counts as pseudoscience because it reverses the appropriate relationship between wrongdoing and anger. It is one thing to get angry because you see something wrong being done; but the appeal to anger tries to make you call something wrong because you feel angry.

Most commonly, such appeals arouse anger against a person before getting to the specifics of the argument, rather than giving vent to indignation after showing that something wrong as been done, a common tactic in the rhetoric of politicians. 12. Two Wrongs Make a Right pattern: “It’s acceptable to A to do X to B because B would do X to A,” said where Ass doing X to B is not necessary to prevent Bi’s doing X to A. One Justifies some action that hurts another person on the grounds that the other person has done (or is likely to do) the same kind of harm.

Because many people will see Justice in cases of returning harm for harm, this kind of pseudoscience is difficult to distinguish from legitimate reasoning. “Two wrongs make a right” is not identical with revenge, UT applies specifically to those circumstances in which the revenging act is illegitimate. Responding to rude service at a restaurant by telling your friends not to eat there may be vengeful, but does not fall under this category of pseudoscience. But if you slip out without paying and Justify yourself on the grounds that the waiters were rude, you are engaging in pseudoscience.

Unnamed Classify the pseudoscience in the following examples: 1 . “L can’t believe the mayor wants to use the Police Department as security guards for our schools. While he’s at it, why not have them collect our garbage? 2. Biker: I refuse to buy Japanese motorcycles. I don’t believe in doing business with Communist countries. Reporter: But Japan isn’t Communist. Biker: Well to me they are. 3. Officer: Excuse me, sir. Do you know how fast you were going? Driver: I never get over the sight of you mounted policemen. How do you leap down off the horse’s back so fast? And you must have them well trained, not to run away when you dismount. . “Dear Editors: When AH Saccharin wrote in to criticize city workers, he didn’t mention his occupation. Maybe he’s a millionaire without a care in the world, hat he has the time to criticize people working for him if he’s even a taxpayer. ” 5. Ladies and gentlemen of the Jury: My client stands before you accused of three bank story, who will have a hard time getting food on their table if their daddy goes to prison. 6. My opponent would like to see TV networks label their programming, on the grounds that violent shows make children who watch them violent. But everyone knows a couple of shows can’t change your personality. . I had to get a garage built last summer. Who wants to be the last person on the block to park his car in the open air? 8. There must be life on other planets. Imagine how lonely we’ll find the universe if we discover that we’re the only ones here. 9. Judge Cunningham keeps striking down our state gun control laws. She had better say good-bye to any hopes for a Supreme Court appointment, as long as we have a democrat in the White House. 10. My opponent would like to see TV networks label their programming, on the grounds that violent shows make children who watch them violent.

Next they won’t allow any shows from France, on the grounds that children who watch them will become French. 11. I’m a disabled Vietnam veteran. Why can I only get a six-month license to sell pretzels from my pushcart? You have to be a foreigner with a green card to make a living in this country. 12. The United States is under no obligation to pay its debts to the United Nations. Here we are, the biggest contributor to the UN budget, and we only get one vote out of 185. 13. How can Moslems be opposed to alcoholic beverages? People have been drinking them since before the beginning of history. 4. Why do you take a bus to work when most people drive? 15. Give that woman a dollar. I see her on this corner every day crying. And she seems to be ill. 16. Ladies and gentlemen, that concludes my proposal. You know that I trust and honor your Judgment. Even if you do not approve my request, I am happy Just to have had the chance to present this proposal to such qualified experts. Thank you. 17. Letter to the editor: Your magazine expresses sympathy for Annie Larson, a putative “fashion victim” because “animal rights terrorists” splashed paint on her mink coat.

But when I think of those dozens of animals maimed and anally electrocuted to satisfy someone’s vanity, I know who the real victims are, and who’s he terrorist. Answers to Exercise Questions 1. Horse laugh. 2. Subjective fallacy 3. Apple polishing. This also counts as smokescreen, but that’s not the best answer here 4. Appeal to indignation. 5. Appeal to pity. 6. Appeal to belief. 7. No pseudoscience. The person wants to keep up with the neighbors, but is not asserting that a garage is a good thing in itself. 8. Wishful thinking. 9. Scare tactic. 10. Horse laugh 11. Appeal to anger and appeal to pity. 12. Two wrongs make a right 13.

Common practice. 14. Common practice. 17. Two wrongs make a right. Unrepresentative Persuasion: An attempt to win acceptance for a claim, but not giving reasons in support. Instead of reasons, devices in the claims themselves are relied upon, such as, emotive language, positive or negative. Political campaign literature makes generous use of emotive language, with few reasons presented in support of the issues or candidates. For example, Copal, a conservative Republican support group, developed a directory of words to be used in writing literature and letters, in preparing speeches, and in producing material for the electronic media.

When writing about your own candidate r issue, emotively positive words (commonsense, courage, dream, duty, family, strength, truth, vision, liberty) are recommended. However, negatively charged words (betray, cheat, disgrace, failure, excuses, liberal, welfare self-serving) are used when defining your opponent. It is a valuable exercise for this class to examine some campaign literature. You may find some interesting material on the web. If you do, share it with us on the bulletin board. Some words of caution: Our writing should not be boring.

An argument couched in emotive language is not necessarily false, but nuns the risk of adding more heat than clarity to the issue. Using the information in this section increase sensitivity to the difference between illegitimate unrepresentative persuasion and appropriate use of lively or emotively charged language. Slattern: Linguistic device used to affect opinions, attitudes, and behavior without argumentation. I t does not necessarily mean that slattern mislead, rather we primarily examine slattern to become aware of the shadings of language.

Good arguments may come in slanted language, but such arguments should not be accepted uncritically. 1 . Euphemisms (good sounds) are words used as substitutes for expressions that may offend, for example, naturalization is substituted for assassination, freedom fighters for guerrillas. By substituting guerrillas with the emotively positive words “freedom fighters,” emotively positive words, you want to build support for them. Euphemisms are entirely acceptable when they foster civility or diplomacy, for example, “passing away” as opposed to “died” when speaking of a recent bereavement. . Dismisses: The opposite of euphemism is dismisses, that is, words are used to produce a negative effect or attitude. For example, freedom fighter is a euphemism for guerrilla or terrorist, while terrorist, a negatively charged word, is a dismisses. 3. Persuasive comparisons, definitions, and explanations are used to slant what they say. A persuasive comparison slants, positively or negatively, by linking our feeling about a person or thing to the person or thing we compare it to: “Her complexion is as pale as whale blubber,” or “Her complexion is like new fallen snow. 4. A persuasive definition uses loaded language when defining a term: “Abortion is the killing of innocent human life,” or “Abortion is a safe and effective reoccurred for relieving a woman of an unwanted burden. ” To facilitate seeing an issue from all sides, avoid definitions that slant the discussion. 5. Persuasive explanations use similarly loaded language to tell the reason for an event: “He lost the fight because he lost his nerve” or “He lost because he was too cautious. ” 6. Assuming that every member of the class has the same set of characteristics: “All women are poor managers,” or “All liberals are fiscally irresponsible. ” 7. Innuendo involves the insinuation of something derogatory: “She is competent, in many ways,” r “He told the truth – this time,” or “Far be it from me to suggest that my opponent is lying. ” 8. A loaded question follows the logic of innuendo, illegitimately suggesting something through the very existence of the question: “When did you stop beating our wife. The secret to understanding loaded questions is to recognize that there are two questions involved. In the example above the two questions are 1) Did you beat your wife, and 2) When did you stop beating her. The loaded question illegitimately assumes a positive answer to number 1) and then illegitimately expects n answer to number 2). 9. A weaseled is a linguistic method of watering down or weakening of a claim in order to spare it criticism. Words like “may” and “possibly,” and qualifying phrases like “as far as we know” or ” within reasonable limits,” are some common examples of weasels afoot.

Weasels, often used in advertising, suck out all the strength a claim to the point of saying little or nothing: “Three out of four dentists surveyed recommend sugarless gum for their patients who chew gum. “. 10. A downplayed is a linguistic device to make something seem less important than it ally is: “Evolution is merely a theory,” or using such words as “however” and “although. ” 11. Proof surrogates: expressions used to suggest there is evidence or authority for a claim without citing it. For example, “informed sources,” “it’s obvious that” or “studies show. When writing research papers be careful to cite your sources and avoid the charge of proof surrogate. 12. Hyperbole is an extravagant overstatement. For example, describing a hangnail as a major injury, or a teenager describing parents as “fascists” because of a midnight curfew. Note: Is there a method for telling one kind of slanted from another? You will find that the distinctions are partial, often overlapping, and to some extent vague. The organization of slattern into types is meant to assist critical reasoning, not to replace it with role acts of labeling.

In order to arrive at the best name for the slanted in a given example, eliminate those possibilities whose very form gives them away: A loaded question must be in the form of a question; a persuasive comparison is a comparison; persuasive definitions and explanations are definitions and explanations before they are anything else. If none of these categories fits the example, the slanted assuming there is one – must be euphemism, dismisses, stereotype, innuendo, weaseled, downplayed, hyperbole, or proof surrogate. So, look for the obvious structural cues, loaded (emotive) language, and the intended effects.

The process of elimination will lead you to the best description of the slanted. Exercise 9-1 Determine which of the numbered, italicized words and phrases are used as slattern in the following passage: The big money guys (1) who have smuggled (2) the Rancho Vaccine development onto the November ballot will stop at nothing to have this town run Just exactly as they want (3). It is possible (4) that Rancho Venin will cause traffic congestion on the east side of town, and it’s perfectly clear that (5) the number of houses that will be built will overload the sewer system. But (6) a small number of individuals have taken up the fight. 7.

Can the developers be stopped in their desire Innuendo, dismisses 1. Dismisses, 2. Hyperbole 3. Weaseled 4. Proof surrogate 5. No slanted in this instance. 6. Loaded question. See if you can identify the two questions involved. Exercise 9-2 Identify any slattern you find in the following selections: 1. It’s possible that your insurance agent misfiled your claim. Surely he would not have lied to you about it. 2. “National Health Care: The compassion of the IRS and the efficiency of the post office, all at Pentagon prices. ” 3. We’ll have to work harder to get Representative Burger reelected because of this little run-in with the law. . During World War II, the United States government resettled many people of Japanese ancestry in internment camps. 5. Morgan has decided to run for state senator. I’m sorry to hear that he’s decided to become a politician. 6. I’ll tell you what capitalism is: Capitalism is Charlie Manson tinting in Folsom Prison for all those murders and still making a bunch of bucks off T- shirts promoted by Guns N’ Roses. Answers to Exercise 9-2 1 . Innuendo (bringing up the subject of lying while being able to deny that the accusation is being made). 2. Persuasive definition. 3.

Euphemism (little run-in with the law). 4. Euphemism (resettled, and internment camps), To statement avoids the fact that Japanese were forced into concentration camps, not resettled voluntarily. 5. No slanted. You might disagree! Give your input on the bulletin board or by e-mail. 6. Persuasive definition. Information Tailoring and the News One major way of influencing a person’s behavior or attitude is select the information one receives. In an open society it is difficult to dictate the information people receive. At the same time, if you get your information from one source this is what happens.

The best way of defending yourself against unrepresentative persuasion is to be well informed and to read widely, using many sources. We get most of our information on a daily basis from the mass media BBC, CBS, NBC, CNN and the major newspapers. A newspaper professes to present the facts objectively. However, all information must pass through the subjective mind, so objectivity is an ideal rather than a strict reality. The tabloids do not strive for the same level of objectivity by checking their sources. The same can be said for many of the TV news magazine programs, which have grown in popularity in recent years.

From the television stations point of view, they are an excellent source of profits, because they are cheap to produce and remain popular for a dwindling audience. Keep in mind that the media are private businesses and as such are in the business of making money. For his reason the media cannot afford to offend their constituents: readers, advertisers, or the government, who provides them with licenses to operate or can make life difficult by withholding information, and the over zealous application of tax laws. Main stream views are promoted, while the controversial is left to smaller news stories.

Most of the information is given to them in press releases from politicians, Congress, the White House, local police forces, and local city halls. Companies of any size also issue press releases on a regular basis. A new source of information is the WWW. You might take the opportunity in this course of taking a look at the web site of newspapers in other parts of the world and compare how a particular story is covered differently than in the U. S. Media. Also, peruse your local newspaper and note where their information comes from.

You may be surprised to see that much of the information is from other newspapers around the country and from UPS and other news wire services. CNN is a major news source for local TV newscasts. Beware of media bias, slanting, playing up and playing down of stories, sensational headlines, and the use of emotive language. Advertising: Advertising is useful to sell products, sell political candidates and ideas, make announcements, and so on. It also is a major offender in engaging in unrepresentative persuasion. Ads often exaggerate, mislead and even lie.

Some products are advertised so heavily that they skew choices. The psychology of ads is that they play on our fears, desires, prejudices and weaknesses. No expense is spared, and weasel words (fights bad breath, helps control dandruff with regular use, gets dishes virtually spotless) are generously used, especially in the fine print. There re two basic kinds of ads: those that give reasons, and those that do not. All ads are guilty of suppressed evidence, that is, they never give you sufficient information about a product whether it be a commodity or political candidate (30 second spots, for example).

Ads will never tell you what is wrong with the product (for example, the commonly experienced mechanical problems of a particular model car). Ads give weak promises (your clothes will be “brighter” if you use a particular soap), use vague comparisons (good, better, best), and make illegitimate appeals to the authority of the rood (most people use the product) or to the authority of a particular individual (Steve Young in the ad for David). Ads that provide reasons, promise ads, submit reasons for buying the product. They tell us more than that the product exists, but not much more.

Usually the promises are vague (Gillie’s gin promising “more gin taste”). So, even ads that present reasons for buying a product do not in themselves justify our purchase of the item. If I have done all my homework ahead of time and then see a particularly good price on an item in an ad, then I would be Justified in eying the product – assuming I have a genuine need of it. Ads invite us to think fallaciously, which we will see more about in the next three lessons. There is no substitute for the application of the skills of logic and critical thinking, especially a careful analysis of unrepresentative persuasion. N advertising. Exercise You might take a particular ad that you like and see how it measures up under the scrutiny of logic and critical thinking. Feel free to share your findings on the bulletin board! Pseudoscience 2 Introduction: Many of the common types of pseudoscience go by the name of fallacy. As a rule, Hess attempts at argumentation do not begin with a psychological response to an issue (whether relevant to the truth of the claim or not). In many cases -false dichotomy, slippery slope they follow the structure of a good argument, but hominid, the pseudoscience resembles a smokescreen.

The speaker makes a genuine argument, but one that lacks a proper connection with the truth-claim at hand. The categories presented here cover the most frequently occurring kinds of pseudoscience. These occur so frequently, in fact, that the major terms have entered everyday spoken English. The pseudoscience covered in this lesson often assembles good reasoning more than the examples presented in earlier lessons. These cases contain few or no appeals to emotion or other psychological motive. Very often the fallacies listed here garble the structure of a good argument, and may even be altered to become good arguments.

Pseudoscience Types Part 2 1. Ad Hominid including Personal Attack, Circumstantial Ad Hominid, Sedimentation indisposing the Well. 2. Genetic Fallacy 3. Burden of Proof including Appeal to Ignorance 4. Straw Man 5. False Dilemma including Perfectionist Fallacy and Line-Drawing Fallacy 6. Slippery Slope 7. Begging the Question. Each will be defined/described in the following section Pseudoscience 2 – Definitions/Descriptions Ad Hominid Basic to the ad hominid (to the person) fallacy is the confusing of the message with the messenger.

A claim or an argument is rejected because of some fact about the author or source of the claim or argument. The fallacy can take a number of forms, but they all share a confusion (often deliberate) between the truth of a claim under discussion and the person or group who put it forward. Since people may hold true beliefs even when their characters are unreliable, or when they belong to a group hat automatically holds those beliefs, the ad hominid dismissal is pseudoscience. The most obvious form of the ad hominid is the personal attack.

As the name indicates, it maligns a person in order to dismiss the person’s beliefs; there is something about the person who put forward the argument we do not like or of whom we disapprove. The circumstantial ad hominid attempts to discredit a person’s claim or argument by referring to the person’s circumstances rather than the claim or argument. This after becomes abusive, for example, “Of course he thinks the economy’s fine. He’s a Republican, and they don’t care about poor people. But abusive treatment to the group in question is not essential to a circumstantial ad hominid. My doctor says that homeopathic cures don’t work, but that’s what they get drilled into them in medical school. ” You may like your doctor despite saying this; but though the statement contains no abuse, it becomes an ad hominid by refusing to consider the truth of the doctor’s opinion. A more complex form of ad hominid is sedimentation. The pattern is : “l reject your claim because you act as if you think it is false,” or “You can’t make the claim now because you have in the past rejected t. ” In this case, one dismisses a claim on the grounds of the other person’s inconsistency.

Inconsistency does bring down a claim or argument , if a person is advocating both a truth-claim and its denial at the same time. For example, when I it wears down my organs, you can dismiss my claims on the basis of their inconsistency. One variety of sedimentation is where the contradiction between two beliefs reaches back to something a person said in the past: “How can you say caffeine makes people sleepless, when back in high school I remember you claiming it had no effect at all? Another more common variety finds an inconsistency between people’s statements and their behavior. You may say you are against drugs, but I notice you drinking alcohol everyday. ” The person may be a hypocrite, but drugs can be dangerous nevertheless. Poisoning the well, another form of ad hominid, attempts to discredit in advance what a person might claim by relating unfavorable information about the person. Poisoning the well has the effect of giving anything else that person says an unreliable sound; thus you may think of it as blanket ad hominid in advance. The fact that a person is on death row and committed many murders does not dismiss that person’s argument against the death penalty; the argument stands on its own merits.

Genetic fallacy: The belief that a perceived defect or deficiency in the origin of a thing discredits the thing itself. Strictly speaking, the ad hominid is a specific form of the genetic fallacy. It rejects a claim solely on the grounds of its source, its origins, or its associations. In conversation, the genetic fallacy may sound as broad as “You Just think that’s wrong because you were brought up that way. ” Burden of Proof: A form of pseudoscience in which the burden of proving a point is placed on the wrong side, or places the burden of proof more heavily on one side than it should be.

One version occurs when a lack of evidence on one side is taken as evidence for the other side, in cases where the burden of proving the point rests on the latter side. Often a discussion of some issue can turn into a discussion of which side faces the greater burden of proof. It helps to have reasonable grounds for assigning the burden of proof properly. All other things being equal, the greater burden of proof sets with someone whose claim has less initial plausibility. Suppose one person claims that the earth is flat, while another denies it.

This claim will strike most people as implausible, so the first person faces the greater burden of proof. All other things being equal, the greater burden of proof rests with someone making an affirmative claim, rather than with the one denying that claim. Be careful when someone defends an affirmative claim by throwing the burden onto the other side, calling a claim true simply because it has not been shown to be false. This special variety of ruder-of-proof pseudoscience is called an appeal to ignorance (for example, God exists because no one has proved the opposite. Straw Man: The Straw Man pseudoscience is where someone ignores an opponent’s actual position and presents in its place a distorted, exaggerated, or misrepresented version of that position. There is a deliberate distorting of an opponent’s position in order to make it easier to attack. A straw man fallacy typically involves a smokescreen, because recasting another person’s opinion in distorted form amounts to changing the subject. At the same time, such faulty thinking can occur without any intent to

As students, we attend lectures, take an active part in out classes activities and have fun. But we should not forget about another side of the study, in particular, scientific papers. The main essence of such occupation is to work out a plan, examine new phenomena, and submit the results.There is no hesitation that such kind of writing is the first step in the educational achievements that brings profit. Unfortunately, “not all roses.”

According to a survey, some students avoid such kind of work because it is troublesome and requires a lot of time and patience. Nevertheless, we can state that there are cases when educational papers bring pleasure and encourage young people to dedicate their lives to science. It is possible when students understand specific character of such writing and realize their primary goal. That is why we have prepared for your article that will help cope with difficulties and break incomprehension related to academic papers.

Briefly about APA format

It is a common situation that your professor can ask you to write a paper in various styles, in particular, APA. Let’s clarify its essence and find out the main features. To start with, we should admit that this abbreviation stands for American Psychological Association. As a rule, this style is used for such disciplines as sociology, philosophy, and education. APA style essay is well-spread in different universities as it helps test knowledge of students. Moreover, it is regarded as the easiest one. We hope that you don’t have troubles with college essay formatting, but if you do, keep reading this information.

How to write an APA paper

The crucial thing to memorize is that APA essay example consists of title page, abstract, body pages (the place where you present your investigation), and references. It is reasonable to describe each of these components.

Title page

We can say that it is a “face” of your work, as it makes a general impression. When a professor starts checking your paper, the first things that he notices are mistakes on a title. In order to avoid it, we recommend you to follow simple rules of formatting.

• At the top of the page, it is required to have a running head. That is the shortened variant of the title. Here you rephrase the text, but it should not exceed 50 characters. Another key thing to know is that each word should be capitalized. It should be on each page of your work.
• The title has to be at the center of the page. The appropriate font is Times New Roman typed in 12- point. Do not italicize, underline or capitalize it. This is important to admit that your title should be one or two sentences with grammatically correct structure. The style should be neat. Moreover, make the title precise and concise.
• Under the title, you should write your name and data about your instructor. It is required be double-spaced and centered.

Abstract

• A second page of the paper is dedicated to abstract. Type a word “Abstract” at the center and do not make it bold. The first sentence should not be indented. That is an informative part as it conveys the main goals, tasks, and plot. Try to make it qualitative, well-structured, and grammatically correct. The main reason for it is that professor will estimate an abstract and make the conclusion about the whole paper. We recommend to avoid writing the facts that are not given in the paper as it is not a good manner. You are required to submit keywords that are frequently used in writing. Moreover, you should write all terms that relate to the topic. The abstract should be 150-200 words.

APA body format

Introduction

• As a rule, it is the most complicated and troublesome part as you should make and encourage people to read your masterpiece. It can sound funny but do not introduce yourself. We recommend you to star with philosophical statement, proverb, or quote. It will make your work more qualitative. Be sure that your instructor will be pleasantly surprised to see the quote of Nietzsche, for instance. Moreover, it will attract readers’ attraction. Another key thing to know is that you should integrate your investigation. Namely, your task is to prove the importance and originality of content. Do not forget, to end this paragraph with the appropriate thesis sentence that will be a good “bridge” to the second part of the work. One more tip for you: feel free to submit here scholar and scientific ideas that you have used; try to organize them and perform logically, not randomly. It means that previous sentences should be the beginning of the next one. A good way to make your intro informative is to highlight which articles or other sources were used during the investigation. It doesn’t mean that you should write “I used a book “Miracle” and found out that…” You can agree that it is not a high level of academic writing. That is why use your skills and summarize credible sources.
• In the introduction, it is a kind of forbidden thing to use quotations, except the case when you start the paragraph. It means that you should write your thoughts and assumptions. It is more interesting to read new and original thoughts, rather than copied.
• Do not title this part as “Introduction,” just divide it into paragraphs, in order to separate significant thoughts.

Method, Materials, Participants

After you have introduced your paper, it is time to present methods. Here you give a brief and precise overview of the scientific ways of research that was useful during the investigation. There is no need to type the title of method, just give its small characteristics.

• Speaking of materials, we should note that the aim of this section is to give readers opportunity to cast a glance at the results and sources that helped you achieve them. Another key thing to know is that this part is optional as it is a type of duplicate of conclusion.
• As for participants, we are sure that you realize the main aim of this part. Here you should present the scientists that contributed to the investigation of this phenomena. You should write that you haven’t chosen participants randomly. Your task is to prove that you used only necessary, trusted, and qualitative data. We recommend you to avoid short and choppy sentences.
• It can be stated that APA format essay body is a discussion where you write about the main aspects of the theme, perform data in order to help readers realize the phenomena. Here you interpret your findings but in a more extended way. It is a part where you can link the scientific facts with your hypothesis.
• We recommend you to make paragraphs and separate key thoughts and thesis. The main reason is obvious, as it helps readers find necessary information quickly and does not make them sleep with the monotonous structure.
• Feel free and show how your finding is connected with the existed investigation.
• Use various examples and evidence. It will prove readers that your paper is based not on the figment of your imagination, but credible works.
• There is a rule – to finish each section with a conclusion. Do not be afraid because you do not need to write a big paragraph; your task is to create the sentence that will sum up given information and turn readers’ attention to the next portion of writing.

Now it is high time to mention the common and significant rules of the main body formatting.

• Remember that we do not duplicate the “title” on the second page, it means that you can start submitting your content without the introductory phrase. It goes without saying that it makes the writing process easier.
• You can use different levels of headings in order to structure your paper well. Moreover, it will make your content logical and interesting to read.
• Common knowledge is that you will have the titles of different works in your paragraphs. We have one rule for such case, in particular, you should italicize or put quotation marks around the titles.
• Do not forget about margin; it should be one-inch at each side of the page.
• Make your paper double-spaced as it is better for reading. Moreover, you will find the mistakes while proofreading easily.
• Do you hesitate where to put the number on the page? As a rule, it should be at top right corner.
• The required font of American Psychological Association is Times New Roman 12 size.

Conclusion

That is the smallest, but not less important part of an academic paper. You should be aware of the simple rule of short essay format.

• The conclusion should contain the summary of each part of the main body and organize the data logically.
• Do not try to be omniscient, write only the facts that you have described in your paper.
• It is a type of forbidden thing to describe the new phenomenon in this part.
• The aim of conclusion is to inform readers about the results and achievements of an investigation. Moreover, here you are required to show the scientific importance of your paper for the future research.

References

• The sources that you have used should be indicated and shown at the end of your paper; that is why you are required to make “Reference list.” This title should go at the center of the new page. Do not bold or italicize it.
• Now it is time to make references. It is essential to note that they should have alphabetic order and the first line should be indented from the left margin.
• The type of reference depends on the source that you have used.

If it is a book, follow this rule:

Author, (Year of publication). Title of work. Location. Publisher.

If you have used periodicals:

Author, (Year). Title of article. Title of article, volume, number, pages.

Article from online periodical:

Author, (Date of publication). Title of article. Title of an online periodical. Retrieved from (link).

In case of misunderstanding and troubles, you have a chance to address different services that can make a citation instead of you.

Simple steps to write an APA paper

At first sight, it seems impossible to apply in practice information mentioned above. But things can’t be all that bad. We invoke you to believe that it is a doable thing if to follow simple rules. You have the opportunity to get acquainted with the steps that will make the writing process easy and interesting. Hope it will be useful for you.

1. The basic thing is to choose a good topic. We highly recommend you to pick the topic according to your tastes and interests. Be sure that it will be a fascinating process if you write about the branch of science that you are fond of; moreover, the results and score will be high. Another key thing to remember is that you have to select a topic that can be investigated from different aspect with the help of modern methods. Do not try to depict old and previously discovered issue in new colors. As a rule, it will not bring success.
2. Start with an outline. Make a type of frame of your paper. Be sure that it will motivate you to good thoughts. Everybody will agree that it is easier to work with the draft rather than start writing from scratch.
3. Learn the basic rules of the APA style and try to adapt your work to the existed requirements. Admittedly, your professor will appreciate it.
4. Examine the potential sources of your future writing. Feel certain that these materials can serve as credible sources.
5. Start the creation and enjoy this process.

So, now you are armed with the essential information about writing an essay in APA style. We hope that your first step will be successful. Do not hesitate and accept challenges.

Mary’s past record could be used to support her ability to perform her job satisfactorily without focusing on her absenteeism. Her previous record showed that she was a model employee, therefore, the past 3 years wherein her absenteeism became a company problem was based on external variables that was not present in her first 6 years in the company. The cause for her absenteeism had been the genuine presence of illnesses and declining health, which is in effect a valid reason.

Her termination was based only on her being absent from work and not from the quality of her output. Mary’s past work performance had been above average or exceptional, which means that she is capable of working and do it efficiently and effectively. Mary could also justify that her previous records have not showed any oral or written warning about her absenteeism and that her termination is not based on documented evidence, while, Mary’s claim of unfair termination can be supported by her previous records.

2. Does management have a right to know why employees refuse to work overtime? Explain. Management do have the right to know why employees refuse to work overtime since it directly affects the operation and productivity of the company, for example, Mary’s refusal to work overtime would hamper and limit the productivity of the department, and the failure to produce the services required of them would spell losses for the company.

Moreover, the company if it pays for overtime work can demand from the worker the commitment to work more than the required hours as part of the psychological contract between employees and management (Belcourt, 2004 p552). If employees expect to be paid and treated humanely in the workplace, the company also expects that employees are responsible for their work and should work on it when asked. 3. Evaluate the arguments of Mary Schwartz and management in this case. Mary is correct in saying that she had been discharged unfairly since it was not in accordance with the published company policies.

She was never informed nor was it documented in her records, thus the termination was not based on factual evidence and that the company did not follow its own rules. The management is justified in giving out disciplinary actions to Mary, since she had been a chronic absentee and did not show any signs of improvement over the last 3 years. Her refusal to work on overtime severely affects the quality output of the department and that it is costly for the company to maintain her employment when she is not present to fulfill her duties.

4. If you were a member of the company’s peer-review complaint committee, how would you vote in this case? What facts would cause you to vote this way? I would vote in favor of Mary because the company’s actions had not followed its own policies, the absence of documentation would also be more damaging if Mary took her complaint to the courts because management do not have the factual evidence to say that due process had been given to Mary.

Her termination was not a result of a carefully designed process which by law should include oral and written warnings, informing the employee of her misconduct and making her aware of its consequences (Belcourt, 2004 p554), moreover, the justification for not informing her is weak and shallow. If Mary had been absent chronically for the past years due to an illness which is actually a valid reason and does not warrant termination.

References

Belcourt, M. (2004). Managing HR 4th ed. Canada: Thomson Nelson pp. 550-591. Hollenbeck, N. & Wright, G. (2007). Fundamentals of Human Resource Management 2nd ed. Boston: McGraw Hill.

He argues that due to this mindset, millennial errors will expect a tangible set of defined rules and tasks, demand a flexible work schedule, and then wish to be positively affirmed at the end of every work day. If these expectations are not met, they will ditch their commitment in search for something else. EVIDENCE: Carbureted. Com survey: “85% of managers and HRS executives said they feel that millennial have stronger sense of entitlement than older workers. ” ; Michigan State university and Nonstarters: half [of millennial] had moderate to high superiority beliefs about themselves.

Two-thirds would surf from Job to job If not satisfied. Of the two evidential pieces that are stated in the article, neither is based on fact and rather on broad surveys. It is difficult to draw a general conclusion from these surveys not only because the people they are given to are unknown, but also because how does one test superiority beliefs from a survey? Also also uses industry experts in order to strengthen his argument, which poses for more believable evidence because these people have first hand facts straight from their own experiences.

Since these facts are taken from a source’s personal knowledge, the more respectable the source, the more credible their statements. RELIABILITY: In the article the evidence contains an Identified source, which makes evidence much more credible. Carbureted. Com and Nonstarters, two of the top most visited career search sites and do a large amount of work finding Jobs for people of the millennial generation coming out of college. Muss Employment Research Institute does much of its research on the transition from college to the working world and revised credible statistics analyzing the college labor market each year.

Also also uses quotes and personal facts from Industry experts In order to give strength to his article. Using primary sources often builds credibility because these people have worked with and managed the new millennial first hand. OPPOSITION: Although Also does not give much word to the opposite end of the argument, he does say that “[Managers] will benefit from this generation’s best and brightest. ” Due to the millennial generation’s excessive educational training with today’s technology, social outworking, and multitasking, they will bring a lot to the table.

He Includes with his word to the opposition that, “Most will work hard if the task in engaging and promises a tangible payoff. ” Near the end of the article, Also quotes Justine Pollster, a working millennial, who says that we should be allowed to drop out of the corporate world if our expectations are not met. Millennial expect to be given Jobs that make them think “multi-dimensionally”; they do not want to put their college education to waste. Cake millennial sound like demanding, spoiled brats, which in many cases is not true.

When Also uses the words “in need of attention and guidance” and “delicate” to describe the new workers, she makes them sound incapable of handling the stresses of the business world, completely denoting all they have learned about it in their education. Lastly when the author says that they are not loyal, it assumes that all millennial cannot be hardworking and responsible. PERSUASIVENESS: Due to Alloy’s consistent, relevant evidence and clear thesis stated, he does well at resurging his audience of his viewpoint.

Unfortunately because of his lack of acknowledgement to the oppositional view, his argument is weakened. It seems as if the author hides the opposition for fear of it weakening his own argument. A key too good writer is being able to recognize the other side of the argument (exceptional educational experience, a new potential for our hurting economy) and persuade the audience against it. ASSUMPTIONS: The majority of the article is an assumption and addresses the millennial as a whole, as if they were all raised in the same way.

One example occurs when Also states that millennial do not have to worry about keeping a Job because they have their parents to fall back on. He does not give attention to the many people who were not given everything growing up and were provided a college education either by scholarship or student loans. He assumes that all millennial will be disloyal to their work if their “extremely high expectations” are not met. All of the argument is an personalization of this generation, which actually contains people from all backgrounds and social-economic standings.

Everest University Abstract It’s very important for commissioners and city councils to understand the importance of forensics. When the commissioners and city council understand forensics they will have a clear idea of what the cost and what it takes for the forensic team. Having an idea and understanding gives you knowledge of the forensics. It’s very important that commissioners and city council member to appreciate the value and the hard work of a forensic team.

It is very important for the city council and commissioners to understand and appreciate the value of forensic evidence because all funds have to be approved by elected officials and they have to provide oversight for LEO to help prevent violations of funds. Forensic processing and evaluations can be costly and failure to conduct a timely use can lead to a law suit against the city and county. Neither city nor the commissioner wants a law suit against them.

Forensics is very important for the commissioner, city council and other people that’s have something to do with running a town to appreciate and understand the value of it. Forensic gives an insight on someone innocent or to prove them guilty and the commissioners should be appreciative of that. Communication between all those that are not involved with the forensic but have some say so in the money funds should communicate with each other very well so that way the city council and the commissioners will know exactly how the funds are being spent and that it’s to prove someone innocent or guilty.

An uncoordinated approach can lead to misunderstanding on either end. I don’t think the city commissioners are involved in the knowing of crimes as much as they should be but they do make decisions on the funds and I think they do appreciate the value of forensic evidence. They just can’t be there on the scene and do hands on but they do appreciate it I think. References Article: Mabelle Dec. 9 (2009) Article: May, 29 (2010) www. mycriminaljusticecareers. com www. bls. gov

Crime scenes are known to have many other types of evidence some are physical(DNA,fingerprints,Handwriting,photographs and clothing).Trace Evidence can be microscopic most Trace Evidence is small it can’t be seen with the human eye.Trace evidence is evidence left by an individual at the crime scene it can be either intentional or unintentional.

Trace evidence is left by touch and example would be if you had a really fuzzy sweater and a person brushes up against you,the fibers from your sweater would transfer to that person’s clothing . There are several different types of Trace Evidence such as fibers,hair,soil,wood,gunshot residue,pollen,chemicals and many other types.

Trace Evidence can be circumstantial an example would be if someone was murdered at a house and that person’s moms fingerprint was at that the crime scene,and the mom had visited a week ago the fingerprint has a reason to be there. However she still could have murdered her child so she will still have to be cleared as a suspect.Edmond Locard, founder of the Institute of Criminalistics at the University of Lyon, France, developed what has become known as Locard’s Exchange Principle.

This states that every contact leaves a trace (Trace Evidence). Investigators can potentially link a suspect and a victim to a location through trace evidence. Glass from doors or windows can stick on the soles of shoes.It can be found on clothes,tools,skin and weapons.Different types of glass break and shatter differently.Glass can also hold fingerprints.Dust and dirt can also determine where a person has been,where they have worked,where they live and if they have pets.

Pollen is also included in this this because it is a type of dirt and dust and can tell investigators if a suspect has been outside and where they have been.Forensic investigators must handle evidence from a crime scene with care so that they do not contaminate any evidence. Investigators have certain way of collecting ballistic evidence in order to prevent contamination and assure that it can be a valuable source of data.

The truth about how investigators deal with evidence is very far from the Hollywood image that has been created from shows. The accumulation of ballistic evidence can be broken down into collection of firearms, ammunition, and gunpowder deposits. In all cases, an investigator’s first priority is safety.

Before a firearm is sent to a laboratory, it must be checked to see there is no chance of an accidentals shot of a weapon. To be safe, in most cases a weapon will be unloaded. Some important things that investigators note in this process are the weapon’s safety position and the location of fired and unfired ammunition; this way, no evidence is lost.

Since trace evidence covers a wide variety of stuff, there is similar variety in the testing that is performed. Specialized testing may be done outside of the local laboratory at regional or national facilities. The type of test performed and the range of information provided vary by the type of evidence tested.

For example, analysis of a strand of hair may yield information on the race and general health of the donor, while analysis of a paint sample would probably find the manufacturer of the paint .Hair samples are tested primarily by microscopic comparison. Microscopic comparison identifies the shape, color, texture and other visual aspects of the sample.In some cases hair is subjected to DNA analysis. Trace evidence analysts usually have strands to work with.

From these strands, fiber testing is done using high-powered comparison microscopes to compare texture and wear in a side-by-side test. Chemical analysis can determine the chemical composition of the fibers. In the case of synthetic fabric or carpet, this information can be used to trace the product to the manufacturer using standards databases, further enhancing the probative value of the evidence.Glass can have valuable information through fracture marks, lines and patterns.

Testing for unique characteristics such as color, optical properties and density can determine the type of glass, for example a window pane, vase or glass bottle. Powerful comparison microscopes are used to compare colors, thickness and layer patterns, and luster or to match fragments and tears.

Blood Spatter

Blood Spatter is another thing that helps get rid of lunatics and murderers. One of the most important fields of forensic science is blood spatter analysis. Under the Crime Scene Investigation, analysts gather the information that could eventually lead to a victim’s killer. Basic and complicated information can be found when analyzing blood.

We can learn what kind of weapon was used, the time of death of a victim and other important facts that can help a case. The pattern that the blood gives off give forensic scientists the tools that they need to help solve cases. Investigators can find clues from a murder through a number of different ways. Typically they find out how many times an object hits a part of the body.

Stains that are on walls and/or ceilings can tell you that a lot of force was used.. A basic bloodstain pattern is known as transfer or contact. These are made when someone walks through a blood leaving footsteps or trails. Gunshot spatters are very common in crime scenes, and give off a sort of mist effect.

Sources of blood can reveal the origins of whatever it is investigators are looking for. If someone was interested in pursuing a career in forensics they would need a strong stomach or hardy exterior. The scenes can be gruesome and this job isn’t for everybody. Also work environment involves visiting morgues with hundreds of dead bodies.

A quality that is needed in this field is composure. Things do tend to happen so forensics and other technicians have to refrain themselves and get the job done. Critical thinking and problems solving skills are very important when solving cases that deal with quick decision making and the need of good judgment.

Every analyst needs to pay attention to detail because they need to notice the small things in order to collect good data.The first record of blood spatter was in 1895. Dr. Eduard Piotrowski of the University of Kraków published a paper titled “On the formation, form, direction, and spreading of blood stains after blunt trauma to the head.”