Explosive

An Explosive Problem at Gigantic Motors

The Case

            This case is about an employee’s responsibility to know what cannot be compromised in aspects of work despite personal obligations. In the case Jonathan Archer who works in Gigantic Motors, a manufacturer of light trucks, was advised of a situation where previous product design can cause the death of eight customers in the future. Archer came to this information under the guarantee that it is in confidence. If Archer reveals his knowledge of this information, his source Zefrem Cochrane, can lose his job. Cochrane is an engineer in the design department who is also a new home owner and soon to be father. On the other, if Archer remains complacent in the interest of preserving his friend’s job security, he gravely endangers eight human lives.

The Moral Problem

            In this case, Archer is placed in a situation where he either endangers the job security of a friend to whom he has promised confidentiality or where he places the lives of customers in grave danger. In a wider business perspective, this case illustrates a situation in knowledge management within a company. This illustrates whether an employee has the moral obligation to disclose confidential information to warn against potential dangers to the public or should remain silent in an effort to preserve job security and corporate profitability.

Moral Analysis

            In knowledge management employees and management interpret data, similar to the statistics uncover by Cochrane indicating the unsafe product design could cause death, and control and translate it in a manner that would improve business performance (Bellinger, 2004). In the case of higher management in Gigantic Motors, when Cochrane brought this information to them, they decided to suppress it in an effort to preserve company reputation and profitability. For Archer the ethical dilemma lies in whether corporate profitability and a colleague’s job security should precede safety of customers. In my assessment, Archer should again bring the safety concerns to the attention of management as well as disseminate information among current owners of the unsafe trucks. The George S. May International Company (GMIC) defines six ethics guidelines to business. Among these six guidelines is a need for business people to “know what can not be compromised” in the conduct of business (George S. May International Company, n.d.). In business there are some aspects that are discretionary and there are aspects that should not be compromised. In an evaluation of aspects that are discretionary one should know that these are the aspects where there is room to maneuver, bargain or compromise, safety and security is not among these aspects. GMIC further explains that there are universal norms that should always take precedence in ethical evaluations. In these universal norms the protection of public and employee safety is of top billing. More specifically, when weighing consequences Archer needs to compare the primacy of job security versus the prevention of eight deaths. Clearly, the preservation of lives should be prioritized over economic stability for his friend and the company. Archer, although a third party to knowledge management, is tasked with the responsibility of reporting the unsafe product design, albeit reputation and financial setbacks may result from the fall out. GMIC, in its six guidelines to ethics, also discusses that the responsibility to act ethically is upon all employees and members of the organization. While Cochrane was already complacent about the serious product flaw because he had alerted management and was dissuaded to take further action, Archer should not reflect the same complacency. When human lives are at risk, and can be protected, lives should take precedence over financial remuneration.

Reference List

Bellinger, G. (2004). Knowledge Management – Emerging Perspectives. Systems Thinking website. Retrieved March 23, 2009 from http://www.systems-thinking.org/index.htm

George S. May International Company. (n.d.). Business Ethics Guidelines and Resources: Ethics Articles. George S. May International Group website. Retrieved March 23, 2009 from http://ethics.georgesmay.com/no_compromise.htm

Lithium-based batteries have been powering our portable devices for 25 years. But consumer demand for smaller, longer lasting devices is forcing manufacturers to push the technology, battery experts say, testing the limits of how much energy they can safely pack into smaller spaces. “A battery is really a bomb that releases its energy in a controlled way,” says Qichao Hu, a former researcher at Massachusetts Institute of Technology and founder of SolidEnergy Systems, a battery startup.”There are fundamental safety issues to all batteries, and as you get to higher energy density and faster charge, the barrier to explosion is less and less.”On Tuesday, Samsung Electronics scrapped its flagship Note 7 smartphone and told customers return their devices after weeks of bruising reports of phones igniting and images of scorched handsets.

In early September, the world’s largest smartphone maker blamed “a very rare manufacturing process error” for the problems. It has said it is still investigating reports of fires in a second, supposedly safe, batch of phones. Exactly what caused the problems will be the subject of detailed studies by regulators, the company and its suppliers. Experts are baffled by what could be causing the overheating in the replacement phones, if not the batteries. Samsung says it would be “premature to speculate” on the outcome of its investigations. “We are reviewing every step of our engineering, manufacturing and quality control processes,” Samsung said in an emailed response to Reuters. An official at the Korean Agency for Technology and Standards, which is also investigating, said the fault in the replacement devices might not be the same as the problem in the original product. Both Samsung SDI and Amperex Technology Ltd., which supply batteries to Samsung Electronics, declined to comment.

Samsung’s Note 7 crisis may be its biggest, but the problems with lithium-ion are not new. The U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission has issued recalls for battery packs, snow blowers, hoverboards, flashlights and power recliners in the past year, all because of fires caused by lithium-ion batteries.  In 2013, Boeing was forced to ground its entire fleet of advanced 787 jetliners after some lithium-ion batteries caught fire. The fleet was allowed to resume flights after changes were made to the battery and charger, and to better contain battery fires. “We remain confident in the comprehensive improvements made to the 787 battery system following this event, and in the overall performance of the battery system and the safety of the airplane,” Boeing said in 2014 after an investigation into one incident.

Light-weight, high energy

Lithium is the lightest of all metals, and can pack a lot of energy into a small volume — making it perfect for batteries. The market has grown from a few hundred million cells in 2000 to 8 billion last year, according to Albemarle, a U.S. chemical company. But for the same reason, lithium-ion batteries need safety mechanisms built in, adding to production costs. And with prices falling 14 percent per year for the past 15 years, according to Albemarle, smaller scale players have scrimped on safety, says Lewis Larsen, CEO of Lattice Energy, a consultancy. There is no evidence Samsung or its battery suppliers cut corners with the Note 7, and Tony Olson, CEO of consultancy D2 Worldwide, said the problem was not limited to cheaper products. He ran tests on batteries in laptops a decade ago, highlighting the dangers of them catching fire. Some 9.6 million Sony Corp. laptop batteries were subsequently recalled. But when Olsen repeated the tests on other laptop batteries seven years later he found that “very little had changed in battery safety design, despite being under tremendous scrutiny.”

Sony, HP Inc., Toshiba Corp. and Panasonic Corp. have all recalled laptop battery packs this year over fire hazards, according to the Consumer Product Safety Commission. Panasonic, which supplied the batteries, said the problem was caused by manufacturing issues which it had now resolved. Asked about Samsung’s woes last week, Panasonic CEO Kazuhiro Tsuga told reporters lithium ion batteries could become prone to fires when density was raised and fast charging was applied. “It’s a trade-off between that [risk] and benefits. We place the biggest priority on safety,” Tsuga said. “With current technologies, it’s extremely difficult to make it zero chance of such incidents.”

Greater demands

Before the era of smartphones, users didn’t require much of their device — a few phone calls, a few SMS messages. The phone of today, however, needs to do a lot more, and is in constant use. According to eMarketer, an advertising consultancy, Chinese mobile users, for example, spend nearly twice as long on their smartphone as they did four years ago. This in turn has pushed manufacturers into making their screens bigger and their devices more powerful, packing more energy into smaller spaces. And however sophisticated the materials, “they’re not 100 percent safe and they never will be,” said Larsen, the consultant. “What we’re seeing from the standpoint of lithium-ion technology is they’re beginning to reach the safe energy density limits of that technology.” But experts are divided on that point. Brandon Ng, whose Hong Kong startup QFE plans to sell refrigerator-sized batteries to replace diesel generators, said there is still room for improvements. “There is still a lot of developmental headroom with lithium-ion batteries in terms of increasing the energy they can store.”

Long-promised new technologies to make batteries safer are around the corner. Tim Grejtak, an analyst at Lux Research, said there are dozens of startups working on the issue, but the scientific problems were hard to solve and would take time. Among the most promising candidates, according to Grejtak, is California-based Blue Current, which is working on a high density, low flammable battery using gel electrolytes. Massachusetts-based SolidEnergy Systems is working on a lithium metal battery which founder Hu says takes up half the space of existing batteries. It will be used first in high altitude drones, he says, and in consumer devices, including smartphones, by 2018.

The portable oxygen cylinders are filled with liquefied oxygen. Mostly used for medical purposes or in areas with scarce or no oxygen like underwater or at high levels above the ground i.e. aerospace.

Medically, oxygen gas is used in the treatment of gas poisoning, pneumonia, used as an anesthetic when mixed with nitrous oxide or administered in deficiency of oxygen [ 3 ].

Liquefied oxygen is pale blue in color, and has a density of 1.141g/cm³. The liquid has a boiling point of -182.96°C and a freezing point of -222.65°C. Its raw material is oxygen which is obtained from natural air by a process known as fractional distillation. At 20°C, liquid gas has an expansion rate of 860:1 [ 1 ].

Fractional distillation is done in a factory with boilers this makes the laborers work in very cold environments which are highly flammable. Natural air is made up of different gases which have different evaporation or freezing points. The natural air is first liquefied to be liquid air which has a mixture of liquid nitrogen and liquid oxygen with boiling points of (-196°C) and (-183°C) respectively.

Liquid air is heated to -183°C in which oxygen evaporates, it’s tapped and liquefied again now as Oxygen liquid which is then packed in high-pressure cylinders for distribution. Most of the cylinders meet the minimum requirements of weighing 5 pounds and under and usually last up to 5 hours or more [ 2 ]. The cylinders administer oxygen in pulses through a device known as a conserver which delivers a pulse of oxygen when the user inhales.

Ethical considerations of the product are; the liquefied gas is highly explosive and flammable hence its use for industrial purposes. Due to its properties of being highly flammable and explosive, some people mix it with powdered charcoal to make explosives that are lethal.

The product should be produced the way it’s being done but its distributions should be controlled and sold only to authorized dealers and users to minimize its use to prepare explosives.

References

1. O’Leary, D. (2000). Oxygen O2: Retrieved on Mar 22, 2009, from http://www.ucc.ie/academic/chem/dolchem/html/elem/elem008.html
2. Portableoxygen, (2009). Portable Oxygen: Weights & Durations: Retrieved on Mar 22, 2009, from http://www.portableoxygen.org/weightsand%20durations.html
3. Rees, P & Dudley, F. (2006). Provision of oxygen at home. British Medical Journal. 317(7163): 935–938.

The history of explosives and propellants, also known generally as ‘energetic materials’ began with the material known as gunpowder or black powder, whether the intended use was for civil applications such as rock blasting, military uses in demolition, shell filling (bursting charges) and construction projects, or military and civilian propellant charges for short guns, pistols, rifles or artillery. The individual inventor of black powder will undoubtedly forever remain unknown, but numerous writers such as Drinker (1878), Munroe (1888), Marshall (1915), and Davis (1941, 1943), described what is known about its development and evolution.

Until the discovery of nitrated explosive compounds such as nitrocellulose by schonbein and Bottger (independently of one another) and nitroglycerin by Sobrero (all occurring in 1846), the only explosive available for any purpose was black powder. 1) Solid (particulate) propellants; 2) Military explosives; 3) Commercial explosives. Propellants Propellants may be granular, solid, or liquid. The primary focus was on granular (particulate) material since they are the most commonly encountered by the forensic chemist.

Solid propellants are deflagrating materials designed to accelerate a projectile from its position of rest at the breech of a weapon to its full velocity as it exits the tube or barrel. In the ideal (and designed for case), the complete consumption of the propellant and the exit of projectile occurs at the same instant. Propellant gains are thus chemically formulated and physically designed to achieve this end. The gains burn particle to particle at speeds below the speed of sound in the material: this defined the word ‘deflagrating’. Historically such materials have been termed progressive powders.

In addition to burning particle- to- particle burns from its free surface inward or, in the case of perforated grains, also from the free surface outward. This characteristic enables the propellant designer to size and configure the grains or particles to be totally consumed at the optimum instant. Propellant gains may be found in multitude of shapes and sizes, as might be expected given the varieties of weapons and desired pressures and projectile velocities. Black powder Black powder is the mixture of three components, generally (and originally) charcoal, sulfur, and potassium nitrate.

These are typically in the ratio of 15:10:75. Many variations to that ratio have been used: Cundill (1889) lists over 20 varieties, many with sub –varieties. Most of the differences, however, are insignificant. The one major development in the past 100 years is the use of sodium nitrate in some black powder grades. Black powder has an inherent drawback as a military propellant due to the fact that it produces a solid reaction product. Because of this, a dense black cloud is produced upon firing weapon is readily apparent, and after a number of rounds are fired the volume of battlefield smoke leads to confusion and general chaos.

For this reason the development of the ‘smokeless’ propellant charge was an objective of every governments weapons laboratory. Upon the discovery of the nitration reaction this research intensified. Smokeless powder The early history of the nitrated carbohydrates, which includes the 1833 discovery of nitro-starch (called xyloidine by its discoverer, Braconnot) and guncotton, called pyroxyline or pyroxyle be the chemist Pelouze, is thoroughly covered by Devis (1941).

Guncotton, nitrocellulose of high nitrogen content (13. 35% to 13. 45%), was the first nitrated material to be tried as a replacement for black powder, but it was too prone to accidents. However its military use continued after it was found that the newly –invented mercury fulminate blasting cap would cause compressed guncotton to detonate, leading to its application as a demolition charge and shell filling. Its use was rather short lived, however due to the introduction of picric acid.

Research was continued on nitrocellulose of lower nitrogen content as a propellant material, and the first good smokeless riffle powder was produced by Vielle in 1886, for the French Government. This was nitrocellulose with either alcohol, kneaded in bread making type machine, rolled out into thin sheets, and then cut into small squares and dried (Military Explosives, 1924). This was a ‘single base’ smokeless powder (nitrocellulose only). In 1888 Nobel invented a powder called Ballistite, which was a low nitrated nitrocotton gelatinized with nitroglycerin: which came to be known as; double base’ powder.

In the same year Cordite (given that name because it was extruded in the form of cord or ribbon), a mixture of high nitrated guncotton, nitroglycerine, and Vaseline, gelatinized by means if acetone was developed by an English Committee. (Marshall, 1915) Later ‘triple base’ smokeless powder were developed, containing nitro guanidine in addition to the nitrocotton and nitroglycerin of typical double base powders. Triple base powders were cooler-burning than the single or double base materials and use was mainly restricted to large caliber weapons.

Developments in smokeless powder since those early days had been primarily to improve stability, decrease the erosion of the barrel of the weapon, control pressures, decrease smoke output (‘smokeless’ powders are smokeless in comparison to black powder, but still produce visible smoke), and to decrease the muzzle flash from a firing weapon. The geometry of powders may include flakes, tubes, cylinders, sticks, flattened balls, or spheres. Military Explosives As black powder was the first propellant, so it was the first military explosive too.

It was used for shell filling, demolition, and military construction projects from the earliest times up until the invention of nitroglycerin. Military explosives as discussed here are those used as the shell filing or ‘bursting charge’ in artillery round and those explosives used for demolition charges. Military construction projects typically use commercial-type explosives, except in field-expedient situations. The brief use of guncotton as a military explosive was noted above. Trinitrotoluene (TNT)

During and after World War I the explosive trinitrotoluene (TNT, C7H5N3O6) became the dominant shell filling and demolition charge material. TNT has the advantage of being very easy to cast, since it has a wide spread between its melting and decomposition temperatures. One disadvantage is its extreme insensitivity. In the order to conserve TNT for small caliber shells in World War I, a mixture of TNT and ammonium nitrate (‘amatol’) was developed. It was specified for use only in shell of $. 7-inch to 9. 2-inch diameter (Crowell, 1919) but in actual practice it was used in all sizes.

For the same reason of conserving TNT, nitro starch explosives were used very successfully in that war for hand grenades and trench mortar shells (Williams, 1920). Tetryl Tetryl (2, 4, 6-trinitrophenyllmethylnitramine, N-2, 4, 6-tetra-nitro-N-methyl aniline, or picrylmethyl nitramine) was used in military boosters, but has generally been replaced by materials such as RDX and HMX. The ‘tetrytols’ are mixtures of tetryl and TNT, which were utilized in boosters, demolition charges, shells, and shaped charges. The TNT generally ranged from 20 to 35 percent of the mixture.

An advantage of tetrytol is that it allows the casting of the explosive into munitions rather than requiring pressing. It is also more powerful than TNT, but not as sensitive as tetryl alone. RDX and HMX Between the world Wars a number of explosives were developed, and after the start of the second war a vast amount of explosives research took place. One of the most important and useful military explosive is RDX (an acronym for ‘Research Department Explosive’), which was discovered in 1899, but not used until World War II.

It is also called cyclonite, hexagen, and cyclo-trimethylenetrinitramine. HMX was another explosive used for military applications during and after World War II. The initials are said to stand for “High Melting Explosive’, although other sources for the acronym are sometimes cited. It is also called cyclo-tetramethylenetetranitramine or octogen. (Beveridge 1-4) Blasting and Use of Explosives Only authorized persons can handle and use explosives. No person using explosives is allowed to be under the influence of alcohol or drugs.

Nothing which could be an ignition source, such as matches, open flames, or smokers, is to be around explosives. Accountability is required to assure that explosives are under the care of a qualified person. All blasting aboveground is done between sunup and sundown and, when blasting is done, blasters are to take special precaution near public utilities, around transportation conveyances, and near public areas to assure safety and mitigate any damage. Care must be taken to assure that accidental premature ignition does not occur from stray electrical sources or radio transmitters.

The blaster is to be considered a competent person in the use and care of explosives, and have experience with the type of blasting methods being used. The transportation of explosive and blasting materials must conform to the department of Transportation regulatory provisions. Drivers of trucks containing explosives and blasting equipment must be licensed and should be in good physical and mental condition. No blasting materials are to be transported with other cargo and blasting caps are not to be transported in the same vehicle as other explosives.

These vehicles should be marked with a placard signifying “Explosives” and have a fully charged fire extinguisher. (Reese, Edison 648) Different uses of an Explosive Blasting is extremely important both to mining and the world economy. The saying is often used, “If it can’t be grown it has to be mined,” however if the ground is too hard to be mechanically mined economically, it has to be blasted. Certainly many materials, such as iron, copper and concrete to name but a few would be significantly more expensive if it weren’t for explosives and our ability to easily drill holes to use these explosives efficiently.

Shock wave compression technology is not only a means of extremely high-pressure generation, but also a means of extremely high-temperature production in solids. When dynamite shock load is applied to solids by means of explosive and high-speed impact, the shock pressure and the shock temperature generated depend on the shock load and the density of the solid. Between 1985 and early 1991, there were 182 incendiary or explosive devices planted in Great Britain by animal-rights activists.

This number accounted for approximately 50 percent of all explosive devices planted in all of Great Britain, making it numerically a larger problem in Great Britain than incidents attributed to the provisional Irish Republican Army. However, the majority of these devices were far less sophisticated and far less dangerous than the PIRA devices. In 1980 in Great Britain, the first use of high explosives by animal-rights terrorists took place. These acts appear to have been perpetrates by a small group, which had obtained a high explosive used both in military operations and in commercial applications, such as quarries.

First it was used against the staff restaurant at Bristol University, where a 5-puound bomb was set off about midnight, wrecking about two floors of the building. More recently in 1990, the same explosive was used presumably by the same group in two car bobs. In one case, a passing infant was severely wounded. Conclusion During the past centuries, it has been proved that there is a beginning international acknowledgement of the future need for demolition of plants and buildings. There is also evidence of an increasing interest in demolition techniques and the re-use of building materials.

There are literally hundreds of different types of explosives, varying from black powder used in pipe bombs (still a favorite of domestic bombers), to dynamite sticks, and from blocks of TNT to plastic explosives that can be molded into diverse forms, including thin sheets. A dozen or so of the most notable explosives are used by the terrorists. Of particular note are the explosives RDX and PETN which, together with plastic and other fillers, compose many plastic explosives such as Detasheet and SEMTEX.

Explosives are mostly harmful (destructive) but on the other hand in many cases they are useful (constructive) too. Doctors, Engineers use explosives in a constructive way while at the same time criminals and terrorists use explosive in the destructive way. There are many uses of explosives such as Mining, Pyrotechnics, Building Demolition and even Construction. Explosives are also used in Carve Mount Rushmore, Avalanches and are used in backcountry for Trail Maintenance. Explosive are used in Medicines to break-up kidney-stones.

Works cited

Beveridge, Alexander. Forensic Investigation of Explosions. New York: CRC Press, 1998. 1,2,3,4

Kasai, Yoshio. Kenkyuio, Kenchiku, Kensetsusho. (Japan), Nihon Daigaku. Demolition and Reuse of Concrete and Masonry: Proceedings of the Second….New York: Taylor & Francis, 1998. 49

Technology against terrorism: the federal effort, US: DIANE Publishing, (1992)

Reese, D. Charles. Eidson, V. James. Handbook of OSHA Construction Safety and Health New York: CRC Press, 2006. 648

Whether it be the 4th of July, a day at Disneyland, or Chinese New Year, fireworks can be used to appeal to people of all ages, genders, and races. These low explosive pyrotechnic devices are primarily used for aesthetic or entertainment purposes. Fireworks come in various forms, including sparklers, firecrackers, basic fireworks, and ariel or display fireworks. Those who watch firework displays find that those can be broken into smaller categories by four primary effects.

These effects include noise, light, smoke, and floating material. Because of the varying types available, it is common for fireworks to be classified by how they perform, whether it be on the ground or more commonly, aerial. The overall dangers associated with that particular kind of firework is another factor of classification as well. Although fireworks can be easily found in stores and on display, few people truly understand the physical and chemical properties that exist to cause a complex chemical combustion like this to occur.Due to the general public’s lack of awareness, it is common for severe injuries and even death to take place. Despite the government’s best efforts to accurately classify fireworks, consumers still manage to get a hold of illegal fireworks without proper licensing and remain unaware of the potential dangers. In the United States, fireworks are classified as either consumer or display fireworks based upon the amount of pyrotechnic composition an item contains (“Firework”).

Even with certain restrictions on fireworks, thousands of accidents occur each year.It is no doubt that fireworks are potentially dangerous for the person operating them and for bystanders alike, as they may even land on flammable material and cause a fire. As a result, a general understanding of firework composition and technology is almost necessary to ensure that a disaster is prevented. History The art of fireworks originated in ancient China. It is believed that approximately 2000 years ago (Gondhia) in the Sung dynasty (Brockert), a Chinese cook accidently mixed KNO3 (or salt peter), sulfur, and charcoal.After heating these three ingredients, the cook found that when ignited, the black flaky powder created a loud bang. This fascinating black powder became known as huo yao (fire chemical) or gunpowder.

It was later found that when the chef’s mixture was inserted into a hollow bamboo stick and thrown into a fire, an immense amount of pressure built up and blasted the tube apart to what became known as the firecracker. Eventually, firecrackers began to play an essential role in Chinese festivals, such as weddings and religious rituals (Gondhia).It was widely believed that firecrackers could be used to chase away evil spirits during the New Year and Mid Autumn Moon festivals (“Firework”). Firecrackers were also gradually used in warfare and within a hundred years of its invention, fire arrows (arrows attached to bamboo firecrackers) and ground rats (propelling rats from inside bamboo firecrackers) were developed (Dotz 1994). In the thirteenth century (Alan), Marco Polo brought the invention of firecrackers to the Middle East. By the fourteenth century, Europe had managed to surpass China in fireworks technology (Brockert).Roger Bacon, one of the first Europeans to study gunpowder, was the first to write about the invention.

Bacon had discovered that KNO3 was the force behind the explosion, yet wrote his findings in a code after realizing the potential he held to possibly revolutionize warfare for the worst. By 1560, European chemists finally discovered the correct proportion for the mixture. The ratio became known was 75% salt peter, 15% charcoal, and 10% sulphur- a ratio that still exists today. This discovery marked the end of medieval warfare(Gondhia).The aesthetic aspect of development is credited to the Italians, who were able to develop aerial shells that when lit, burst into a fountain of color. Even today, many leading American display companies, such as the Grucei family or the Dozzi family, are operated by families of Italian descent (Dotz 1994). The scientific aspect of fireworks grew in Germany, where advancement became the key goal in pyrotechnics.

It wasn’t until the nineteenth century that fireworks also became popular in America. Firework development, such as the forest green color, is still continuing today (Gondhia).Discussion A basic firework, sparkler, firecracker, and aerial all have different components in which produce different reactions. Different components may also be added to an aerial firework to produce various colors and shapes. A basic firework is made up of six basic ingredients. These ingredients include fuel, an oxidising agent, a reducing agent, regulators, a coloring agent, and binders. Charcoal or black powder is the most common fuel in fireworks.

Other elements like thermite can be used in place of black powder, although fuels usually contain an organic element.The fuel initially starts to work inside the firework when it begins to lose electrons to atoms within the oxidiser, thereby reducing and releasing atoms from the oxidiser. When this occurs, bonds are formed between the fuel and oxygen atoms, causing the product to be somewhat stable. However, only a minimal amount of energy is required to start the combustion of this fuel oxidiser compound. As a result, the solid mixture liquefies and vaporizes into the flame of the ignition causing a massive release of energy. This act marks the beginning of combustion (Gondhia).The oxidising agent produces the oxygen needed in order for the mixture inside the firework to burn.

Nitrate is usually used as an oxider, although chlorates and perchlorates can be used as well: XNO3 –> XNO2 + 1/2 O2 As illustrated from the chemical equation, nitrates only give up a third of their oxygen. Chlorates, on the other hand, are extremely explosive. Unlike nitrates, chlorates get completely reduced and as a result, work as better oxidising agents and thereby create an even more spectacular reaction: 2XClO3 –> 2XCl + 3O2Perchlorates contain even more oxygen than the two, however are less likely to explode in comparison to chlorates due to their increase in stability: XClO4 –> XCl + 2O2 The reducing agent burns the oxygen provided by the oxidising agent to produce hot gases. Sulphur and charcoal are common reducing agents and after reacting with oxygen, form sulphur dioxide and carbon dioxide: S + O2 –> SO2 C + O2 –> CO2 By adding regulators to the reducing agent, the speed of the reaction can be somewhat controlled. Metals are most commonly added to regulate the speed of the reaction.According to the collision theory, the larger the surface of the metal, the faster the reaction (McConnel). Binders hold the mixture of the firework agent together in a paste like mixture to form a lump.

This lump makes up the star. The most common binder is dextrine, a type of starch which holds the composition together. Paron can also be used in binding, however is less common and only used in conjunction with red and green fireworks as means to enhance their color. The star in a firework can work in different ways to produce several different effects.For example, the most common peony is a spherical break of colored stars. Things like the horsetail or waterfall can also be produced. This shell features a heavy long burning tail of stars that only travel a short distance from the shell burst.

The star is made up of two basic elements: dextrine decomposed by water and a shellac compound dampened by alcohol. Binders do not work until the firework is lit and because of its explosive elements, are too unstable for storage within the firework. Color in firework displays is a fairly new invention, introduced a mere hundred years ago.In fact, before the nineteenth century, only yellows and oranges could be produced with the use of steel and charcoal. Decent blues and purples were not developed until this century. To make a firework a certain color, the correct corresponding chemical or mixture of chemicals must be used. The light quality in fireworks are produced through incandescence (light produced by energy sources other than heat) and incandescence (light produced by heat in which causes a substance to grow hot and glow).

Incandescence occurs when solid particles are heated in the flame to extremely high temperatures.At this time, excess energy is released in the form of light at the broad end of the spectrum (Gondhia). These specific colors produced by the signature chemicals in fireworks emit light at specific wavelengths. These wavelengths allow us to see different colors, since light is produced at different photons. The higher the temperature, the shorter the wavelength at which the light is emitted and the closer it tends toward the blue end of the colored spectrum. When the wavelength is longer, light is closer to the red end of the spectrum (Miller): ColorCompoundWavelength of LightRedStrontium Salts and Lithium Salts Li2CO3 SrCO3600-646 nm OrangeCalcium Salts CaCl2 CaSO4, 2H2O591-603 nm GoldIncandescence of Iron or Charcoal590 nm YellowSodium Compounds NaNO3 Na3AlF6589 nm Electric WhiteWhite Hotel Metal BaO564-576 nm GreenBarium compounds with Chlorine (Barium must be combined with chlorinated rubber so it remains stable in room temperature) BaCl+511-533 nm BlueCopper Compounds with Chlorine460-530 nm PurpleMixture of Strontium (red) and Copper (blue) compounds432-456 nm SilverBurning aluminium, titanium, or magnesium powder412 nm ?It is impossible to create a blue or green color through incandescence since a much higher temperature is required and as a result, would be impractical if used. The light then, can be produced in other forms other than heat through incandescence.

During this process, energy from the fire in the basic fuel can be transferred to the atoms of the colorant chemicals. This excites electrons in those chemicals into higher energy states. As a result, electrons literally orbit further away from the atom’s nucleus. As the atom’s cool down, they move back to lower states of energy.When this energy is conserved, the remaining energy is converted into radiation and then light. Therefore, the colors can be seen when the atoms are cooling down. Chemists are able to produce little pellets of colorant chemicals.

A mixture of colorant and basic fuel blended to the right degree and correct size allows the pellet to burn at the desired rate, thus allowing the colors to burst at the correct times (Russell 2000). Each kind of firework contains these basic ingredients with little variation, although the structure of the firework does change.A simple firework packs black powder at the center. The stars are then placed around the powder, which will ignite and burn. The bursting charge is also located in the center. The bursting charge is a firecracker like charge at the center of the shell (Miller). Depending on the basic fuel, colorant pellets, and h? ow the stars are placed, different types of effects can occur.

For example, tricky shapes like stars and hearts are made by pasting colorant pellets on paper in the desired pattern. The paper is then placed in the middle of the shell with the explosive charges above and below (Ropeik).At the same time the powder is ignited, the main fuse or the time delay is lit as well. The main fuse goes to the bottom where black powder is located. When the black powder is ignited in a small closed container, the heat and gas will cause an explosion to launch in the tube. The time delay allows the firework to burn slower due to the coarser grained black powder placed in the center. The structure of a sparkler is a little bit different.

A sparkler is composed of medium sized grains of aluminum.When these grains are ignited, it burns with oxygen in the air, resulting in sparks (Donner 1997). These sparks burn for a long period time and produce extremely bright and showery light. It is sometimes even referred to as the “snowball sparkler” due to the balls of sparks that surround the burning portion. A sparkler consists of fuel (usually charcoal or sulfur), an oxidizer, iron or steel powder, and a binder (commonly sugar or starch). When these ingredients are mixed together in water, the chemicals form a slurry that can be coated on a wire or poured into a tube.Once dried, a sparkler, fuel, and oxidizer are proportioned along with other chemicals so the sparkler burns slowly rather than exploding like a firework.

A firecracker, on the other hand, is used to create an explosion. Like fireworks, firecrackers have been around for hundreds of years. Firecrackers consist of either black powder or gunpowder or flash powder in a tight paper tube with a fuse to light the powder. The black powder in the mixture includes charcoal, sulfur, and potassium nitrate. Occasionally, however, aluminum may be added to the mixture or used in place of charcoal as means to brighten the explosion.It is actually common for fireworks to do the same and even add iron, steel, zinc, or magnesium dust in order to create bright, shimmering sparks (Brian). Aerial fireworks are the most common type of firework, as they are the most visual pleasing.

An aerial firework originates from small shells that are then reliant on a lift charge that then propels the shell into the air (Gondhia). A shell consists of four parts: a container, stars, a bursting charge, and a fuse, which provides a time delay so the shell will explode at the correct altitude. Below the shell is the lifting charge.The shell is launched from a mortar or a short, steel pipe with a lifting charge of black powder that explodes in the pipe to launch the shell. When the lifting charge fires to launch the shell, it lights the shell’s fuse. The shell’s fuse then burns until the shell rises to its correct altitude and ignites the bursting charge so it explodes. ?The stars inside the container come in various shapes and sizes.

Simple stars are much like sparklers but in compound form into a ball the size of a pea or a dime. The stars are then poured into the tube and surrounded by black powder.The fuse burns inside the shell, ignites the bursting charge, and then proceeds on to make the entire shell explode. The explosion ignites the outside of the stars, which begins to burn with bright showers of sparks. The explosion throws the stars in all directions, resulting in hugh spheres of sparking light (Brian). Firework displays don’t usually include only one set of aerial shells, however. More commonly, multi break shells are seen and burst in two or three phases.

Usually stars contain several different colors and composition to create things like softer or bright light or more or less sparks.Some shells even contain explosives that are designed to crackle in the sky or whistle as confetti stars burst out (Russell 2000). To make a sound like a whistle, basic fuel is packed in a cardboard tube and opened on one end. As the fuel burns inside the tube, the carbon dioxide it gives off rushes out the open end, making a whistling sound (Ropeik). Some shells may consist of a shell filled with other shells or they may have multiple sections without using additional shells. The sections of a multi break shell are ignited by different fuses.Therefore, shells must be assembled in such a way that each section explodes in sequence to produce distinct separate effects.

When assembled correctly, the bursting of one section should ignite the next (Brian). With today’s extensive firework technology, computer programmers have learned to synchronize the firing of thousands of fireworks from just one control panel. The firework is fitted with a metal match heads which resembles that of a real match. When the button of the firing panel is pushed, a surge of electrical charge or current is created and travels down thin wire until it hits the match head and ignition occurs.The spark from this ignition lights a fuse to the firework causing it to elevate in the air. These extensive “firing panels,” however, are only used on large scale displays. The future of fireworks lies in the fusion of modern day computational techniques (Gondhia).

Despite the need for further firework technology, it is no doubt that the composition and extensive science behind it is truly amazing. It is interesting to note that only in fireworks, chemists act as pyrotechnics who are attempting to keep a firework from exploding.Even though that seems like the overall goal, fireworks are actually flashiest when they are cooling down, not when they have been initially ignited. To slow down burning, chemists have to use big grains of chemicals and pack it carefully as to ensure that ingredients do not blend. The number of things required of a chemist in order to develop fireworks is truly combustion at its best. Influence on Society Fireworks have played an essential role in society for quite some time. As stated previously, fireworks had originally been used in religious rituals and celebration.

Till this day, it is used in the same way. Although fireworks are enjoyed by all people, the dangers used while operating them is profound. As a result, numerous restrictions have been made on fireworks. These restrictions were made in efforts to keep operators and bystanders safe. However, even with the restrictions placed on fireworks, it is common for people to come by displays quite often. At Chapman alone, I can see fireworks everyday from the top of the parking structure, whether it be from Disneyland or the Grove.Growing up in Hawaii, the blasting of fireworks is the only thing that could be heard on New Years Eve or the Fourth of July.

Even though fireworks provide a fun time for many families, the dangers cannot be ignored. Every New Years Day morning, the radio station manages to report on the numerous accidents that have occurred in the past evening. Little boys have lost their eyes after peering over the firework after its been ignited, while houses have been lit on fire. With this knowledge in mind, it would be best to know the basics on how a firework works so accidents like these can be avoided.There is no doubt that fireworks are a way for people to come together. They can be used for religious purposes or for mere enjoyment with your friends and family. Despite its intended good nature, fireworks may also have a negative impact on the environment.

It has been reported that some fishermen have noticed that firework residues can hurt fish and other water life due to toxic compounds like antimony sulphide. On the other hand, large scale pollution from other sources make it hard to measure what is exactly coming from fireworks (Ibrahaim 214-221).Despite the possible downsides of fireworks, it is no doubt that these designs are truly amazing to watch. Personal View I have not met one person but myself that has grown up in Hawaii, a place fortunate to have legalized firework usage, and has not blown fireworks at some holiday. My mom had always been aware of the statistics and a result, banned them from our household. However, every other person I’ve met disagrees with my mother’s view. As it turns out, fireworks are actually something that brings people together.

It is a way in which families can bond and do something fun together.The question stands, however- is an activity in which brings people together on the most important days of the year worth the potential harm?? Some states would disagree. In fact, fireworks, especially sparklers, are the most dangerous manufactured explosives. According to the center for disease control, over nine thousand people a year are injured as a result of fireworks. Half of those nine thousand are usually children under the age of fourteen (Berger 877-882). Due to these alarming statistics, thirty nine state do not prohibit consumer sales or use of fireworks.These states include New Jersey, New York, Massachusetts, and Delaware.

Few states, on the other hand, such as Ohio, Vermont, and Illinois only allow novelty items such as sparklers (“The Fight Over Fireworks- Should Fireworks Be Banned? ”). Due to each state’s individual laws on fireworks, some states have had a hard time controlling the usage of fireworks. Several people have actually bought fireworks in other states and used them in their own, as buying fireworks, but not using them was deemed illegal. Due to this problem, I believe it would be easier to make one general law.Even though fireworks may be dangerous, it would still be best to allow consumers to use basic fireworks, sparklers, and firecrackers. For obvious reasons, aerial fireworks should be banned in all states for consumer use, as they are the most complicated to use and as a result, operators are more prone to be harmed. To avoid future accidents, it would be best that permits to purchase fireworks are required.

This would then ensure that only legal fireworks are being purchased and children under the age of eighteen will be unable to purchase it for themselves.Even though the dangers of fireworks are still present, it is best to be aware of the dangers of everything in our world. Everything around us is potentially harmful, we merely have to learn how to use it properly. As a result, I disagree with the complete banning of fireworks. Rather, sales should be monitored carefully and people, especially children, should be informed about the potential harm that can be associated with the use of fireworks. In addition, parents should also make sure to keep a watchful eye on their child when they’re around these explosive devices.