Extinction

Endangered species are becoming extinct as we speak. That leads me to ask, is there anyway we can keep endangered species from going extinct? This question is very bold. Some people argue and say that if the species is endangered then it deserves to go extinct, natural selection. But there is a whole mass of people that would say, we can decrease the extinction rates if we just made the environment more capable to live in. The amount of trash we produce in one day is mind blowing. If we just put that trash in the right place then the extinction rates would start declining.

A small group of people would argue that a lot of the already extinct species should be extinct. Their reasoning is that they couldn’t survive the environment that they were put it so why do they deserve to live in it. At some point you have to agree with them, some animals just aren’t suited for the environment that they are thrown into so they go extinct. But the fact that the environment is changing so quickly and the animals can’t keep up is mostly our own doing.

The first way we could help the environment is just as simple as taking care of our environment. If we started to organize park clean-ups then the trash wouldn’t be able to find its way to a river or ocean. As Dr. Martin, an environmental scientist at Oxford, puts it “just by picking up one piece of trash on your morning walk you can help millions of animals.” Just a few simple steps can lead to a world with a healthier environment and a world with more animals. The animals would really appreciate your help.

Another way that we could help the animals is to decrease the amount of global warming that we are producing. May studies show that most of the extinct animals come from the north and the south poles. The reason for extinction is a loss in habitat. Some easy ways that would could stop their habitat from being lost is to take public transportation more often. As Mr. Garcia, a pollution expert, states it “if we just cut down the amount of gas that the human race uses we could decrease the rates of which pollution is increasing.” Just a little bit of effort could keep the glaciers from melting.

The third and final reason that I want to bring is that there are still some people going against that law go poach animals just to make a quick buck. These ignorant people have no common sense. These animals were put on a no kill list because they are essential to maintain the balance of the ecosystem. These poachers go into the wild and will a specific animals to make a few dollars and it is ethically wrong. Dr. Martin also states that “Illegal wildlife trafficking is pushing elephants, rhinos and tigers to the brink of extinction.”

In the end, if us humans just take care of our animals and environments we will not cause extinction. If we just clean up after ourselves, be mindful about are gas and oil usage, and if we just obey the law put into place then our favorite animals, like the elephant and the tiger, may not go extinct. Just think about your actions before you do them.

The topic of preserving endangered species may be different in every country, however, it’s clear that the benefits we gain from protecting those species will be greater than leaving them for extinction. As an example, poverty can be greatly reduced if conservation and good protection of the species and their habitats can be maintained. Ginette Hemley, vice president for species conservation, World Wildlife Fund, said that “Problems that threaten species like the destruction of habitats and natural resources often contribute to poverty.”

Also, by examining six projects in Africa, Latin America and Asia, the new report shows that WWF’s work to save endangered wildlife helps eradicate poverty and hunger, as well as promote sustainable and fair development in rural areas (“Protecting endangered species”). Therefore, preserving the species and their environment will prosper the local economies, if not, it will at the very least provide some support for the economy.

To clarify, preserving strategies are not only limited to the species but also their natural environment, because the main reason for a species to be endangered is habitat loss. Therefore, it is important to indicate that the environment is also a factor we need to focus as well, in the process of conservation. In addition, as a side note, there are many countries, companies, organizations that need species as attraction for tourism industry and mainly to gain profit. As a result, endangered species should be protected because they are beneficial to our society, mostly our economy, in many ways.

On the other hand, in contrast to the economic viewpoint, which is profit and value from the species, there are some concerns that can’t be ignored which is the environmental perspective. The conservation for species and their habitats is not easy, it will take a great deal of time and effort to restore the environment into suitable habitats for the species. Afterall, the species are at risk is mainly because of their habitat loss (“National Geographic Society”). In addition, research shows that only 13-17 percent of the total annual funding needs for restoration and conservation are met—about $50 billion.

That means there is a shortfall of $250-350 billion per year (Faruqi). The numbers indicated in this source is a heads up about the risk factors in preserving and conservation projects; there are risk factors in those investment for restoring the environment, the species habitat. An upcoming study by Margaret A. Palmer at the University of Maryland reports that more than 75 percent of river and stream restorations failed to meet their own minimal performance targets. “They may be pretty projects,” says Palmer, “but they don’t provide ecological benefits.” (Conniff). Those are only general concerns that are in contrast with the economic lens.

Even though there are economic benefit, but the profits, benefits, are the result of the investment that is put beforehand. According to the numbers shown in those sources, the amount of money, effort, time, that is needed in order for those projects to work will be a great amount even for large organizations and big companies and most of the companies or organizations might not be affordable. In another words, can’t afford the risk of failing. Not to mention there might be other things to concern about in the aftermath. So, if the conservation has failed due to any reason, then the profit will not be harvested. Then, it all brings back to my initial problem, research question, is preserving endangered species actually beneficial, or in another words, does the pay back worth the investment put into conservation.

Now, to counter argue the point of view mentioned before, in contrast to point on initial investments and the issue about failing the conservation projects, more than 120 countries are participating in the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS), where they will decide whether to grant greater protection to iconic species such the Polar Bear, the African Lion, and several sharks, including the Hammerhead (Steiner). Although this source may not include other species and maybe not all the countries will give support. It is also questionable about their achievements, the idea of whether other species are being protected or not, the ones that are not as wide known as polar bears and hammerhead; this is a big weakness.

However, the number of countries that is involve is a significant sign that shows the power of cooperation. The countries that participate in the conference can donate, offer, or contribute some resource and effort for endangered species, then the loss can be minimized for each country if there is an issue in the project and there would also be enough money to help each conservation projects. To put it simple, the loss will be minimized if the countries all work together, the more that is involved the less risk there is.

Second, although there might not be much profit for those countries or organizations in the beginning and there will be risks involved, but there will be jobs provided for people and lower the unemployment rate. Also, there could also be benefits gained in the beginning of the conservation projects, there could be profit from species that can be kept in aquarium and zoos. In 2016, travel and tourism contributed $7.6 trillion, or 10.2%, to total GDP, and the industry provided jobs to one in 10 people, according to the World Travel & Tourism Council (“Growing Wildlife-Based Tourism Sustainably”).

Although the unemployment rate may not be much of an issue now in present days, but it can still provide some help to the local people. One thing to make note of is that the data is not recent and there is no prove of whether the data is biased or not, however, it is true that jobs will be provided to more people and the unemployment rate will be decrease. In addition, conservations may help developing countries and reduce poverty. Afterall not all species needs special care. Species like polar bears, hammerhead sharks may be at risk, but they could be placed in manmade habitats and be shown to the public, like zoos. This then would be changed into a win win situation; the animals will be protected, they could be release in the future when their habitats are restored, and money can be made from the tourism industry during this period because people would be attracted to the species that they rarely get a view of.

Lastly, there are also cases where the species are breed or rescued and then they were released in to the wild. If there is enough care and resources put into the conservation, then it will definitely bring great profit for the company and organization every year due to the tourism industry. An example of the profit made each year is the global diving industry that is worth more than $4 billion dollars, with the shark diving industry alone bringing in $42.2 million per year in Fiji, $18 million in Palau, and $38.6 million in Maldives (Steiner).

Although the diving industry doesn’t seem to connect to the preservation of species at first glance, but if you think about whether people would enjoy a healthy coral reef with unique species that are rarely seen or a dying coral reef with rarely any wildlife. In addition, the environment that is also preserved and maintained will bring natural resources that is beneficial. As a side note, environment protection, especially the natural habitats of the endangered species are important.

The exploitation of renewable natural resources (woods, nuts, oils) in tropical rain forests may bring greater economic benefits than conversion to more intensive land uses. (Mazzotti, Frank J). This source may not be as important right now, but it will in the future when fossil fuels and other power sources are greatly limited. Although it only talks about some natural resources and usually it may not be as efficient as the fossil fuels but the strength of this source is that it talks about how intensive use may exhaust the land and in the future many problem will faced, therefore it is important to protect the environment.

In addition to the benefits from the tourism industry, there is also other point of view in the economic perspective concerning the big organizations and large companies. As we all know that species are not only animals but also includes plants, fungus that are usually overlooked. Those plant, or more of herbs, has a very big market in the medicine field. Some 40% of prescription drugs are substances originally extracted from plants, animals, fungi and microorganisms (Tanner). Preserving measures should not be only for the species in the animalia kingdom but also the plant kingdom.

Plant, herbs especially, that are put in traditional medicines have a value that is not only for curing illness but it is also a beneficial knowledge that is valuable for us to take, or to be aware of their values so that more illness can be cure or get control of. An example would be the Asian Ginseng, the mucilaginous inner bark of this tall flowering tree has many uses, including soothing coughs and the throat, soothing inflammatory conditions, and supporting the digestive, glandular, and urinary tract systems (Greentumble). Although the effect of the ginseng not all listed in this source, but the example is to present an idea that wild ginseng have great values but in current days most ginsengs are man cultivated which could have differences in the effectiveness.

The main purpose of including the herbs, plants, fungus, in the research is to present the idea that they are a big market for the medicine field, and they have great research values. “A few hundred wild species have stocked our pharmacies with antibiotics, anti-cancer agents, pain killers, and blood thinners,” notes the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. “The biochemistry of unexamined species is an unfathomed reservoir of new and potentially more effective substances.” (Daniel). The idea behind this source is to tell the people that species are being included in many drugs, antibodies, medicines etc.

There are even more reasons on why we should protect them, their hidden values are unpredictable when we might need them. Although the statement is from an organization which is quite reputable but that doesn’t have much to do with the medical field and doesn’t seem credible in their words consider their purpose is to preserve the species, bias could be included. However, they are more persuasive than bias because what they said is only potential value, not really bias. On the other hand, if we did try and preserve the species then we are the ones that will get the benefit, in addition protecting the species all start with the environment and their loss of habitat due to human interference is the main reason for endangered species. Therefore, protecting plants or animals are basically the same thing.

In conclusion, no matter if it is economic benefits or ethical concerns, we have the ability and the responsibility to help preserve and help those species at risk. It would be better if we can prevent any animals, plants and living organisms from extinction. We gain profit off the endangered species, we gain knowledge about them, we might even find potential values in them. In contrast, we will provide them shelter until their natural habitat are restored. It is a win win situation where both parties’ benefits. Afterall each and every one of them are a part of the nature and the balance between them should be maintained so that the environment is stable.

What do I think of as the traditional British seaside resort? Crowded beaches, with screaming children, buckets and spades, candy floss and donkey rides. A holiday by the sea has been a traditional break from the bustling city life since the 1840’s, before which it was exclusive to the middle and upper classes. People could escape from their working lives- to experience the fresh air and relaxed atmosphere in places such as Bournemouth and Brighton. Blackpool also was a definite traditional seaside resort.

After the railway arrived in 1846, Blackpool became an easily accessible destination only an hour or so from the smoggy cities such as Manchester and Bolton. With the arrival of cars and coaches Blackpool became even more thriving; by 1980 it was attracting over a million visitors every year. The 11km of white sandy beach was one attraction along with the famous tower, the pleasure beach and the piers. Another resort which shared this huge popularity, even with the royals, was Southend on Sea.

From the 1800’s onwards it was a popular destination for the tourists, with the beach, the amusement arcades and the longest pleasure pier in the world. It’s within close proximity to London, and with the railway being built in 1854 it became even more accessible, throughout the 20th centaury its popularity continued with working and middle class day trippers and in the 1960’s and 1970’s the bank holiday invasions began. However these two resorts, along with many others have been hit by decline over the last few decades. They have been overtaken by tourists moving further from home.

Cheap package holidays to destinations in the sun have proved too much of a temptation and today as many Britons take their main holiday abroad as do within Britain. The general public are choosing more adventurous holidays, further a field, they are much more aware of the possibilities they have through advertising and travel agencies. Also today’s wealthier population have taken to spending their money to pamper themselves, which so often involves lounging in the guaranteed sunshine of the Mediterranean or some other foreign destination.

The number of visitors spending time and money at Blackpool has fallen dramatically over the last 30 years. Families have stopped visiting and the tourists are falling into the ranks of “clubbers” and old age pensioners. The clubbers are bringing with them disruption, noise, violence, drugs and a general feeling of unrest and disturbance, this in turn is deterring the old age pensioners visiting, who are trying to find some peace and quiet and enjoy romantic strolls along the shore.

This has caused the halt of the cash flowing into the area, so hotels are downgrading to hostels and restaurants are being replaced with fast-food joints. The beach has become littered and not desirable for children to play on. The social status of Southend on Sea has plummeted noticeably through the ages; the once fashionable resort has changed to the tacky stereotypical seaside resort. With the influx of Mods and Rockers “coming off the trains and having to have their shoe laces and belts confiscated by the police to restrict the violence”.

Since the decline of the resort it has also become the “dumping ground” for refugees. Southend has an estimate of 6-7000 Kosovan refugees and 3-4000 Londoners sent down by social services. The reputation of the refugees has led to a further decline and an even more dramatic drop in visitors. The only visitors it now receives are the occasional day trippers- conceding to only do day trips as they don’t like “the sound of the place at night”. However, the seaside resort is not in total decline, over the last few years the government has made a stand and the regeneration process is underway in many areas.

They are attempting to bring the resorts back onto their feet. “We have turned our backs on our heritage in a lot of these places, and many fell into decay. But now, people are rediscovering the rich history associated with the seaside holiday resorts” (Steve Hayler, of Canterbury Church university college) Local towns, local councils and businesses are cleaning up beaches, improving facilities and rejuvenating traditional attractions. This year a record number of the UK’s beaches were awarded the “blue flag” for meeting exacting standards of cleanliness and management demanded by the European clean-up scheme.

7 beaches made the grade, compared to 41 last year. Hopefully this is attracting people back to the beaches. Some areas are taking more drastic measures e. g. Newquay and Bournemouth with the prospect of building an artificial reef that would guarantee bigger waves. This would boost the already booming trend of surfers flocking to the beaches to catch the waves. This year an expected 100,000 are expected to turn up at the annual “Rip Curl Newquay Boardmasters festival”. Blackpool is considering a complete change in image.

To transform the Lancashire town into a British version of Las Vegas. “We see huge opportunity; we want to see a year-round resort with year-round jobs that can be the centre of a larger regenerated Blackpool” (Alan Cazill the economic development officer at Blackpool Council). However some resorts are taking the more conventional route, just trying to improve on what they’ve got. For example Brighton’s west pier ravaged by fire, was for decades a ghostly remnant of the past slowly falling into the sea.

As part of the refurbishment, the underwater supports have been shored up and the decaying pier is floodlit at night. True the “Traditional” British seaside resort may be in danger of extinction, but in no way is the new and different seaside resort dying out its only just getting started. Despite the lure of foreign climate and the growth of cheap package holidays, this year for the first time in long time Britons are choosing once more for the pebbly shores close to home.

The number of people heading for the seaside for four nights or more- 30 million a year- is the same as in 1965. Some 110 million day-trippers also make for the coast each year. In conclusion: has the British seaside resort come to the end of the line? Do people only want the guaranteed sun found in Europe and other countries? Or do people look for more in a beach holiday. Seaside may never return to how they were, but that does not mean they will die out, they may return in a brand new regenerated new fashion.

Animal species are decreasing at an alarming rate, and many of it has to do with human interference to animals habitats. In the article “Era of ‘Biological Annihilation’ Is Underway, Scientists Warn”(2017) by Tatiana Scholssberg she explains the way in which 2 Stanford University Professors and one professor from Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México wrote their study and the way they worded and put their ideas together on the topic of global loss of animal species: It wouldn’t be ethical right now not to speak in this strong language to call attention to the severity of the problem.” The destruction humans are doing to animals is detrimental, and is causing animals to go decrease in population at such a high speed and these 3 professors take it upon themselves to make this issue sound as horrendous as it should.

Throughout the beginning to mid part of the article Scholssberg explains how fast animal populations have decreased, she uses specific numbers to show at what speed these populations are actually decreasing by. Such as cheetas as se mentions have about 7000 members left than they had before any major destruction was made to their habitats and them. She further explains how it was difficult for the 3 professors from UNAM and Stanford to gather their information. Since different scientists have distinct definitions of what population means, it would be hard to show how population loss is affecting different species of animals.

When scientists are looking into animal population loss they usually see a fragment of how much the animal species population has been decreasing and not necessarily the whole picture regarding all animal species as explained by Scholssberg. She mentions that “previous estimates of global extinction rates have been too low, in part because scientists have been too focused on the complete extinction of a species” which does not “generate enough public concern,” and lends the impression that many species are not severely threatened, or that mass extinction is a distant catastrophe.”

Scholssberg mentions that the 3 professors whos study she was reviewing took a different route when discussing the decrease of various animal species, which helped them come to the conclusion that “the disappearance of entire populations, and the decrease of the number of individuals within a population,” are both equally important but usually people don’t see the big picture in the decrease of various animal species.

As mentioned earlier many of the decreases in the animal population are because of human activity. Such as climate change and the constant exploitation of animals habitats. To help sort of balance this out Scholssberg mentioned in her article that “some species have been able to rebound when some of these pressures are taken away.” By this, I’m sure she means that when humans stop interfering with an animals habitat, animals are more likely to live a more fruitful life.

Humans may just really be the toxic ones, over exploiting and taking over animals habitats. There will be a long-lasting impact with these animal populations and if we don’t stop now, when will we?

Who was Charles Darwin? Charles Darwin was born in 1809 in Shrewsbury, England. Originally, Darwin did not believe in the idea of evolution and trained to be a priest before studying geology and biology. In 1831, when Darwin was 22, he set sail around the world on HMS Beagle, a naval survey ship. The trip lasted for 5 years during which time the ship stopped at many places including the Galapagos Islands, just off the west coast of South America. Darwin examined animals and plants from everywhere he visited, taking specimens back to England and recording his observations in a diary.

However, he was most intrigued by the finches on the Galapagos Islands… What was Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection?  Darwin noticed that there were wide variations in the finches’ size, beaks and claws. He decided the beaks were designed for eating different things and concluded that the finches must have evolved from just one species which had changed over time. They had adapted to their surroundings. In order to begin to understand natural selection, it is important recognise how the many hundreds of thousands of living organisms are classified.

The diagram on the next page shows an example of how we determine a species. A species can be defined as a group of organisms so similar they can breed together to form fertile offspring. For example, a horse and a donkey can breed to produce a mule but the mule, is infertile therefore showing a horse and a donkey are of different species. Within a species there are still differences and this variation is very important in evolution because without them, natural selection could not occur. Variation can be either genetic, environmental or a combination of both.

Variation caused by genes includes eye colour , gender Variation caused by the environment includes accent Variation caused by a combination of both includes high blood pressure, weight Nearly all variation is caused by a combination of these factors. Many people before Darwin thought about evolution and most scientists agreed that life on earth started from a few, simple living things. Alfred Russel Wallace and Jean Baptiste de Lamarck both had ideas about evolution, but Darwin was the first to come up with a plausible idea of how evolution happened.

This is what he called Natural Selection and when he returned from his round the world trip, Darwin spent over twenty years working to prove his theory. Wallace wrote to him asking him for advice and together they wrote a paper about evolution. To summarize, Darwin’s theory is basically: Species change over time. This is supported by the fossil record. All organisms share a common ancestor which explains the similarities between organisms that are classified together. This is supported by evidence of vestigial organs and homologous structures (see page 6). Evolutionary change is gradual and slow.

This is also supported by the fossil record. Another crucial conclusion Darwin made, was that there are always going to be too many of one species for each of them to survive. This is because they will always be in competition for food and space. He established that those best suited to survive pass their genes onto their offspring, which causes their species to change over time and could lead to their extinction.

Why the population of a species changes over time .In the above graph, the Canadian lynx eats the Snowshoe hare. No other cat is so dependent on a single prey species. Two years after a rise in the snowshoe hare population, there is a rise in the lynx population. Then, the Snowshoe hare population falls. When there are too few Snowshoe hares for the lynx to survive, their population starts to fall as well. Because the predator population has now decreased, it allows time for the prey population to increase again. As there is now more food, the predator population starts to increase again.

This cycle repeats itself over and over. That is why we say there is a clear pattern of interdependence between the two populations. What Evidence did Darwin Use? Fossil Record A fossil is a dead plant, animal or other once-living thing that has been preserved for millions of years and leaves an imprint in stone. Almost all fossils are from extinct species. Darwin used fossils to prove that evolution happened. He could determine the relative age of various fossils by looking at the layers in the rock and he could see the changes in one type of fossil.

For example, by collecting many fossils of one animal, he could see how it had evolved over time. An animal may become extinct when there is a sudden change in their habitat – for example food or temperature. A new species can become either the predator or the prey of a species already living there, thus placing either species under possible threat of extinction. The extinction of a species has an effect on the food chain. Limitations of the Fossil Record There are gaps in the fossil record because the conditions were not always suitable for fossils to develop.

This meant that not every species was recorded as a fossil and sometimes a species would occur that had no link to a previous one. Also, because evolution happens over a long period of time and often in sudden bursts, (these bursts could be up to 10,000 years apart) evidence of smaller changes were not recorded. Vestigial Organs A vestigial organ is one that has little or no use now, but was well developed in its ancestors – exactly like our appendix. By looking at vestigial organs in modern species and seeing if older species had used that organ, Darwin could determine how a species had changed over time.

Homologous Structures

Darwin also compared homologous structures which are body parts that structurally similar in related species. If two or more different species have homologous structures, it shows that they have come from the same origin. For example, gorillas and homo-sapiens both have similar body features (hand, skulls… ) illustrating that the two species have the same ancestors. Was Darwin’s theory accepted at the time? Darwin’s theory was widely rejected at the time because many people were creationists. This means they believe the creation story in the bible i. e. ll life was created in six days. Darwin’s theory of evolution challenged this view, but because there were gaps in the fossil record, it was hardto trace the changes in a species and convincing people, therefore was very difficult. Also, the age of the earth was estimated by using the Bible to be about 6000 years old, but this did not seem long enough for evolution to have taken place. Finally, although Darwin knew certain features were passed on from generation to generation, he could not explain why (see later). What other theories were there? Lamarck’s theory Lamarck had a different theory.

He believed that by striving to fit into their surroundings, the animal’s bodies changed. According to his theory, the giraffe developed its long neck by stretching it to reach the leaves on trees. Similar to other scientists he explained that life started with simple living things. However, he believed that at each generation, they became more complicated. His theory did not take account of the single celled life that still existed on Earth. Lamarck could see the changes in a species, but tried to explain it in a different way because he was afraid that people would not support the idea of natural selection.

Mendel’s Theory

George Mendel was born in 1822. Because he was poor, he joined a monastery, but also studied at the University of Vienna where he learned to carry out scientific experiments. At the monastery he learned how to breed plants and one of his jobs was to create better varieties. He was very interested in how features were passed on from one generation to the next and he decided to crossbreed different pea plants to see what would happen. He crossed red flowered plants with white and the resulting plants were all red. He then bred these plants together and this experiment returned mostly red but some white.

Mendel concluded that there must be different versions of the same genes. What evidence has been obtained since Darwin? Peppered Moths – Kettlewell studies of the 1950’s During the industrial revolution, carbon (soot) coated trees in a dark colour. The once dominant and well camouflaged pale moths (typica) were now being replaced by the rarer darker moths (carbonaria). These moths continued grow in numbers and by 1895 they represented 98% of all moths in Manchester. Naturalists at this time suggested this was a result of the industrial activity on the local landscape and that the darker moths had a survival advantage.

They had become so well camouflaged on trees they had stopped being eaten by birds, whereas the paler, typica species had now become clearly visible. The general population had changed from the pale coloured moth, to the darker coloured moth and this was another example of natural selection. In 1998, a scientist called Michael Majerus re-examined Kettlewell’s studies and concluded that the colour change in the moths is an example of natural selection, but predation by birds is only one factor – not the sole factor.

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid) and Genetics Francis Crick, a scientist from Cambridge announced in 1953, he and James Watson had found the “secret of life” – the structure of D. N. A. D. N. A. is the material inside the nucleus of cells and carries the information of how organisms develop. It is copied when new cells are made, but can be damaged or changed, usually resulting in the death of the cell. Genes are passed on from parents to offspring ensuring that the most successful individuals survive. Variation is caused because of differences in genes.

Bacterial antibiotic resistance Sometimes a mutation in D. N. A. can be beneficial for the bacteria. For example bacteria can become resistant to antibiotics and this gives them an added advantage over non-resistant bacteria. Why I think that new evidence will continue support Darwin’s theory I think that new evidence will continue to support Darwin’s theory for a number of reasons: Advances in technology mean newer ways of discovering the past will become available As species evolve further, scientists will have etter records to get information from Now scientists know what they are looking for which provides evidence of evolution Overall, I agree with the scientific belief today that “natural selection is the mechanism which leads to adaption and diversity” whilst “genetics provide the mechanics for traits to be inherited” .

“Animals and birds should never be kept in cages” A cage is defined as an enclosure used to confine or protect something. People nowadays keep animals in cages for entertainment and profit purposes. However, there are other reasons, such as the importance of preserving the species to ensure it does not go into extinction and giving people a chance to appreciate wildlife that is impossible to find in a modern city. Therefore, to a great extent I agree that animals and birds should be kept in cages. To begin with, caging animals and birds prevent them from going into extinction.

By caging animals in enclosures that simulate their natural environments, these animals will not be vulnerable. They are allowed to roam around the space provided without their natural instinct to live in the “wild” being destroyed. By providing animals and birds food and proper medical care, their healths are taken care of. If we let the animals live in the wild untouched, they may be prone to contracting diseases. Not only that, they are more subjected to being hunted. Furthermore, animals are not evenly distributed around the world due to the differences in the habitats that they live in.

These animals allow humans to appreciate wildlife more. Humans will be exposed to different types of species available including those that exist in natural abundance and those that are endangered. This increases their awareness about the wild. By portraying endangered species, humans may pay more attention to preserve them. This also helps to prevent animals from going into extinction. For instance, the White Tigers at the Singapore Zoological Garden are kept in enclosures that resemble their natural habitat.

According to research, there are six subspecies of tigers left in the world and one of them is The White Tigers. On the flip side, some people may claim that caging the animals and birds is unethical as it deprives them of their freedom. However, I cannot agree to this statement. As I have stated, animals are kept in enclosures that are big enough for them to roam around. This does not deprive animals of their freedom. In conclusion, it is important to cage animals as it reaps benefits for both animals and humans. Indeed, it is my conviction that animals and birds should be kept in cages.

Describe concept of faunal succession and use of fossils in correlation and in the subdivision of Earth history. -Principle of Faunal Succession: Strata of Eke age can be recognized by the fossils they contain even if the outcrops of strata are separated by large distances geographically, this only works because species have evolved through time C] older forms of life die out and new forms develop -using the appearance and disappearance of fossils to subdivide geological time Is the science of physiotherapy

D. Recognize the qualities that make fossils useful in physiotherapy. – Physiotherapy: each fossil species is said to have a range through geological time 0 it exists in the geological record from the point that it evolves to the point that it becomes extinct E. Identify important historical figures in the development of stereography and physiotherapy. Archbishop of Armada, James Usher (1581-1665) calculated the Earth to be 6000 years old by adding up all the dates mentioned in the Bible and arrived at a date of October 22, 4004 BC as the creation of planet Earth (hard to accept by many people) -Late asses and asses scientists started to conclude that the Earth Is ancient and had undergone much change throughout Its history. This George Xavier (1769-1832) examined the remains of mammoths in Europe concluding they were a once living species that had become extinct F.

Appreciate the scale of changes that can occur over geological time scales. – Geological time scale – to represent the changing character of the Earth through time, fossils were used to correlate between different regions and characterize particular periods of Earth’s history -Today we have a time scale that divides and bedsides Earth’s 4. 6 billion years into various time periods G. List some of the major subdivisions/ ages of the geological time scale and appreciate the relative scale between the Phonetics and the Precambrian.

This is due to an extraordinary proliferation of fossils at the base of the Phonetics in a period called the Cambrian. -Most creatures with hard parts like shells, teeth, and internal skeletons evolved here as they fossil much more readily than soft-bodied creatures -In addition to an increasing biodiversity as new species evolved, many of the new “hard part creatures” would more readily form fossils. H. Understand how extinction events are linked to the structure of the geological time call. Eras are broad subdivisions that are particularly significant as they represent a grouping of geological periods. They represent times when there has been a major change in the Earth’s biosphere. -The base of the Phonetics is defined by the emergence of creatures with hard parts. -The base of the Mesozoic and the Cenozoic is based on the emergence of new species following a mass extinction at the top of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic respectively. -The base of all periods is defined on the emergence of radiation of new species l.

List some of the major developments in the history of life on Earth. ) At least 30% of Earth’s species must be lost 2) It must be across a broad range of geologies, not restricted to any one niche. 3) It must have short/sudden duration (around 1 million years maximum) K. List the “Big Five” mass extinction events and their order through time. 1) Cretaceous / Polygene (Tertiary) (K/Peg), 65 Ma 2) Late -errant’s, 205 Ma 3) Perm / Triassic, 251 Ma 4) Late Devotion, 360-375 Ma 5. Late Ordination, 440-450 Ma L. Distinguish between broad extinction-producing phenomena. ) Biological causes: Organisms being brought together that once lived in isolation can cause mass extinctions (ex. Many of the New Zealand ground dwelling bird fauna were devastated when human hunters and then later European mammals (cats, rats, dogs) were introduced) -The three main modes of biologically induced extinctions: a. Competition between creatures occupying the same ecological niche b. (Excessive) Predation: Predators do not have to do the whole Job, Just drive a population to a low enough level then “random extinction” can complete the extinction.

The idea behind a random extinction is that, although the number of individuals in a species may grow and the species may spread over a wide area, thing ensures the permanent survival of a species. C. Pathogens: disease being introduced to an area by incoming plants or animals 2) Earth-based causes: Extinctions influenced by Earth-based tectonic processes may be caused by changes in continental configuration or changes in atmospheric composition a. Changes in continental configuration: changes in the distribution of continents can have a profound effect.

Two major effects of continental configurations: -Changes in climate, ocean cyclist, sea level. Weather patterns and the movement of the oceans are directly linked to the distribution of continents. The Late Ordination extinction -The greater the landmass the lower the diversity. At the moment we have a relatively high biodiversity. This is in part due to the number of continents that are in effect isolated from one another. In times when there is a high degree of continental fragmentation, evolution can proceed in isolation to produce many different species on different landmasses.

If plate tectonics cause the formation of a large interconnected land mass there will be more competition between species and lower biodiversity. 0 The Perm/ Triassic Extinction b. Changes in the atmosphere: volcanic activity can also have severe effects. Gases such as carbon dioxide can cause greenhouse warming and aerosols may cause climatic cooling. These can significantly affect the health of the biota c. Extraterrestrial impacts d. Combination of many factors: it is very unlikely that any one factor would be responsible for a global crisis in the biosphere.

M. Describe the late Ordination and Perm-Triassic extinction. -Late Ordination: Australia, moves towards the South Pole during the late Ordination causing a severe ice age. As water was locked up in the form of glaciers at the Southern Pole, sea level fell. This may have had a severe effect on creatures that live in the shallow water, lose to the continental margins. As the sea retreated off the continental shelf and into the ocean basis shallow marine ecosystems would have been devastated. The Perm / Triassic Extinction (the WORST day for the Biosphere, 251 Ma): At the end of the Permian, plate tectonics had brought all the continents together to form the super continent of Pangaea -Between 95-98% of all species would go into extinction -It hit both ocean- and land-based ecosystems and was less than 1 million years in duration -Many of the common Paleozoic marine creatures would suffer badly through this extinction including trilobites, barbershops, and crinoids.

On land, large amphibians and mammal-like reptiles would be badly effected. -Potential causes of the Perm / Triassic extinction (involves a number of events happening at the same time): 1) Continental configuration: drop in biodiversity. The greater the landmass the greater the competition between species. At the end of the Permian, the superscription of Pangaea or “all lands” would have brought many species into direct competition. 2) Sea level fall: less ocean ridge activity.

Sea floor spreading slowed its pace during the Permian, resulting that the oceanic ridges were smaller in size and displaced less water. Consequently oceans retreated from shallow areas into the deeper basin causing problems for creatures that lived in any remaining shallow marine environments. 3) Oceanic stagnation: The close of the formation of Pangaea saw the end of an ice age. Cold polar waters probably disappeared and ocean circulation slowed or stopped. This would have reduced ventilation of deep ocean waters killing off many deeper marine species.

In addition occasional overturn of stagnant water could have brought oxygen poor waters to shallower marine communities as well. 4) Climate change: Due to the formation of a large landmass, limited would have been much drier and subject to drought. 5) Siberian Traps: massive volcanic activity in Russia: Around 2-3 million kamala basaltic lava were produced within a million years. Carbon dioxide from the volcanic activity and methane caused by melting of gas hydrates would have resulted in greenhouse warming of the planet.

In addition, gas emission from volcanoes would have also produced acid rain effects. 6) Possible impacts: Although still very controversial, it is possible that the Earth suffered impacts from space during this time as well. N. Describe the character of extinctions at the K/Peg boundary. Just as the end of the Permian extinction marked the beginning of a new grouping of periods (the Mesozoic) the end of the Cretaceous extinction is likewise so distinct that it marks the beginning of the latest grouping of periods, the Cenozoic. Characteristics: 1) Over 50% of all species on the planet would go into extinction during the k/Peg extinction event 2) One land, few creatures over 25 keg in weight would survive 3) In general, the extinction was even more severe in the oceans with around 80-90% of marine species including the ammonites and marine reptiles going into extinction -A ether and son scientific team, Louis and Walter Olivarez brought the K/Peg extinction crosses the K/Peg boundary in Gobi, Italy.

The I-CM clay layer lies directly on top of the latest Cretaceous rocks and was found to be enriched in the element iridium (very rare at the Earth’s surface and yet in this layer was enriched over xx above background 0 has now been recorded in many other sections around the world that straddle the Cretaceous. Polygene boundary) -Iridium is known to exist in higher concentrations in extra-terrestrial objects such as asteroids. Olivarez suggested that he clay layer enriched in iridium has been produced by a meteor or comet over 10 km in diameter impacting the Earth.

He suggested further that this impact may have also been responsible for the extinction at the end of the Cretaceous. O. Discuss the evidence used to support the K/Peg impact. 1) Fern spores vs.. Pollen: Ferns are often the first plants to colonize a landscape that has been devastated by fire. In the earliest Polygene (part of what was formerly called the Tertiary), many areas show an increase in fern spores relative to pollen. This suggests that global forest fires may have raged at the end of the Cretaceous paving a landscape open for ferns to spread.

This is further supported by high concentrations of soot found around the K/Peg boundary. 2) Tektites: they are thought to be produced during an impact event and they are composed of natural gas. During impact, rock is melted and ejected form the crater. As it travels through the air and cools, it forms characteristic aerodynamic shapes. Many tektites are found at the K/Peg boundary in many different locations, suggesting a massive impact event. 3) Shocked quartz: In many sections around the K/Peg boundary, fragments of the mineral quartz show evidence of multiple fractures.

These fractures are thought to be produced when rock is shattered during a high-energy impact. The fragments are called shocked quartz. 4) Tsunami deposits: Tsunami waves leave characteristic sedimentary deposits on inundated shores and as far inland as the waves reach. This feature was found in Mexico, Texas, New Jersey, and the Carolinas suggesting the passage of an enormous wave, far larger than could have been produced by standard tectonic processes.

Such a wave could have been generated if an impact had occurred in the ocean. P. Describe the location and probable nature of the K/Peg impact. The distribution of tektites, iridium, shocked quartz, and other potential impact related features was pointing towards a possible centre of activity in the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico. An oil company had drilled wells in the area and encountered unusual fractures and even melted rock suggesting the area had been subjected to some form of extreme stress. The presence of a crater was finally confirmed when geophysical data revealed a large circular disturbance over km in diameter, the Clubbing Impact Crater -The object responsible for this crater had a shallow angle of entry around 0-30 degrees and is estimated to have been at least 10 km across. -As an analogy, you can think of something the size of Mount Everest hitting the surface of the planet. The energy released by the impact was equivalent to 6. Axes tons of TNT. An estimated 100 kamala of rock was vaporized and released to the atmosphere. Material that wasn’t instantly vaporized was thrown out of the crater (the ejects) and Q.

Describe the initial and long-term effects of the impact and their environmental consequences. 1) Initial effects (seconds to days) of the impact in the area of the Yucatan Peninsula were significant a. Everything close by would have been vaporized b. The intense heat form the blast and the hot debris (including tektites) would have started massive forest fires as suggested by the fern and pollen data c. As the impact occurred partly in the ocean, a massive tsunami would have been generated 2) Longer-term effects (months to decades) of the impact were numerous.

Two significant effects were on global temperature and on atmospheric composition. A. Global temperature changes -Dust thrown into the atmosphere would have shut off sunlight for weeks or perhaps months generating a period of cold (a “Cold House”, lasting weeks to months. The lack of sunlight would also have had severe consequences for plants and photosynthetic algae. -After the dust had settled, water vapor would have remained in the atmosphere acting as a blanket, preventing heat from escaping the Earth. This would have created a greenhouse effect and caused a rise in global temperature. Eventually the excess water vapor would be removed by rainfall. However, the temperature of the Earth would continue to rise due to the release of greenhouse gases during impact (a “Hot House”), lasting years to decades. In particular, carbon dioxide would have been liberated when large quantities of limestone (calcium carbonate, Cacao) would have vaporized during the impact. -The Mesozoic had in general been a warm equable environment. These swings in temperature would have laced a lot of stress on creatures more used to stable climatic conditions. . Acid Rain -High-energy blasts can cause oxygen to combine with nitrogen to form oxides of nitrogen. When these are dissolved in water (ex. Rainfall), it becomes nitric acid. -In addition to the vaporization of limestone as described in (a) above, rocks called evaporates were also vaporized in the blast. Evaporates form when salts precipitate out of solution as the sun evaporates a body of water. This can occur on a vast scale, for example in the Mediterranean Sea, which is closed off at the Strait of Gibraltar.

With virtually no input of water from the Atlantic Ocean, high rates of evaporation resulted in the Sea being converted into a vast sultan. This process had also occurred in the Yucatan area. The effect of high-energy blasts on sulfate-rich evaporates is the release of large amounts of sulfur gases. These gases, when dissolved in rainwater, fall to Earth as sulfuric acid. Although the acidity of the nitric- and sulfuric- containing rain was weak and could probably not affect any large animals directly, they would have been affected the acidity of soil and surface ocean.

This would have had a devastating effect on plant life and plankton. Thus, the effects from acid rain on the organisms that form the base of the food chain or food web had serious repercussions for all the creatures at higher atrophic levels. R. Consider other potential causes of the K/Peg environmental consequences. -Some scientists remain convinced that another impact at the K/Peg boundary (perhaps not loud have been significantly larger than the Clubbing impact, but impacts would NOT have been the only cause.

Some factors may be: -During the late Cretaceous, the superscription of Pangaea was starting to fragment. This would have caused changes in oceanic circulation and climate. -Even more significantly, global climate would have been affected by an increase in volcanic activity, in particular, during the formation of the Decca Traps in India, which were highly active at this time. Like the Siberian Traps that occurred at the end of the Permian, this activity would have reduced vast quantities of gases that could have seriously affected the Earth’s climate.

S. Describe the type and location of potential impostors and rate of meteor influx. 1) Comets are essentially material left over from the formation of the Solar System and are composed of icy material and other debris – effectively “dirty snowballs” in space. As comets travel towards the Sun, the ices vaporize producing the comet’s tail. -Two examples of comets are comet Halley, which comes into view of the Earth every 74-79 years, and comet Hale-Bop that was last seen in the night sky in 1997 and will turn in 2380 years. An annual event is the Leonie Meteor Shower, which is visible in Canadian skies in November. This rain of “shooting stars” is produced as the Earth passes through the debris left behind by comet Temple-Tuttle as it orbits around the sun -There are two comet “stores” in the Solar System: a) The Keeper belt exists in an area from about the orbit of Neptune to about 50 auk’s out (1 AU = 150 million km) -May contain 1 billion (1 x IOWA) comets that are greater than km in diameter. ) The Root cloud is a cloud of comets that exists way beyond the Keeper belt and is only Oakley associated with our sun -May have more than 200 comets with a diameter greater than 500 km with many smaller but still significant in size -It is interesting to note that comets may have been responsible for bringing much of the water and perhaps some of the organic compounds that would lead to the development of life of Earth 2) Asteroids are mostly found in a belt between the orbit of Mars and Jupiter.

It is speculated that they may represent the material that might have formed another planet early in the history of the Solar System if it were not for the gravitational effects of Jupiter. Some asteroids are solid, rocky to metallic while others are little more than “rubble piles” in space. Collisions between asteroids could potentially cause them to be redirected into Earth-crossing orbits. Of those so far mapped, a few are over km in diameter, about 1000 have diameters greater than 30 km and 1 million (alexia) with diameters over 1 km T.

List some of the major impact features preserved on the Earth’s surface and explain why impact craters appear to be rare on Earth. -Around 100 billion (IXIA 1) objects enter our atmosphere every rush 0 most of these are burned out at a distance of km above the Earth’s surface. These objects are commonly traveling around 11-km/ second. At such speeds, the atmosphere acts like a brick wall. If an object enters at a shallow angle, it may skip like a stone being skipped across a pond and fly back out to space -Early in Earth’s history, our planet probably suffered on our planetary neighbors’ like Mercury.

The evidence of this early bombardment is missing on Earth due to processes of erosion and active plate tectonics. -Until recently (sass’s) the possibility of impact on Earth’s surface was regarded as improbable. -Craters such as Meteor Crater in Arizona and even the craters on the non were held by some to represent extinct volcanoes and not impact craters at all. U. Describe some of the features and processes of crater formation. Gene Shoemaker was to change this view by studying features such as the material thrown out of a crater (ejects), shocked quartz, and chemical anomalies, which demonstrated extra-terrestrial origins for these features. -With the aid of satellite imagery, we are now beginning to identify more craters on the surface of our planet. V. Provide examples of Canadian Impact Craters. -Manicuring impact crater (Northern Quebec) – formed about 214 Ma in the Late Triassic. It is km in diameter but was probably as wide as km before glacial erosion stripped away the upper levels. This impact even is thought to be associated with 4 others including Saint Martin Crater (Manitoba) – 40 km in diameter and Architecture Crater (France) – 25 km in diameter. -When the continents are reassembled into their locations during the late Triassic all these craters line up along 22. 8 degrees North latitude over a distance of 462 km. -It is thought that this almost improbable alignment may actually represent a fragmented body that generated several impacts. It is interesting to note that although the effects of this impact would have been severe, it is not associated with a major mass extinction event W. Describe the hypothesis proposed by Rap and Sheepskin. -They analyzed the number of mass extinctions during the Phonetics and concluded that every 25 million years there was severe stress on the biosphere, sometimes associated with a mass extinction event -There is no known terrestrial geological process that could cause this frequency of problems for the biosphere.

So it was suggested that an extraterrestrial source may be to blame 0 comets in the Root cloud were cited as being the most likely culprit -Rap and Sheepskin’s hypothesis suggests that every 25-26 million years, something shifts the Root cloud, which causes some comets to fall in towards the Sun and a possible impact with the Earth 0 for this to work, we need to identify a gravity source that can cause disturbances in the cloud on a regular 25 million year basis: 1) Nemesis – Companion Star: This hypothesis proposes that our Sun has a companion star way beyond the outer limits of our Solar System whose orbit brings it close to the Root cloud every 25 million years.

The gravitational effects of this close pass could cause comets to fall into the inner Solar System. If this body was a red dwarf star or even a black hole, it might be difficult to detect, but even though powerful telescopes such as Hubble have the Nemesis hypothesis, this has an astronomical body (Planet X) that causes shifts in the Root cloud as it orbits around the Sun. In this case, the body y is a planet lying within the bounds of the Root cloud but outside the Keeper belt. Again, no evidence of such a planet has been found. 3) Movement Through the Galactic Plane: In the same way that our planet orbits the Sun, so our Solar System orbits around the center of the Milky Way Galaxy.

Galaxies are not Just flat pancakes of stars, they also have “thickness” -In addition to traveling around our galaxy, our Solar System is also moving up and down through it, Every 25-26 million years we pass through the densest part of the galaxy, which contains a higher number of stars and also the most gravitational effects. It is proposed that it is this movement through the dense part of the galactic plane that is responsible for the shifts in the Root cloud and thereby a potential impact related biosphere crisis every 25 million years or so. X. List and describe some recent impacts and “near misses”. ) Tunas, Siberia None 30, 1908): A large explosion about km above the surface attributed to an extraterrestrial object breaking up I the atmosphere (which is why no crater was found).

Fortunately, the area was not populated but people and horses km away were knocked off their feet. The shock wave from the blast traveled around the Earth twice. -In Scotland and Sweden, a light appeared in the sky so bright that you could read books at am without the aid of artificial light. It has been suggested that this might have been a fragment of comet Neck, which was passing close by the Earth at hat time -Over 80 million trees were knocked over covering an area about kamala (compare the area of the Tunas devastation to that of the area occupied by Washington, D. C. ) 2) Asteroid near misses: 1989, 1996, 2009, 2011 -March 22, 1989: A mm asteroid misses Earth by 6 hours.