Failure

Distributed Systems A distributed system is a computer system that consists of a collection of computers that share certain characteristics. The first characteristic that these computers share is the use of a common network. Another trait of this system is the computers share software that enables the computers to coordinate their activities, often across large distances. The sharing of system resources is another characteristic of distributed systems and those resources are usually available from an integrated computing facility. Fault Tolerance

In a distributed system, fault tolerance is something that needs to be taken into account to prevent catastophic situations and data loss. Fault olerance is simply the ability of a system to continue operating in the event of undesired changes to the external environment or internal structure of the system occurs. Types of failure There are several key types of failure related to distributed systems. The first of these is hardware failure. Hardware failure refers to the failure of any single component within the system. The second type of failure within a distributed system is network failure.

Network failure is the failure of any single link within the entire distirbuted system network. The third type of failure within a distributed system is application failure. Application failure occurs when an application stops working or fails to operate correctly within a distributed system. The last type of failure in a distributed system is the failure of synchronization. The type of failure occurs when data on different point of the system are not synchronized correctly. Hardware Failure Within a distributed system there are many different types of hardware.

If any one of the hardware components within a distributed system should fail, the failure could affect the distributed system as a whole. Taken in the most literal sense, individual keyboards, mice, monitors, and computers are all hardware and failure of any one of those would affect the distributed system because it could cause a single node to be unavailable for use. This is an example of failure that has a very minimal impact on the performance of the overall system. On the flip side of that, the failure of a server within the distributed system would have a tremendous affect on the performance of the system as a whole.

Fault tolerance requires the distibuted system to have redundant hardware capabilities so that no single component could fail and have a detrimental effect on the system. Network Failure One of the key characteristics of a distributed system is the use of a network as a common link to share applications, data, and resources. As with hardware failures, network failures can occur on different scales. One example of a network failure would be the loss of a wireless access point in a location where there is no capacity for a wired connection.

Loss of wireless connectivity could potentailly affect many users depending on the situation. Another example of a network failue would be the loss of a router. The loss of a router on a large network would have a negative impact on all users and equipment connected to it. Fault tolerance would require redundant routes to allows users to maintain their connection in the case of a failed router and the availability of wired connections or duplicate wireless access points, in the case of the failure of a single wireless access point. http://www. answers. com/topic/fault-tolerant http://www. answers. com/topic/distributed-system

General principle

There is no general liability for failure to act under the common law of England and Wales. A crime can be committed by omission, but there can be no omission in law in the absence of a duty to act. The general basis for imposing liability in criminal law is that the defendant must be proved to have committed a guilty act whilst having had a guilty state of mind. The physical elements are collectively called the actus reus and the accompanied mental state is called the mens rea.

Liability for omissions

The general rule is that there can be no liability for failing to act, unless at the time of the failure to act the defendant was under a legal duty to take positive action. ‘’Unless a statute specifically so provides, or ….the common law impose a duty upon a person to act in a particular way towards another… a mere omission to act cannot lead to criminal liability’’.(R Vs Miller[1983]1 All ER 978.) A positive duty to act exists in the following circumstances:

• Duty arising from statute Liability for failing to act will be imposed where the defendant can be shown to have been under a statutory duty to take positive action. A leading example of such a case is provided by the children and Young Persons Act 1933, which creates the offence of wilfully neglecting a child. Hence by simply failing to provide food for the child or failing to obtain appropriate medical care a parent could be held criminally liable for any harm that results. (Greener Vs DPP[1996] The Times, Feb. 15,1996).
• Duty arising from a Contract. Where a person is under a positive duty to act because of his obligations under a contract, his failure to perform the contractual duty in question can form the basis of criminal liability. (R Vs Pittwood [1902] 19 TLR 37).

“There is also some current there, you feel hurt because, in some ways you’re saying to me that you can’t love her as full as you really love her, you can’t show her. ” The counselor failed to connect with the client when the client is told that“there is always going to be a conflict. ” The client was in the course of sharing her thoughts to which the counselor mutters the word “anytime” thrice. The client seems to be distracted by the constant response of “anytime” to which she simply said “okay”. Then the counselor proceeds with periodic interruptions and said “conflict in you so the relationship with the daughter can be as full as it can.

” The client wanted to state something but the therapist continues to elaborate on what she thinks the client wants to say. Another part that the counselor did not connect to the client is when counselor stated to add reinforcement schedules, or intellectual, other intellectual strategies to start where the client is the strongest. The client replied by asking if her tears will control of the reinforcement schedules, or intellectual strategies which were ignored by the counselor. The counselor continues to advise the client to “build her heart to your head and not from your head to your heart, that’s a personalized view.

” It is clear that the session is not client-centered towards the end of the conversation. The client spoke in soft voice saying “yeah yeah. ” While the counselor continues to elaborate her piece of advice by saying “It would make sense and it would be an area of strength there” and “it makes sense. And it’s just that I had it in the wrong” without acknowledging the client’s question. The counselor also finished the client’s sentence when he or she said the word “order” indicating that the counselor did not let the patient say what she needs to say.

It failed to promote understanding given the need for the client to reiterate what she heard from the counselor to confirm mutual understanding. Overview of the session The session was about the dilemma of the client on teaching her daughter to sleep in her separate bed. The mother reinforces this behavior but easily succumbs to the cries of her daughter to let her sleep beside her mother. The mother wants to teach her daughter how to be independent enough to sleep alone. There was a significant progress of this reinforcement when the daughter is promised to have rewards during birthdays and Christmas.

The mother has frustrations on how she surrenders and let her daughter have her own way. In addition to, the mother has trouble sleeping when her daughter cries until she is transferred to her mother’s bed. The main issue of the client is that she feels angry with herself more than she feels angry toward her daughter. The client thinks that she is the one to blame for allowing her daughter to get some leeway thus allowing herself to be weak to stand by her own rules. A non-evaluative overview of what happens in the session

The session allowed the client to express her trouble and feelings with regards to reinforcing her daughter to sleep in her own bed. The client opened up her problem at the first half of the session while the counselor rendered her opinions and suggestions on how to view the disciplinary actions applied to the client’s daughter as well as how to approach the issue by taking “small, increment” steps. How did you feel while reading about the session? (no more than half a page) While the reading the session, it struck me how important it is to share burdens or worries.

Issues such as parenting or reinforcing good behavior of children can be a battle of emotions and will. Thus, a parent can be torn between following her mother’s instincts to let her child have her or his desires but at the same time should be a disciplinarian. After all, the role of parents is to rear their children to be responsible and productive individuals. I also realized that the conflict between being too lenient and strict when it comes to parenting is often a battle of emotions for most mothers.

Motherly love often gets in the way on instilling discipline on the child as pity gets the better of a mother upon seeing her child showing signs of distress such as crying, throwing tantrums, or helplessness. Lastly, there is a need for making appropriate responses during counseling. The responses made should be oriented in a manner to further explore a client’s feelings by expressing acknowledgment, accepting by letting the client talk, exploring with additional questions, and validating the client’s responses by asking the client to further elaborate her or his thoughts.

My opinion of this counseling session Based on what I read, the counseling session has its good and bad points. Counseling is considered a good therapy for clients who need to talk their problems out. Thus, the client in one way or another expressed her pent up anger and frustrations. The counselor was able to listen and give suggestions to the client and her problem. Counseling skills that the counselor attempt to use and list some examples using your transcript.

The counseling skills employed by the counselor are verbal attending behavior include things such as your tone of voice, rate of speech, sighs, and uhms. The classic “uhum” is a verbal sign of interest that encourages a client to keep talking. What do you see as the counselor’s main strengths or good qualities? The main strength of the counselors is having the ability to form interpretations and use of empathetic comments. The counselor expressed his or her own interpretations when the client narrates her struggles on reinforcing her daughter and the need to sleep in her bed.

The act of nodding your head or being silent while the client is talking serves as a powerful message to encourage the client to express his or her feelings. This therapeutic form of communication can only be used on specific instances thus should not be used all the time since it shows disinterest. The counselor made empathetic comments such as “so, but, but you’re still left with a, holding your breath. ” and you’re really testing your own patience with the three days, four days, two weeks, then back. ” Thus it validates clients’ reactions as acceptable, normal, or understandable.

Introduction

The importance of the management of expatriate’s has grown as the number of multinational companies has increased significantly over the last few decades, therefore increasing the need to be aware of potential problems which could cause high failure rates in expatriate assignments (Anderson,2005). Porter and Tansky (1999) write that an unsuccessful expatriate assignment is very costly for both an organisation and the expatriate themselves. But despite this very few companies have adequate processes for both selecting and training these expatriates.

As Harzing (1995: 457) notes, virtually every writer measures expatriate failure as “the percentage of expatriates returning home before their assignment contract expires”. Brewster (1988) also defines failure as assignments where expatriates were brought home earlier than planned. Brewster and Scullion (1997) say that the fact that corporations have heavy cost pressures has led to the policies for employee movement across countries being looked at. They also observe that it is becoming more noticeable that both the social and economic cost of failure in business abroad is more damaging than business done in home countries, especially in terms of market share and damage of customer trust (Zeira and Banai,1984).

It is therefore pertinent for academic research to both look at the major issues associated with expatriate failure and why expatriates often ‘fail’ in their assignments. From reading the literature these can be identified mainly as a lack of thorough selection procedures from employers to identify which managers would be successful on assignments in foreign countries.

This can range from not identifying what attributes certain candidates have that would make them more likely to succeed, to not identifying the family situations of potential expatriates which would also be conducive to successful assignments abroad. Once these factors have been identified it is then logical to assess what procedures could be put in place for the company to stop failure of expatriate assignments and how they can identify successful candidates for the roles. This is the format this essay will follow.

Reasons for expatriate failure

This study will first look at the issues associated with expatriate failure and what reasons and factors there are which lead to this end result. Enderwick and Hodgson (1993) observe that expatriate failure is caused by rash recruitment policies combined with preparation and training which is not thorough enough for the manager. This draws attention to the limited role of HR in the management of expatriates, and Halcrow (1999) also writes that HR are confined to administrative support as opposed to playing any meaningful role in any strategic aspects.

It is this lack of attention to detail and impulsive selection practice for expatriates which causes many of the problems. It fails to identify different characteristics and traits which are likely to be conducive to success in expatriate projects. Klaus (1995) notes that in the majority of companies expatriate selection happens quickly and irrationally. Something which is inherent in many international businesses is the fact that their selection procedures for expatriate managers are rather informal and they do not possess thorough enough assessments (Brewster.1991).

Mendenhall and Oddou (1985: 39) argue that companies often think that domestic performance success would equal overseas performance success, regarding the manager’s technical skills as being the most important factor to consider when looking at candidates to select for managing projects abroad. This shows a disregard for identifying the differences which can affect performances in different countries and cultures. The underlying assumption that companies who use this formula is that “Managing [a] company is a scientific art. The executive accomplishing the task in New York can surely perform as adequately in Hong Kong” (Baker & Ivancevich,1971: 40). Therefore a lot of multinational companies tend to send the manager and their family to the foreign countries without any cultural training. And when training is administered it is often far too broad or is not followed up with any reflection on how effective it was (Tung, 1981).

Brewster and Scullion (1997) discuss these difficulties that International companies who do actually undertake training and development programmes for expatriates come across. The first of these is that the manager not only has to adjust to a new job but also to an entirely different culture which they are not familiar with (Mendenhall and Oddou, 1985). As well as this, there is the family to consider. Training programmes for families also needs to be addressed as this is considered a major factor behind expatriate failure, and this is often not addressed correctly or at all. There is however, evidence that managers themselves value cultural training an awful lot and see the benefits from this (Brewster and Pickard, 1994). Cross-cultural training has long been proven to enable effective cross cultural assignments, yet still a lot of firms do not utilise this (Black, 1988). Different training and developmental models for these managers working abroad have been worked on over the last decade. These tend to take into account the job and the individual as well as the culture before deciding the amount and type of personal development that is required (Tung, 1981). Mendenhall and Oddou (1986) have developed a ’cross- cultural training approach’, consisting of three varying levels. Information-giving approaches are those which consist of factual briefings and cultural awareness development. Affective approaches would usually consist of cultural development combined with different scenarios and role plays. Finally, immersion approaches. These are different styles of assessment centres and in the field experience and scenarios. According to this model the style of management training given should take into account on a number of factors dependent on the project and the manager. These could include the length of stay and the amount of integration required to fit in with the host culture.(Mendenhall and Oddou, 1986)

Mendenhall et al. acknowledge there are many personal obstacles which could lead to many expatriates not completing their assignments and being branded a failure. These include factors such as “culture shock, differences in work-related norms, isolation, homesickness, differences in health care, housing, schooling, cuisine, and the cost of living, to name but a few” (1987: 331). These are all personal characteristics and attributes which would affect expatriate manager’s morale and ability to do an effective job. Porter and Tansky (1999) write that a high learning orientation is critical for an expatriate manager, this is because they will have continual experiences which are not similar to those they usually experience, and will need to be able to be resilient in the face of different challenges. Anderson (2005: 567) notes that although in the private sector the selection of expatriates is usually down to their technical competence, with “minimal attention being paid to the interpersonal skills and domestic situations of these potential expatriates”, that non-government organisations do actually utilise methods such as psychological testing and a variety of methods to ensure that the expatriates family is taken into consideration as well . These methods therefore usually lead to more effective expatriate assignments and less failures, in the next section of this report we will delve deeper into ways in which the likelihood of expatriate success can be increased.

What can be done to improve expatriate failure rates?

Currently the selection processes for expatriate candidates are not effective enough in predicting which managers will be successful in these assignments. It is necessary to focus on how these can be improved to address the rate of failures among expatriates. Halcrow (1999) has reported that less than two thirds of a survey of HR professionals identified personality as an important consideration when picking expatriate candidates, and 11 percent said it has little or no importance at all to the process. Family issues were also given the lowest of priorities, and 25 percent did not regard them as important. Here then, are the issues that need to be addressed, as can be seen from the previous section whereby these were identified as major factors in the success of expatriate projects. Effective selection, training and placement of expatriate managers is critical to international success argue Nicholson et al. (1990), and therefore the procedures put in place for this need to be effective.

Mendenhall et al.(1987: 333) state they have attempted to find the criteria which can predict productivity and acclimatisation in overseas assignments, and that a set of personality factors have been identified by numerous authors. They profess that these are “self-orientation, others-orientation and perceptual orientation” . Self-orientation includes factors such as how to reduce stress and how managers deal with being alone whilst abroad. ‘Others’ orientation includes factors such as how good the manager is at forming relationships and their ability to communicate with others. ‘Perceptual’ orientation includes different factors such as how flexible a person is and how open minded they can be. However, they indicate that US firm’s still appear to use only technical competence as their criteria for expatriate selection, and this is what needs to change as that is not a great predictor of expatriate manager success. The model proposed by Aycan (1997) also says that factors should be identified which are expected to account for a substantial amount of variance in expatriate adjustment. This is the fit between the expatriate and their environment which leads to less stress and better work productivity. This encompassed psychological, socio cultural and work adjustment. It is also required that organisational support and preparation is necessary.

Porter and Tansky write about the possibility of a learning orientation which could be important for both assessment and training for expatriates. They suggest that employee’s with weaker learning orientation could result in low levels of judgement in challenging foreign circumstances and vice versa. They state that this learning orientation approach could “benefit employees and their families and can increase the organisation’s chance for international success” (1999: 48). Porter and Tansky (1999: 50) observe that to eliminate the risk of expatriate failure that more emphasis should be placed on: “better identification of employee’s who are likely to function effectively in different cultures, development activities to enhance functioning in the expatriate role, and systematic analysis of problems during the expatriate assignment.” Mendenhall et al (1997) observe the impact upon spouses and families is also not taken into account when selecting managers for expatriation. As can be seen in the previous half of this report, how their family copes with the relocation can impact greatly upon the morale of expatriate managers. Some academics also suggest that the families of expatriates should be assessed on similar criteria to the managers themselves. Stone (1986) observes that failing to identify this problem is the greatest failure in the selection process for expatriates. Therefore one would have to agree that, as the family is seen as a major factor in whether a expatriate manager succeeds or not then they should definitely be taken into account during the selection process.

Guptara (1986) has written that there are a number of psychological tests that can be used in the recruitment processes for expatriates to test such psychological traits which could be conducive to successful expatriates, however this does not appear to be commonplace in corporate recruitment processes. Ioannou (1995) discusses the results of a National Foreign Trade Council of New York survey. Here it was shown that a variety companies did not use any form of psychological testing for possible expatriate managers. Tung (1982) finds that it is extremely rare that a company carries out a thorough assessment of a manager who is being considered to work in another part of the company abroad. Porter and Tansky (1999) advocate the application of a learning orientation to help this. They suggest questionnaire responses to show details on a managers beliefs about different traits and if they possess them. As well as task simulations to show if a person has different learning orientation behaviours. For example who which people will look for new strategies rather than rescind from these strategies when things do not go as planned immediately (1999:52).Here can be seen the discrepancy between academic musings on the topic and that of the practitioners. Writers emphasise soft skills while actual research into company practice indicates an obvious reliance on technical competence for the selection. If this were to change then expatriate projects may achieve a greater success rate.

Two major propositions can also be derived from Mendenhall and Oddou (1985) findings. The first would be that expatriate cultural adaptation is a multi dimensional process rather than a one dimensional one. This means that selection procedures of international companies for expatriates should be changed from their present one dimensional focus on technical competence as the most important criteria towards a more multi dimensional one. This should focus therefore focus on personal attributes which may be conducive to success working as an expatriate manager. Mendenhall and Oddou (1985) also recommend that training which deals with these factors needs putting in place, and which needs to be multi dimensional as opposed to one dimensional. Gudykunst, Hammer, and Wiseman (1977) combined a number of differing development approaches and compared the cultural adaptation abilities of managers who received the integrated training with managers who were the recipients of just one dimensional training. Integrated training produced much greater levels of culture adaptation. Along with other academics they again mention that both the selection and training processes must include the family of the expatriate. As well as this the culture adaptation training should be given to the expatriate’s family. As observed in the first half of this essay, it was shown that it was vital that not only the expatriate manager themselves, but also their family was happy as both had an effect on morale and performance. Corporate HR teams should have a clear direction to also hire a work fore who are internationally comfortable and experience too. Thus these would prove to be effective expatriate managers as they are relatively used to the process and overcoming the challenges they would face (Mendenhall and Oddou.1985).

Conclusion

In conclusion as many academics have identified there are serious problems with the way many corporations select and manage expatriate managers and their assignments. Many problems stem from the initial selection stage which is seen to be very lax and informal from many different businesses. These initial mistakes in the selection process mainly centre around focusing purely on technical competencies within managers for expatriate selection, and this has been proven to not be the most successful of indicators for success in international assignments of this manner. This is because it fails to take into account other factors which make a person more likely to be successful. This can include personality traits such as adaptability and how resilient they are. It also neglects the domestic and family situation of different managers, and indeed many HR teams have said that they do not even take this into consideration or treat it as important at all.

Academics have also suggested solutions to these problems in the way of recruitment processes and training processes which would be incredibly useful for business’s to implement with their selection and training for expatriates. These vary from personality tests to assess the traits that people have and if these would be conducive to being successful as an expatriate manager abroad, to a variety of assessment centre styles testing out people in different scenarios and if they were the type of person likely to succeed. As well as this it would be recommended that companies look at the family of potential expatriate managers to see if these were also likely to be happy once moving abroad as this has a visible and proven impact on the morale of expatriate managers. Training also needs to be more effective and focus on broader issues as opposed to just technical competency and understanding company systems fully, but to train expatriate managers culturally as well. Overall the key problems are predominantly to do with the selection processes of corporations. They need to improve by taking a wider range of issues into consideration and not just a one dimensional view of ‘if it works in our country it will work in another culturally different county’ approach. But they need to consider the softer side of managers, such as their characteristics and family lives, this is something business leaders could learn from academics.

Bibliography

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Entrepreneurship is full of bad experiences. If you want to go through the turbulent journey then you have to learn the process of taking positive actions in the bad situation.

The failures happened with me in the past and may happen again in the future.

I am learning how to stay calm in difficult situations and how to take the right decisions even without having complete data.

Only blessed people on this earth are earning money from the work they love, entrepreneurs are one of them. If you have taken a small step towards entrepreneurship but failed – then don’t go back to your fucking corporate job.

Figure out a way to stay near the startups, be underpaid and try to make enough for your survival.

In short time, you will start seeing a better path of entrepreneurship. Don’t get panicked with your failure, especially with your first failure. It may be your first step towards the success.

I have previously written about my failed startup and the dark side of entrepreneurship, and today I am sharing my approach of coming out of depression of failure.

Have you heard the story of gold beneath 4 feet?

A popular story of a person who started digging a mine with expectation of finding gold beneath it. He invested a lot of money in purchasing the land and buying equipment.

He could not get any success even after digging for many days. He sold the machinery and land in a fraction of the purchase cost of the project.

The man who bought the land, started digging and found the gold mine just 4 feet beneath.  Persistence pays off whether you are digging for gold, diamonds or building a startup company.

My mentors and books taught me how to handle the failures and bounce back quickly. Here are my tips that really worked for me.

#1. Support Group (Friends, Family & Mentors)

If you have failed at anything, then you need a support from your family and friends. You should stay close to people who motivate you. Don’t spend much time with someone who criticize you for your failure and try to make you feel guilty about your decision.

You must find a mentor who can prepare you for the next attempt. There is no successful entrepreneur who never failed in life. You should seek guidance and mental support from experienced entrepreneurs and mentors who have already walked on the path.

#2. Source of Income

You lose money and time in your failed startup. I hope that you are not in the financial debt along with the burden of an unsuccessful startup.

You should check how long you can survive on your savings. It will be great if you already have a secondary source of income or you can spend some time to create a source of income by freelance or consulting work. I did the same to survive until I got clarity about my next startup move.

#3. Survival Plan

Make a rough survival plan. Startup founders are very much comfortable with planning and execution. I revisit my plans every month and change the execution strategy based on the current available resources & situation.

After failure of my second startup, I created one excel sheet, writing my skills in one column and potential income from those skills in the second column. By doing this simple exercise, I got a lot of clarity about making my livelihood for the next six months.

#4. Wait for the right time

Don’t make any important decision in a hurry. I waited for almost six months before I get the clarity of joining a startup job as content marketing head. In that waiting period of six months, I enhanced my content marketing skills and made connections with the right people.

Great opportunities don’t strike often. I would rather wait for several months to get the right work than joining the wrong work. You should take time to make a decision that can change the whole direction of your life.

#5. The right attitude & action

Just the verbal commitment is not enough for the revival from the failure. You should be able to take the right action with the right attitude. You might have to say ‘NO’ to poor opportunities even without having a great opportunity at your hand.

It may sound like a risky approach, but that worked for me most of the times. I took similar kind of risk when I joined my graduation college, during my campus placement and multiple times in my startup journey.

Conclusion

Trust yourself and the universe. Someone from somewhere will come to help you if you keep doing the hard work and wait patiently. Don’t mis-understood it with the advice you receive from many people who ask you to trust in the GOD and take no action to make things happen.

I am asking you to take the action and be responsible for your own actions (Karma). Great things will happen to those who take the charge of their own destiny.