Fashion

Introduction The Fashion Channel is losing highly valued viewers to competitors, causing a projected decrease in advertising revenue. TFH needs a plan to improve its ratings and increase its advertising revenue. We recommend that TFH implement scenario three and target the Fashion’s and Shoppers/Planners. As we will show, this dual targeting plan has the highest income potential by bringing in the younger, highly valued viewers needed to increase advertising revenue. Analysis We recommend the third scenario of targeting both the Fashion’s and the

Shoppers/Planners because it offers the highest ad revenue potential (see Appendix 1). Even though this plan has the highest total expenses, it results in the highest net income and margin potential (see Appendix 1). If TFH implemented scenario two and targeted only the Fashion’s, the CPM would go up drastically. However, Fashion’s only represent 15% of households and the average number of viewers would go down (see Appendix 2). On the other hand, if TFH targets both Fashion’s and Shoppers/Planners the CPM and the average number of viewers will increase, exulting in higher revenues (see Appendix 2).

The first scenario is not a good option because it increases advertising revenues only a small amount. Implementation The implementation plan involves 3 major steps. The first step is to research the two segments and find out what kind of programming will attract and retain both segments. The second step would be to invest in the new programming. The third step is to begin an advertising, promotions, and public relations campaign targeting the two segments. Risks The implementation of this plan has some risks that need to be mitigated.

The three ajar risks are: 1) the plan only attracts Fashion’s 2) the plan only attracts Shoppers/Planners 3) the plan alienates TFTP current customers. If the plan only attracts the Fashion’s, then revenue will not be as high as expected, as shown in Appendix 1 under scenario 2. However, the expenses would be much lower and income would still be much higher than in 2006. If the plan only attracts the Shoppers/Planners, then CPM would go down causing advertising revenue to decrease (see Appendix 3). This can be mitigated by focusing more on Fashion’s than Shoppers/Planners while still trying to attract both.

A woman speak with a man about fashion and clothes. The man says than the fashion is a invention from clothes factories. The woman says that the fashion is necessary to people feel well The man prefers to wear the same clothes rye day The woman feel better when she wear a beautiful suit, and in each situation you must wear a different clothes. The man things different clothes distinguish between poor people and rich people. I’m going to talk about clothes and fashion. There are two aspects which I want to highlight: the comfort and the appearance.

The comfort is the main purpose of dress because the human race began to wear clothes when went out from the hot Africa and spreader over the World and colonized cold lands. They used lots of materials to do their dresses but in the beginning with the only objective that warm the body. On the other hand clothes has a mission, it is to show the personality, the humor, the owner to a certain social status or collective. For instance the uniform of the police, the robe of lawyers, prosecutor or Judges, or the Army. These are very import to distinguish or discriminate this people from others.

When you are going to a party you must put on clothes different than you dress when you are working. The more happy you are the better clothed you wear. We used to wear dark clothes in funerals. If you had to facing in your work you should wear a suit. If you were a politician or a famous person you should dress up everyday well cause you could have a photo taken. I regretted very much don’t have known dress up in a very important situation when a was a young girl I had gone to a party but I didn’t liked to go there, I wearing a awful suit because my friends persuaded me to go there, and I didn’t want.

When the party began to be boring, I was thinking going home, suddenly a stunning boy appeared, he was wearing a denim trousers, a beautiful blue cotton shirt with a denim collar ND he was tall and handsome; he seemed very kind with his friends but I couldn’t to approach him because I was wearing a awful loadstone’s suit from the times of my mother, I felt very angry with me, I thought “it is impossible that this person look at me”.

Michele Figueroa 04-07-11 Research In the 1960’s there were several types of fashion types like: the Mods, the rockers, the oh-so-famous hippies,-the futuristic space age-ers, the school girl baby dolls, the “Chanel” wearers , and of course the optical art dressers! So as you can see there are LOTS of fashion types that started in the 60’s. Even some looks we still use today, only slightly modified. To help you better understand the styles of the 160’s, I will break down each type of style for you. The Mods dressed in a minimalist themed type style.

They seemed to believe in the motto “less is more”. On a regular basis their dress code consisted of: polo shirts, drainpipe trousers, turtleneck sweaters/shirts, and suede shoes. A very big designer for the Mods was Mary Quaint. Enough about the Mods though, let’s go into the Rockers! Rockers were considered the “cool kids. ” They enjoyed wearing studded leather jackets, jeans and winklepickers. Winklepickers are pointy leather shoes with metal buckles on them. Now onto the next style, The Babydoll/school girl look. This is the look that we call the current “girly-girl” look.

The Babydoll look is made up of long-waisted pinafore dresses with belts at hip level, pleated or flared skirts that stopped at the mid thigh, thigh high mini-dresses that were made out of sheer fabrics. The mini-dresses were usually paired with a maxi-coat and mid-calf boots. Many people tried to take credit for the Babydoll look but the true creator of this look was Andre Courreges. Another one of Andre Courreges’s famous styles was the space age fad! This look was created out of :glittery catsuits, astronaut helmets ,space-like colored dresses, coats, and suits.

And no we go from astronaut helmets to pillbox hats. That’s right the famous Coco Chanel who started the gilt chained handbag that was and still is popular ! Coco Chanel is the designer who influenced several old stars fashion taste. For example former first lady, Jackie Kennedy! Coco’s most famous pieces were her knee-length skirts, square toed pumps, chunky pearl necklaces, collarless cardigans, pillbox hats , and her betron hats. Her outfits were mostly worn to events like office and cocktail parties .

Now so far I have been mostly explaining the styles of the 1960’s women but fear not for I will now tell about them 1960’s men’s styles! In the 1960’s the absolute biggest men’s style icon were The Beatles. The “4 apostles” made a huge impact on men with their tight-fitting trouser sand famous signature jackets! The Beatles fashion trends led to style fads like paisley suits, Hip-hugging pants, and rainbow colored shirts. Now here is a style that went pretty much world famous that originated in the 1960’s…. The Hippy style! Hippies were big on what the did but we known just as well as for what they dressed in.

The Hippies dressed in very loose fitting clothes. Hippy girls wore shawls, peasant blouses, long skirts (all of which had to be bright colorful patters)Hippy boys wore mostly bell bottoms, paisley and flower print clothes, and ethic clothing. Oddly enough sometimes hippies went shirtless and painted their bodies to adorn themselves with bright designs and flowers and to them the wilder the design the better! So now we have come to an end, you can go out and tell the world that you are officially an expert in 1960’s style! J

70s fashion began where the 60s left off. Mini skirts were popular and theflower power influence was everywhere. 60s’ trends first adopted by the beautiful people filtered into mainstream wear. Trousers were flared and shirts had big collars. For men, the kipper tie was soon standard wear with a suit. These girls (above) are at a party in the summer of 1970. They show that the mini skirt was far from dead. 70s’ fashion took on a multitude of different styles and influences. As well as the hippy style of the late sixties, there was nostalgia for the past.

First for the 20s and 30s, then the 40s and 50s and finally the Edwardian era. There was also concern for the environment and strong ethnic influences. Men’s fashion adopted a look that would have been considered too feminine a few years earlier. Shirts were tight fitting with big collars and were brightly patterned. There was also a trend towards unisex clothes. The formal suit was still expected to be worn to a dinner party in the 70s; for younger men it was usually only worn in the office or for formal occasions.

Jeans, increasingly flared, were popular with men and women for everyday wear. By the end of the decade, change was on the way. Punk rejected everything that had gone before. Mini, midi or maxi The popularity of the mini skirt was challenged in the early 70s and a group of (male) truckers even organised a campaign to bring it back in 1970. However, the mini remained popular in the early years of the 70s, but women now could chose between, mini, midi, (mid-calf length) or maxi (full length) skirts. Hot pants, ultra short shorts, sometimes with a bib and braces, were a variation on the theme.

The girl on the above, right, is wearing a pair of navy hot pants with long white socks. Her blouse is in a floral pattern and has a big collar with rounded corners. Longer dresses, inspired by the hippy era of the late sixties, were also in fashion, with paisley or floral patterns being popular. I lived in Portsmouth in 1970/71/72 and was aged 16-18 at that time so had the best of it. Hot pants, mini skirt/dress, long dress and maxi coat, wide brimmed hats, seed bead jewellery and a headband round my head!! I was a true hippy to begin with and went to the Isle of Wight pop festival in 1970.

Chris Flares and platform soles Two trends defined the 70s in a fashion sense: flared trousers and platform soles. Flares were derived from the hippy fashion for loon pants of the late 60s. They were worn by men and women. The flare was from the knee and reached exaggerated proportions in the middle years of the 70s. The trousers were often hipsters, sitting on the hips rather than the waist, and tight fitting. The combination of flares and denim made flared jeans the fashion phenomenon of the decade. Platform soles were mainly worn by women and more fashionable men.

There were health warnings about damage that could be caused to the back in later life, but the fashion did not last long enough for that to have an effect. There was an element of thirties retro in the style of some of the shoes, which echoed the thirties’ love of two-tone or co-respondent black and cream or brown and cream colours. Bright colours also gave the shoes more of a space age look. Platform soles on eBay Nostalgia Nostalgia had a big influence on fashion in the 70s. Barbara Hulanicki’s Biba label popularised a look derived from the 20s and 30s.

There was a brief fashion for loudly checked tweed Oxford Bags for men and women from around 1972. These were usually worn with platform soled shoes in 30s style two-tone patterns. Biba took over venerable, old London department store, Derry and Toms, in 1973 and turned it into an Art Deco palace. The Biba store became a hip meeting place and a complete lifestyle emporium. The Biba look was a long cotton skirt, worn with a long sleeved shirt or smock, and topped with a floppy brimmed hat. Biba was ahead of its time in providing a complete lifestyle store.

However, Biba did not make commercial sense; it was more of a place to hang out than to shop. A large part of the store’s floor space was not used to sell merchandise. Big Biba, as the store became known, closed two years later. Laura Ashley, founded by Bernard and Laura Ashley in the 1950s, looked back further when they introduced British women to Edwardian style dresses and nineteenth century inspired floral prints in the mid-70s. Laura Ashley, unlike Biba, was commercially successful and is still going strong today, although sadly Laura Ashley herself met an untimely death in 1985.

Formal occasions The 70s were more relaxed than the 60s. However, on formal occasions and in the office men still wore suits. The kipper tie, favoured by the fashionable in the late sixties, became a standard men’s accessory. For women, long dresses were often worn for formal occasions. This wedding, left, is from 1970. The lady’s floppy hat and long dress drew inspiration from the hippy era as well as nostalgia for the 1930s. The brown colour, also derived from the 1930s, was very popular throughout the 70s. Long hair was fashionable for both men and women.

Beards were also popular. This again was a hangover from the flower power years of the late 60s. In many peoples’ minds psychedelia was very much in, although the pop music scene had moved on by then. Jeans and the casual look In the more relaxed mood of the 70s, jeans were increasingly popular. Initially little changed from the sixties, but by the mid seventies most people were wearing flares. Printed t-shirts were also increasingly popular in the 70s, as were trainers and canvas shoes. Late 70s fashion By the end of the 70s, flares were still mainstream fashion.

This group, left, shows two younger men with long hair. One wears a suede safari jacket with a wide collar and brown, flared trousers. This look was favoured by Brodie and Doyle in the TV series, ‘The Professionals’. The other young man with a short leather jacket and flared blue jeans is more casual and younger looking. The older man has a beard (a very fashionable look in the 70s) and wears a wet-look type anorak. The woman is wearing a suit. Flares, denim, long hair and cheesecloth shirts were the staple of 70s men’s fashion throughout most of the decade.

Inspired by the hippy movement of the late sixties, this look, echoing the hippy dream of Free Love and optimism, did not fit with the closing years of the 70s, but mainstream fashion was unable to change. 70s Punk fashion Punk came to most people’s attention from 1977 onwards through the publicity surrounding the original Punk band, The Sex Pistols. The Sex Pistols’ promoter, Malcolm McLaren, together with his partner, designer Vivian Westwood, created the original Punk look. Their shop at 430 Kings Road, originally named ‘Let it Rock’, a Ted revival store, was called ‘Sex’ at the time the Sex Pistols band appeared.

The look was based on a sexual fetish for black leather, mainly for its shock value, combined with ripped t-shirts carrying slogans designed to provoke. McLaren and Westwood changed their shop’s name again to ‘Seditionaries: Clothes for Heroes’ at the end of 1976. The new name heralded a wholly Punk outlook. The stock featured bondage trousers, bondage dresses and a new t-shirt featuring the Punk message, “Destroy”. Punk was a rejection of anything that was considered good taste. Ripped and bleached clothes were part of the look, as was spiked hair, dyed in bright colours. Black make up and safety pins as earrings were often worn.

For most Punks, quite a few of whom were unemployed, the look could easily be created from modifying second-hand clothes rather than from a trip to the Kings Road. Punk itself lasted into the early 80s. Its importance though, was as a catalyst for change in the fashion world. Punk rejected the flared jeans and cheesecloth shirts which were popular mainstream fashion. It rejected the hippy style and the hippy view of the world. Vintage Punk fashion on eBay Late 70s fashion trends The end of the seventies saw the appearance of a number of youth cults formed formed in the wake of Punk.

Amongst those was a revival of the Mod style of the sixties, as well as the Teddy Boy look of the fifties. Mainstream youth fashion also changed dramatically; the 1980 film, ‘Gregory’s Girl’ illustrates how quickly. One of Gregory’s mates, who is a year older, has left school and got a job as a window cleaner. He has saved his money to buy a white jacket with enormous lapels. Gregory’s contemporary, Steve, has a white jacket with lapels an inch wide. There was always a particular way to wear a school tie. In 1979 the knot was tied very near the wide end.

The 3 inch long tie was tucked into a pullover, to give the impression it was a kipper tie. From 1980, it was folded in half length ways to reduce the width and pressed with an iron so it stayed put. By 1980, school ties were often worn ‘back to front’ so that the ‘thin end’ was prominent. The fat end was tucked into the school shirt, behind the knot. A bit uncomfortable, but very trendy. Al I was coming into my teens in 1979, but the punk look was still very much for the minority and most kids still had longish hair, shirts with big collars and flared trousers, although the flares were becoming smaller.

Locally the mod revival at the end of 1979 killed off this fashion rather than punk. By 1981 seventies fashions and music had become a total joke and almost no one under 50 would be seen dead in flares. Even punk was being classed as old hat and too seventies. Glenn A High fashion was very different at the end of the 70s. Ralph Lauren designed the clothes for the hit Woody Allen film, ‘Annie Hall’ in 1977. There was a distinct 80s feel to the outfits worn by Annie (Diane Keaton), who wore crumpled socks, full skirts and layered jackets.

Young people dropped flares and wide collars with breath taking speed. Older people were slower to change from the 70s look, but by around 1983, the archetypal 70s style was extinct. 70s fashion reference Fashion of the 70s is another great Taschen 25. It is packed with adverts from the decade. You will find flares, hot pants, platform soles, denim, slacks, microphone hairdos, wide collars and kipper ties. There is also a short introduction to fashion in the 70s. The book is colourful and very entertaining. The adverts are all American ones, but this does not detract much from a great piece of nostalgia.

gender is a meaning that a culture assigns to sexual differences’ and within gender, ‘masculinity and ‘femininity are the divisions that a culture creates between behavior and ‘characteristics considered to be appropriate to men and women’ (Bernard, 2007, 185- 186). Fashion aids In the social construction of gender through separating male and female fashion and promoting the stereotypical feminine figure. From the days of stays and petticoats to corsets and crinolines and now with padded bras and Spans, fashion has seen centuries of shrinking and augmentation of the body to achieve the sexualities, feminine’ shape.

The communicative function’ of the body and they way in which it is molded is like a ‘language’ – a ‘cultural communication’ (Descanters, 1997, 11). Being ‘feminine’ is Just one of many ‘performances’ that people can choose to present and a person’s choice to follow more typically feminine or masculine styles can provide an insight into who they are (Gauntlet, 2008, 11). Although certain guidelines may be socially expected, in the western world, we are largely in control of what we wear and thus are perpetually communicating some element of personal Identity every time we get dressed, whether It Is Intentional or subconscious.

Using the visual examples of Merle Antoinette, Queen of France and a fashion Icon In the late 1 8th century and Lady Gaga, a current fashion and pop Icon, this essay demonstrates how, even though centuries have passed, the practice of augmenting and shrinking the figure through fashion garments to achieve a ‘feminine’ shape has continued to perpetuate social constructions of femininity. Then, the example of Andrea Pelvic is used to demonstrate how appearance can communicate identity, In particular gender identity.

Beginning in the 16th century in Europe, Women’s bodies were universally forced onto bizarre, unnatural shapes’ (Smith, 1998, 5). Stays, petticoats, corsets and crinolines with staff fabric, boning and wire were used to force the body Into the desirable friendly’ silhouette of the time. Constant dissatisfaction and change with the Idealized shape of the body reinforced the Idea that the natural body needed to be ‘improved and restricted’ to be considered attractive (Smith, 1 998, 5). We see this trend continue into modern day clothing and undergarments.

This constant restriction and augmentation, which occurs almost solely to the female body, aids in he social construction and communication of gender. Britannica Image Quest A royal exemplar existed in the form of Marie Antoinette, Queen of France from 1774 until 1792 – a time when all of Europe was ‘culturally and stylistically influenced’ by France, during the Rococo era (Coving, 2006, 56. Descanters, 1997, 35-36). The desired feminine physical ideal at this time was the ‘hourglass female figure: a tiny waist, ample bosom and large hips which enhanced femininity (Tallahatchie-Villas, 2007, 36-37).

Marie Antoinette had to ‘learn to be a woman (or at least how to perform indemnity)’ through the molding of her body with fashion garments (Goodman, 2003, 6). In Figure 1 (above) the Queen is depicted with her hand resting on her commodious and voluminous skirt, serenely gazing into the palace. It can be seen that her body is distinctly shaped to the ‘hourglass’ figure that Tallahatchie-Villas (2007) refers to as an image of ‘enhanced femininity – the tightly laced corset has shrunk her waist and her bosom is being flattened and pushed upwards to have an overflowing effect.

At the same time her hips have been augmented by a large pannier shaped undergarment and gathers and ruffles of fabric add to the luminous result. Corsets had been present since the beginning of the 17th century, initially made with an iron structure, which was replaced by whalebone in the 18th century. At the beginning of the 18th century, the farthing’ – a framework of hoops’ that aristocratic women had previously worn to provide volume under their skirts – was replaced by the crinoline (Charles & Carl, 2010, 30).

The crinoline augmented the size of the hips and changed shape to follow changing fashions in the desired feminine physique. In the early 18th century the shape of the crinoline was round, it then came oval and then ‘conical’ (Charles & Carl, 2010, 30). By the mid 18th century they had become a ‘pannier’ shape meaning ‘side hoops’ or false hips’ – a shape that was flat on front and back and extended on the wearer’s left and right, giving her exceedingly wide hips (Cumming, Cunning & Cunning, 2010, 148). This is the shape we see in Pannier-Aligns illustration of Marie Antoinette in Figure 1 .

In this illustration there are a number of elements of composition and execution that support the conclusion that the molding the Queen underwent were both expected and desirable at this time. There is the artist’s decision to place her in a standing position in which the full scale of her skirt can be realized, the addition of shading to its size. The enormity of the Queen’s gown in relation to her head and the background of the portrait ensure that her curvaceous feminine shape instantly draws the viewer’s eye.

The artist’s decision to contrast the rich, dark objects in the background with pale colors to illustrate her in the foreground again draws attention to this almost ethereal feminine form. One wonders how widely this image was distributed, given our knowledge of Marie Antoinette influence on fashion. Queen Marie Antoinette was known as the ‘Queen of Fashion’ and her choices in clothing were closely documented, publicized and duplicated by women throughout the whole of Europe (Weber, 2007, 1).

Her wardrobe has even provided inspiration for current designers such as Much Dulcet for her millennia collection at the Autumn/ Winter 2012/13 London Fashion Week and John Gilligan for his Spring 2010 Couture collection for Dior in Paris (Clarinda, 2012. Maida, 2010). The consequence of her choice to conform to the notion of molding her body, restricting and augmenting – wrought undergarments and fashion garments – to achieve the hourglass shape ensured this practice remained in fashion and in turn contributed to the social constructions of the feminine physical ideal.

After the fall of the monarchy at the turn of the century this fashion of restricting and augmenting the body, molding it to achieve the ideal feminine’ physique, persisted. The use of the waist- shrinking, bust- raising corset was continued into the nineteenth century, although steel boning began to be used instead of whalebone. By the mid sass, ‘cheap, mass-produced’ corsets were developed and became a table of nearly every woman’s wardrobe (Gag & Steele, 2005, 291).

At this time, flexible sprung-steel rings suspended from cloth tapes’ known as ‘Hopkins’ were in fashion and augmented the size of the wearer’s hips (Gag & Steele, 2005, 317). The corset remained in fashion into the early twentieth century, when it had become a ‘straight front’ corset that ‘pushed the pelvis back and the bosom forward,’ forming the desired feminine physique at the time – the ‘S’ silhouette (Gag & Steele, 2005, 293). The fashionable body in this period was augmented towards the back with use of a bustle skirt.

In the sass, the fashionable female figure was ‘boyish and flat- cheated,’ so the waist shrinking corset and wired underskirts became largely obsolete, but the practice of restriction remained in fashion as the breasts still had to be tightly bound, this time to conceal rather than enhance’ (Smith, 1998, 5). In 1939, and then after World War II, Tallahatchie-Villas’ image of ‘enhanced femininity with a tiny waist, ample bosom and large hips’ returned to fashion again and brought with it the return of the corset and fuller skirts (Tallahatchie-Villas, 2007, 36-37. Gag & Steele, 2005, 293).

From the sass onwards the process of restriction and augmentation to achieve the desired feminine physique dictated by fashion at the time has continued. A review of more recent trends and products and fashion exemplars appears below. Currently there is no singular feminine’ silhouette that is being dictated by fashion. In some areas of fashion media we are seeing the same boyish thinness as in the 2012). There are still some ‘corset enthusiasts’ and elements of these undergarments such as boning and full skirts are still being used in many women’s garments as well as in haute couture fashion.

There is a myriad of other new garments encouraged by fashion for women to restrict, augment and mold their bodies into any desired shape. A few products currently on the market include the Wastepaper’ – a tubular piece of Lascar worn to slim the waist and flatten the stomach; the ‘High-waist Long Leg Brief which is designed to provide ‘under-bust and tummy support, hip and thigh contouring, and a nice boost for your butt’; as well as ‘Padded Shaper Panties’ which have two round foam pads to give you a ‘perfectly rounded derriere’ and padded bras to increase bust size (Morgan, 2012).

Compared to the days of corsets and crinolines, the variety of ways in which fashion encourages women to squeeze, expand and mold their bodies have grown. Figure 2 – Photograph of Lady Gaga at the 2009 MET Music awards. Photo courtesy of Getty Images, 2009 Lady Gaga, is Without question, the world’s biggest pop star’ and a current fashion icon (Robinson, 2010, 280). She famously morphs her body into the sexualities feminine hourglass shape with boning, padding and structured garments – often designed specifically for her by current avian garden fashion designers such as

In the above photograph (Figure 2) Lady Gaga is wearing a Jean Paul Guiltier padded and boned body suit, which drastically shapes her figure into the curvaceous, hourglass silhouette of ‘enhanced femininity that Tallahatchie-Villas refers to (2007). The boning restricts the size of her waist while the underwear and padding on the cups over her breasts raise and shape the bust and the padding on her hips augment their size.

Although this is an exaggerated example and would not be considered a ready- to- wear garment that women would be seen in on the street, Lady Saga’s style choices are influential on how women choose to dress in mainstream culture. More than four hundred years after the first corsets and petticoats came into fashion, we see that the process of restricting and augmenting the female body to achieve a look considered to be feminine is still widespread.

Through encouraging this practice and promoting a desired feminine physique that is difficult to attain naturally, fashion aids in the social construction of gender. An individual’s choices about the clothes, make-up, accessories and styling that they adorn before venturing into public can communicate a lot about who they are. At the same time, the changeable and impermanent nature of these external applications means that no definite assumptions of a person’s identity can be made and these variables can easily be manipulated by the individual, allowing them to become who they would like to be.

An individual’s unique interpretations of, and resistances to conventional fashions is known as ‘appearance style’ and is a medium through which individuals can ‘announce’ who they are or who they want to become (Gag & Steele, 2005, 34). There are some elements of appearance that we are accustomed to observing and processing almost immediately when we look at a person. For example when you see a stranger, it is highly likely that you will be able to tell if their gender is male or female almost instantly and their appearance style aids in this immediate recognition.

When you observe the combination of their choice of hair cut, cosmetics, clothing, accessories, shoes and mannerisms; you can draw a conclusion about what gender that person is ‘announcing that they are. This shows that the individual has the power to manipulate these components of their appearance to communicate heir understanding of their personal gender identity. An example of how successfully appearance can provide an insight into gender identity and also how easily it can be manipulated can be seen through examining performances of Andre] Epic. Pelvic is biologically a man but models as both a male and a female.

At his first fashion week – New York Fashion week Fall/Winter 2011/12 – he walked in five menswear shows and four womanlier shows and this number has since grown (Morris, 2011). Pelvic explains how he began to mold himself into the typically feminine aesthetic, creating an appearance style that would be read as male – he grew and dyed his hair, ‘started wearing skinny Jeans… Shopping in the women’s aisle and putting on make-up’ (Morris, 2011). Pelvic was voted the ninety- eighth sexiest woman in the world in Fem.. ‘One Hundred Sexiest Women’ list last year (Peck, 2011, 24). Figure 3 – Andre] Pelvic in ‘Hem’ ad campaign.

Photo courtesy of Hem from Hollywood Planet, 2011 wearing their ‘mega push up bra’ underneath a close-fitted top and a figure hugging dress (Freeman- Greene, 2011). The bra is claimed to ‘add two cup sizes’ to its wearer’s bust, which it has achieved successfully with Epic’s originally flat chest Quicker, 2011). His body has been manipulated so that his appearance style communicates his gender as female. His hair is long and blow-dried in a typically feminine style, he is wearing make-up and a necklace, his arms are void of hair and his body has been manipulated to augment the bust with padding.

He attempts to channel the poses that female models often make by moving and looking at the camera in a fluid and dramatic’ manner (Morris, 2011). The close up angle of the photos and the choice of shots where Pelvic is making direct eye contact with the camera enforces the believability of Epic’s feminine appearance. The success of the communication of Epic’s gender identity as female in this advertisement demonstrates the extent to which an individual can communicate who they are or would like to be through their appearance.

As an audience we almost automatically assume Pelvic to be a ‘beautiful, Victorians Secret issue bombshell’ (Abraham, 2011). This mutual communication and interpretation that can be achieved through manipulating the variables of appearance style allows for an individual’s look to say much about who they are. Fashion aids in the social construction of gender through separating male and male fashion and promoting the stereotypical feminine figure.

In numerous centuries past and continuing into the present, the practice of women using wire, steel, elastic and padding to mould their bodies to the fashionable shape of the time has been common, even expected. We have examined how Queen Marie Antoinette encouraged this practice in the 18th Century by wearing a corset to nip her waist and enhance her bust as well as hoop pannier skirts to widen her hips. In the 21st Century it has been demonstrated that this body distortion is still common with pop con Lady Gaga wearing a boned and padded body suit that provides her with that feminine, hourglass shape.

We then saw how this practice is so typically expected to be feminine that the biologically male model Andre] Pelvic can display his female gender identity by donning a padded bra. When examining these three examples, it becomes clear that the molding of the body into the feminine physical ideal through restriction and augmentation is communicative of the wearer’s gender, whether intentional or projected by society, and provides an insight into who they are.

Background to the study

The environment in which the fashion industry operates the world over has become turbulent, unpredictable and therefore, difficult to exert managerial control. Cultures around the world are constantly influencing each other; hence, the world’s cultures are changing fashion constantly. Also, social, economic, political and legal factors keep changing than before. Competition in the fashion industry is so rife such that the survival of fashion organizations cannot be guaranteed (Stuart, 1995).

During the last decade, the developments of new technologies all over the world and growing globalization of countries economies have produced the fastest changes ever. The fashion industry in Ghana, especially, the clothing sub sector (which is the focus of this study) has not been without the effect of economic, political, social, cultural and legal pressures brought to bear on all organizations. In recent years, protectionism has given way to globalization. With that change, Ghanaian clothing sector of the fashion industry has had to compete with imports from low wage countries.

Retailers, unencumbered by protectionism, have also seized on the opportunity, often choosing to go directly to offshore manufacturers. As retailers become larger and more globally connected, they continue to build global brands marketed around the world. In doing so, they eliminate many Ghanaian clothing companies from their supply chain. The result has been major market share declines and job losses in the industry. Aug The Ghanaian clothing sector of the fashion industry faces many challenges. he rise of low-cost goods from Asia, a slowdown in consumer spending, difficulty in accessing capital, lack of innovation from entrepreneurs, relatively high prices of products due to high unit cost, poor distribution channels and inability to promote local brands. It is without doubt that low-cost Chinese imports have increasingly dominated the local fashion scene. As a result some local manufacturers, in an attempt to remain competitive, have subcontracted their production processes offshore. The issue of access to capital for the industry is not new.

For years, industry players have indicated that they feel there is a lack of support for their industry from the banking community. Under these circumstances, it is not a surprise that many companies cannot secure financing. as a result of banking formula-based lending practices, financing remains a challenge to many well-run clothing companies and small businesses in general.

However, a few creative ones have had their product design copied wrongly and produced cheaply from China, thereby destroying the brands they have developed. These and other factors have created serious marketing challenges for the clothing sub sector of the fashion industry in Ghana. This study would go into detail to look at the nature of the marketing challenges facing the industry in Ghana.

Statement of the problem

There are growing signs Ghanaian garment and fashion industry is approaching a serious crossroad.

Increasing numbers of mainland Chinese manufacturers are taking Ghana’s role of mass-producing quality fashion items at reasonable cost. Industry players, also have difficulty securing financing from other lenders. For example, asset based lenders often require substantial premium interest rates. Other larger non-traditional lending institutions and professionals that can assist prefer working with larger companies where greater fees and returns can be earned. The traditional financing problems will likely become further exacerbated as companies implement new models that do not generate assets that can be collateralized.

The problems enumerated above, as well as western cultures, globalization have created internal marketing challenges for the clothing industry in the area of promotion, pricing and distribution of products. The study seeks to unravel the challenges and make recommendations to solve the problems.

Objectives of the study

The objectives of the study were:

1. To investigate how foreign cultures have influenced the Ghanaian brands in the clothing industry.
2. To assess the challenges associated with clothing design ( product development)
3. To investigate the challenges industry players face in their pricing of products
4. To assess how they promote their products.

Relevance of the study

It is hoped that the study would benefit clothing sub sector of the fashion industry in Ghana. Also, it will serve as a pedestal upon which future researches in the area would be based.

Literature review

Eusebio (2007) carried out a research on the topic “Internal key factors in export performance: A comparative analysis in the Italian and Spanish textile-clothing sector” The purpose of this paper is to analyze the key factors in the international performance of textile manufacturing companies.

The study provided a comparative study of the main factors that have affected the export performance of the Spanish and Italian clothing sub sector of the fashion businesses. A wide range of factors has been studied, such as size, dispersion of sales and export experience. In order to compare Spanish and Italian cases, the empirical study used a standardized questionnaire for collecting data. The cases analyzed were respective geographical zones with a great tradition in textile-clothing industry in their country, Catalonian (in the Spanish case) and Lombardian business (in the Italian case).

It was found that international experience was the main factor in the export performance for both cases but the investment in R&D and the export experience have been the keys for explaining the major export performance of the Italian businesses. The paper explained why the Lambardian textile-clothing companies exported more, in relation to total sales, than the Catalan companies in the same sector. . Research limitations – The sample was formed basically for small textile-clothing businesses (with less than five employees).

Eusebio (2007)  Top of Form Management perception and marketing strategy in export performance: A comparative analysis in Italian and Spanish textile-clothing sector The purpose of the study was to focus on the key factors in the international performance of textile manufacturing companies. In order to compare Spanish and Italian cases, the empirical study used a standardized questionnaire for collecting data. The cases analysed were respectively geographical zones with a great tradition in textile-clothing industry in their country, Catalonian (in the Spanish case) and Lombardian business (in the Italian case).

Research limitations/implications

The sample was basically from small textile-clothing business (with less than 500 employees). It was found that international experience was the main factor in the export performance for both cases but investments in R&D and export experience have been the keys for explaining the major export performance of the Italian businesses. The study was of value in that it provides a comparative study of the main factors that have affected the export performance of the Spanish and Italian businesses.

A wide range of factors has been studied, including characteristics of the business, such as size, dispersion of sales and export experience. Freeman (2007) carried out a survey on the topic “Fashion marketing to women in Kazakhstan”The purpose study was to explore consumer behavior regarding women’s decisions concerning fashion in the emerging marketing of Kazakhstan. Literature review formed the basis of the questions asked to several focus groups and in-depth interviews of 48 Kazakhs representing the average age of Kazakhstan.

The approach of the paper was exploratory as there was not a lot of research concerning the Kazakhstani marketplace. The work revealed that Kazakhstani women were becoming aware of their rights to choose clothing and location of purchase. They expected to be treated with respect. The women were value conscious, thinking brand names enhanced the value of clothing and will shop sales regardless of the actual discount. Kazakhstani women we extremely fashion conscious and looked to the media current fashions. They were wary ything coming out of China.

There were five market segments into which these women can be divided. Practical implications – Kazakhstan is opening as a marketplace. In order to understand how to market in Kazakhstan, firms must understand what is wanted and this paper begins this exploration. This market is unexplored both academically and by many clothing manufacturers. This market is opening and thus information concerning the marketplace is necessary. Chong (2007) carried out a survey on the topic “Central and Eastern European countries and North Africa: The emerging clothing supplying countries to the EU”.

The purpose of this study was to examine the delocalization trend of the EU’s clothing production to Central and Eastern European Countries (CEECs) and North Africa, focusing on the geographical shift of outsourced clothing production pattern within the two developing regions. In total, 14 CEECs and North African countries were selected and classified into 1st-tier and 2nd-tier regions according to their GDP/capita values. Clothing trade statistics were obtained from the Eurostat database, and the clothing trade pattern was examined during 1995 to 2004.

Trade Specialization Coefficient (TSC) was employed to measure the international competitiveness of clothing exports of the selected CEECs and North African countries. Results concluded that the EU’s clothing production had significantly delocalized to the proximate CEECs and North African regions, with further geographical shift to less-developing 2nd-tier clothing supplying countries in recent years. The TSC analysis reflected that the competitiveness of clothing industry in 2nd-tiers had outperformed the 1st-tier economies, indicating Western European firms had shifted their sourcing practices to those lower-waged countries.

Koksal (2007) studied on the topic” references regarding children’s clothing in Turkey” The aim of this study was to determine the factors affecting the consumer preferences and behavior in the children’s clothing market in Turkey, a country where the majority of the population is under 18 years old. Whilst the study investigated the purchasing preferences and behaviour of parents, such as shopping frequency and period, type of retailer and the effect of reference groups in the children’s clothing market, it also explored some children’s purchasing characteristics, like shopping decision age.

This study offered some academic results on consumer behaviour and preferences in the children’s clothing market: There is no set shopping period; consumers prefer shopping from independent shops; in the selection of retailers, consumers consider payment conditions, pricing, and range of merchandise; in the family the parents mostly make the buying decisions for their children’s clothes; the age of children making their own clothing decisions varies between six and ten; the most important factors affecting consumers’ decisions towards shopping for children’s clothing are the price, quality, convenience, payment conditions, and size of the clothing. Kilduff (2007) carried out a research on the topic “Analysis of comparative advantage in the textile complex: A study of Eastern European and former Soviet Union nations” This research aimed to present an exploratory investigation into ten-year (1995-2004) patterns of trade specialization among Eastern European and former Soviet Union Nations, assessing patterns of comparative advantage across the textile machinery, man-made fiber, textile, and apparel sectors of the textile complex to determine whether these conform with both trade specialization and industry evolution theories.

A revealed symmetric comparative advantage index was employed to evaluate international competitiveness for 27 Eastern European and former Soviet Union Nations over a ten-year period. A repeated measure was used to determine the significance of the observed patterns across four income-defined groups of nations. Overall, the pattern of export development and RSCA generally reflected expectations regarding factor proportions theory and industry evolution models.  The analysis indicated that income group did not independently affect comparative advantage; however, the nature of products was the significant factor influencing national comparative advantage.

According to the researchers, the established models may be better at understanding those nations which have established relatively stable political and economic environment, and been experiencing earlier stages of industry development, but appear less useful in predicting development patterns for those nations experiencing dramatic transitions from regulated to de-regulated markets. The patterns of national comparative advantage in a vertical textile complex are identified for Eastern European and former Soviet Union Nations. The dynamics of change over a ten-year period following economic reforms are revealed. Karpova et al (2007) looked at the topic “Making sense of the market: An exploration of apparel consumption practices of the Russian consumer”. The purpose of this study was to examine and interpret post-socialist consumer xperiences in relation to clothing consumption practices when consumers shop, acquire, and wear clothing and other fashion-related products. The in-depth interview was the primary data collection tool. Data collection was conducted during summer 2004 in St Petersburg, Russia. College students formed the sample for the study. In total, 17 students (four males and 13 females) were interviewed. The hermeneutic approach was used to interpret the meanings of the participant life experiences. In comparison to consumers in an established market-based economy, consumers in this post-socialist market have unique perceptions of clothing attributes (quality, brand name, country of origin, retail channel) critical for buying decisions.

Overall, appearance and clothing play a special role in the emerging Russian market as they help construct and communicate new identities more than any other product category. Identified challenges of the Russian apparel market indicate opportunities for domestic and foreign apparel businesses. The meanings Russian consumers attach to clothing attributes can be used to develop product positioning and promotional strategies. Discussed implications of the research findings can be extended to other post-socialist emerging markets. This study explored how Russian consumers have adjusted to the new economic reality after almost fifteen years of transition from a socialist to a capitalist society from the perspective of the consumer.

Whereas previous research findings were confirmed, the present study provides rationale for perceived importance of quality and unimportance of brand name in the Russian apparel market. Curran (2007) studied the topic “clothing’s big bang: the impact of the end of the ATC on developing country clothing suppliers”. Prior to the liberalization of the clothing and textiles sector under the Agreement on Textiles and Clothing (ATC) fears had been expressed about the potential impact on developing country suppliers. This study sought to establish the actual impact of the liberalization of the EU and US clothing markets. Comparison of trade figures pre and post liberalization. Was the basis for the research design

The research revealed that, as forecast, significant changes occurred in sourcing patterns in the EU almost overnight. The big winners were India and China. Almost all other developing countries lost market share, although often not as much as had been feared. The impact of the liberalization was mitigated somewhat by the new quantitative restrictions negotiated with China half way through the year, which resulted in a redistribution of market share to other developing countries. Comparisons with the USA indicated that trends are rather similar, although on that market more developing countries saw increases in their exports, partly canceling out losses in the EU.

Johnson (2007) carried out a survey on “The role of focal suppliers in strategic networks for internationalization: Perspectives from small and medium-sized Italian and Thai silk suppliers” The purpose of this research was to examine the role of focal suppliers in strategic networks for internationalization from the perspectives of small and medium-sized Italian and Thai silk suppliers. Multiple case studies of small and medium-sized suppliers within the silk industries of Italy and Thailand were undertaken. In total, seventeen interviews and three observations were conducted with directors or managers of silk suppliers and a range of government agencies, associations and institutes involved with the silk industry, to identify significant current issues within the sector. Conceptually clustered and role ordered matrices were used as coding frameworks to reduce, structure and analyze the data. The research showed that Silk suppliers’ networks may be co-ordinated by a focal supplier that assumes the role of strategic leader.

The involvement of a focal and strategically-focused supplier may strengthen and integrate the resources and capabilities of silk suppliers in their networks and enable them to improve their international network development and position. Further investigation is needed on the details of specific roles of focal suppliers in strategic networks. In the view of the researchers, Silk suppliers, their customers and government agencies involved with silk suppliers should: advocate and actively support the development of focal suppliers in their networks to enhance the effectiveness of their internationalization process and strategy. The researchers also indicated that there tends to be a consensus in the literature about the influence of focal customers and larger organizations in strategic networks.

This study highlighted how small and medium-sized silk suppliers adopt the roles attributed to focal firms and gain positioning advantages for themselves and other suppliers in their network. Karmenidou (2007) carried out an exploratory study on the reasons for purchasing imported high fashion apparels: The case of Greece. The purpose of the study was to examine the reasons that Greek consumers purchase imported high fashion apparel over Greek designers high fashion apparel. The specific objective of the research was to detect the underlying factors that affect their purchasing behaviour. Qualitative research was conducted through discussions with consumer focus groups, all purchasers of imported high fashion apparel.

Quantitative research was undertaken by means of a questionnaire with 28 items referring to the reasons for purchasing imported high fashion apparel. The sample consisted of 200 high fashion consumers from the city of Larissa, Greece. Data analysis includes descriptive statistics, reliability, as well as factor analysis by principal component analysis with Varimax rotation. This research was exploratory in nature and employed a non-probability sampling method. Results indicated that the consumers perceive that the imported high fashion apparel have better aesthetics, a better line and are produced from quality textiles, compared to the domestic high fashion apparel.

Four factors derived underpinned the purchasing reasons of imported high fashion apparel: “status and image”, “quality of the product”, “marketing reasons” and “in fashion”. This study provided a useful source of information, which can be used by Greek high fashion apparel designers regarding the reasons why Greek customers of high fashion apparel purchase imported over domestic ones. The study suggests which elements Greek designers of high fashion apparel should focus upon in order to gain a larger market share. This study was important in terms that it was the first one to explore the reasons for purchasing imported high fashion apparel over domestic ones in Greece.

It highlighted 28 reasons (items) derived from qualitative research. In addition it suggested appropriate quality and marketing actions to be undertaken by Greek high fashion apparel designers. Baker (2006) looked at the topic “Fashion industry facing challenges”. According to him, the Australia’s fashion industry faces many challenges including the rise of low-cost goods from Asia, a slowdown in consumer spending and the need to respond quickly to changes in trends. crippling household debt and low-cost Chinese imports increasingly will dominate the local fashion scene. “With house prices stagnant and the ongoing threat of an interest rate rise, people are readjusting their spending habits.

Having spent beyond their means for many years, the debt to income gaps need to diminish, which means shrinking the value of goods bought on credit. According to him, the clothing industry is set to bear the brunt of a consumer slowdown in spending which would spell disaster for some local manufacturers. The ability of local production to respond quickly to changes in fashion trends is also crucial for survival. In his view, manufacturers will need to build closer relationships with retailers to help them respond more appropriately to consumer demand. Another challenge came from rapidly rising imports, particularly from China which accounts for 59 per cent of industry imports.

Smaller, independent operators should always be on the lookout to increase efficiencies, develop effective branding and market strategies and attack key niche segments to make financial gains. One growth area for smaller players was on line selling, or e-tail, with its low set-up costs. Online sales currently account for just two to five per cent of retail sales in Australia but predicted that figure will increase with rising levels of broadband penetration. Revenue is leaking from our fashion industry as retailers who have been slow to catch on to building an online presence are losing out to overseas labels that are selling direct to the Australian public online. A survey undertaken by logistics group DHL found that the trend for local designers to go offshore could have a negative effect on the Australian fashion industry.

The Business of Fashion survey showed that 90 per cent of respondents, which included designers and manufacturers, believe more garment manufacturing is headed offshore. The survey found that the industry needs better business training and more help to export if it is to remain competitive. Kalman (1999) wrote an article on how globalization has affected the fashion industry in the West Coast. While the West Coast sewn products industry is not exempt from downward domestic production trends faced by the rest of the United States, the region continues to stay one step ahead of the game thanks to its strengths in quick-turn fashion and flexible production.

Suppliers to the market are focusing on these strengths as well as the challenges facing West Coast producers – namely the lure of low-cost sourcing south of the border – as they prepare to participate in the 1999 Sewn Products Expo – Los Angeles, which takes place April 22-24 at the Los Angeles Convention Center. Looking at the factors that have driven the West Coast industry’s growth, Lectra Systems Inc. vice president of marketing Rick Ludolph observes, “As West Coast firms have always been more fashion-driven, they have adapted better than more traditional manufacturing regions of the country to the need for fast, flexible production. … Southern California, in particular, maintains a favorable value proposition with good labor availability at relatively low labor costs when compared to other U. S. regions. ” Likewise, Mike Grogan, vice president of Apparel Machinery & Supply Co. notes that despite the migration of production offshore, the West Coast apparel industry “still [has] a good core of smaller manufacturers, particularly in the Asian community, which can offer quick response to sudden fashion trends and short production runs. ” The source of most West Coast production is California, which continues to lead U. S. apparel industry employment with a 1998 work force of approximately 168,700. The state is home to some 7,400 fashion-related companies that account for $47. 7 billion in annual wholesale sales, the California Fashion Association reports. Yet the growth of manufacturing activity in Mexico has had deleterious effects on apparel jobs, even in California. “This is particularly true in the most basic product line.

People on the lower-priced budget end are almost completely forced out of the U. S. It’s very difficult for them to make the high-volume, low-cost products here anymore. Moreover, From anywhere in Mexico you can be anywhere in the United States on the ground in four days, so transportation issues aren’t really a problem anymore either. ” Tight retail margins also are driving more production to Mexico. As Byte Systems director of sales and marketing Brad Mikes asserts: Retail price points are still the defining issue. Sewn products will continue to move to Mexico because of its proximity to the U. S. , the industry growth in Mexico, and because of the labor cost reduction [associated with] manufacturing there.

Still, California has assets, such as its highly skilled work force and quick-turn manufacturing capacity that Mexico has yet to match. With regard to the state’s growing apparel work force, Ludolph emphasizes: “This is a result of the strong demand for skilled labor, which is required to produce much of the women’s wear and sportswear that is dominant in the region. … [Subsequently] the availability of skilled, efficient labor is key to maintaining the apparel industry on the West Coast. ” As the region’s labor pool is fueled by an influx of Latin American immigrants, it promises to have a positive impact on maintaining jobs that might have otherwise moved to Mexico.

With regard to flexible manufacturing, Robison-Anton Textile Co. president Bruce Anton notes that streamlined logistics and just-in-time production are playing an increasingly important role in the success of California’s apparel industry, whereas “Mexican manufacturers have not adjusted to this yet. ” Isenberg adds that with fashion-oriented orders, California contractors can maintain an edge over those of Mexico, which has very few “fashion factories,” as well as Asia, which requires long lead times. While “the days of having big runs come into domestic factories are all but over,” he says, California firms can still win if they are willing to run many different styles and small cuts.

Indeed, without the security of big runs, many West Coast companies have had to become more acutely attuned to the caprices of the marketplace. As Joe Hollander, president of AC/Automated Components observes: “We have noticed that some factories are downsizing their operations and gearing themselves toward smaller production runs with an emphasis on quality and quick turnaround. We also see an emphasis on the ability to make subtle changes in the product to customize it for specific stores, chains, etc. ” From a financial perspective, JBA International’s Joe Facenda, senior consultant for apparel and footwear, concludes: “Our region is more influenced [than others] by the constant flow of new companies. Our designers and supplier network make us the Silicon Valley of the apparel industry,” he emphasizes, and this status breeds “a great need for more capitalization” so that start-ups and established companies alike don’t “stay behind the capital curve. ” While companies are managing to adapt to offshore sourcing, they are slow to become world class in other parts of the value chain. Challenges are both company specific and general to the industry. The Study indicated that most participants had “operating basics” right, including being able to produce a value for money product that meets the end consumer needs at the right quality level, delivered on-time, with the proper service that retailers demand. However, the same study noted several weaknesses.

A startling 58 percent of companies did not have the financial acumen, information or general expertise to identify the true profit drivers in their company. Without this information, these companies have been unable to distinguish profitable versus unprofitable segments of their business, and thus often unable to identify the most profitable niches to grow;58 percent of companies did not have a strong management team, implying that their own internal management competencies may be preventing them from reinventing themselves; While 67 percent of apparel companies operate within a niche, 62 percent do not offer the customer anything that differentiates them from the competition.

Contractors were specifically noted to have even greater internal challenges, including:

• Extremely weak sales and marketing capabilities
• Many companies tend to be dependent on relatively few longterm customers;
• These companies do not have an owner or key employees with significant sales capabilities;
• Weak financial and costing which impede their abilities to determine profitable contracts from unprofitable ones;
• Poor workforce cross-training capabilities/flexibility.

A World-Class Focus of Excellence

Key challenges per company will also vary based on the model being pursued. In general, the following table illustrates the key challenges depending on whether a company intends to maintain an element of the value chain in-house and make it a core focus or whether it intends to outsource it:

Beyond specific business model challenges as noted above, certain general challenges will impact industry players as well: Decreasing Domestic Supply Chain As manufacturing continues to move offshore, domestic apparel manufacturer suppliers (textile companies, label producers, thread companies, etc. ) will face greater challenges; In all likelihood, these suppliers will continue to face consolidation and closures; As the supply chain erodes, it will become increasingly difficult for those apparel companies wishing to manufacture domestically to do so. The 2003 AHRC LMU noted that while most industry executives were aware of the coming industry restructuring, 87 percent did not have a strategic plan to deal with the issues. The 2007 AHRC Study confirmed this still to be the cases at the onset of the program, some three years later.

While the 2007 AHRC Study provided assistance to 130 apparel companies, presumably there continues to be many apparel companies without well-rounded management teams. Beyond specific value chain shortcomings, key weaknesses tend to be in the areas of strategic and financial management. Of all participants in the 2007 AHRC Study, 27 percent will face a succession issue within the next 5 years; 42 percent within the next 10 years: Most of these companies do not have succession plans; There is a strong correlation between companies that have succession plans and strategic plans; i. e. , if a company does not have a winning strategy in place, it likely does not have a succession plan;Without succession plans, many of these companies will face business continuity issues in the short to mid-term.

The issue of access to capital for the apparel industry is not new. For years, apparel companies have indicated that they feel there is a lack of support for their industry from the banking community. While there may be some truth to this, it may be for good reason. As previously noted, consider that of the 2007 AHRC Study participants: 56 percent did not have a strong management team in place; 58 percent were not able to determine the true profit drivers of their business; 87 percent did not have a strategic plan that could be acted upon; 61 percent were not willing to reinvest in their businesses. Under these circumstances, it is not a surprise that many companies could not / cannot secure financing.

Nevertheless as a result of banking formula-based lending practices, we believe that financing remains a challenge to many well-run apparel companies and small businesses in general. SMEs at times, also have difficulty securing financing from other lenders. For example, asset based lenders often require substantial premium interest rates. Other larger non-traditional lending institutions and professionals that can assist prefer working with larger companies where greater fees and returns can be earned. The traditional financing problems will likely become further exacerbated as companies implement new models that do not generate assets that can be collateralized.

Soft cost expenditures are often required to implement new models (i. e. esigners, marketers, sales and service personnel, increased travel, training and marketing costs, These expenditures offer no collateral security to lending institutions and as a result, are difficult to finance; Inventory financing costs are increasing, often as a result of shifts to imports; Requirements to fund export receivables are increasing. To further exacerbate the issues, many executives appear to often strip equity from their companies as opposed to maintaining this capital for future reinvestment. Employment will shift from predominantly production jobs to balanced or predominantly white collar positions. New models will require companies to hire world-class talents in areas such as design, marketing and logistics.

According to the 2007 AHRC Study, positions to be most in demand include: Sales professionals (sales managers, brand managers, sales representatives); Marketing professionals (marketing managers, marketing analysts, merchandising technicians); Designers (product developers and design technicians); Import/export specialists; This talent appears to be in short supply and in demand by other industries as well. Apparel companies will be challenged to recruit, train and retain these key personnel. Financing such salaries will also be a challenge to companies. According to the 2003 AHRC LMU, 87 percent of Canadian apparel companies had less than 50 employees. Less than 7 percent of companies employed more than 100 personnel.

This SME industry structure partly explains the lack of management sophistication in the industry. In order to reinvent themselves, many companies will need to increase their size in order to support greater white collar needs. We believe that this will lead to: Further industry consolidation; Continued merger and acquisition activity (for companies that have established a niche but need greater volume to expand and operate on a larger scale); Partnering / allying / creating joint ventures with world class specialists in order to remain competitive. Such partnerships are likely across the entire value chain in the areas of design, marketing, manufacturing, sales, logistics and distribution.

As in the banking sector, much of the professional expertise in this area (business brokers for example) may be out of reach to many SMEs. Professionals in these areas prefer to work with large organizations whereby they can generate substantial fees as opposed to the SME marketplace. There are relatively few barriers to entry in launching an apparel company. As a result, the industry is constantly regenerating. Consider that nearly one third of all participating companies in the 2007 AHRC Study were established within the last ten years. Many of these companies are being founded by new designers graduating from colleges or individuals who have identified an underserved niche.

Unhindered with the baggage of yesteryear, many of these companies have viable new business models. In these cases, the challenge is often to secure adequate industry specific managerial talent and financial resources to grow the company.

Methodology

Research design

The research used the survey design. Independent variables which were assessed cultural, globalization, pricing, product design and promotion challenges in the clothing sub sector of the fashion industry. Assessment was made to see their effect on the industry. Both qualitative and quantitative tools were used for the research. The design factored in large scale fashion designers, medium scale designers and tailors/seamstresses. The stratified and simple random sampling methods were used.

Population and sampling

The research targeted large scale cloth designers, medium scale designers and tailors/seamstresses in Accra. The large scale designers are those who produce on large scale for the Ghanaian market and still export some. The medium scale are those who produce for the Accra market and a few for other regions. The tailors selected were those imitate and create designs based on the specifications of others. A sample of 120 was chosen. It was made of 10 large scale, 50 medium scale and 60 tailors/seamstresses

Sampling Strategy

The research stratified the population into 3: large scale designers, medium scale designers and tailors/seamstresses. Simple random sampling was then used to select the sample in each stratum. A List was obtained from the Association of Fashion Designer and the Association of Tailors and Seamstresses. They then given codes and put in a basket. The sample was then selected randomly through the lottery approach.

Research procedure

A letter of introduction was taken from the Methodist University College. Copies were made and addressed to the leaders of Associations to seek approval for preliminary interview to have insight into the challenges of the industry.

The leaders of the associations gave out the list of members, location and telephone numbers. With the help of the leaders, 120 respondents were selected. The researcher upon meeting the respondents explained the topic under study, stated the purposes, relevance and benefits of the research. Upon the approval of the Heads, the respondents were given the questionnaires. The researcher and his research assistants used a period of four (4) weeks to collect the questionnaires from the respondents. Out of the 120 individuals identified and given the questionnaires, 108 responded to the questionnaires, representing a response rate of 90%

Research instrument

The primary data was collected through the administration of questionnaires based on our aims and research questions. The questions used in this research were two types: open-ended and closed-ended questions. The reason for the open-ended questions was to allow respondents to express their views in the way they desired. The closed-ended ones were used to ascertain specific answers.

Statistical analysis

Qualitative and quantitative methods were used in this research. These two methods complement each other. Qualitative research can be used in all disciplines and subject matters and its main aim is to gather an in-depth understanding of reasons and human behaviour.

It investigates the why, what, how, where and when of decisions making and human behaviour. The research used bar graphs and frequency tables to analyse the data. The researchers also used the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) for the analysis.

It is the aim of this research to find out the challenges of the fashion industry in relation to globalization, cultural influence, product development, pricing, distribution and promotion. The information you provide would be treated with the confidentiality and anonymity it deserves. You are assured that the information would be used for purely academic purposes and nothing else. I would be grateful if you respond to this questionnaire as objectively and honestly as possible.

The political and gal environments affect business particularly in the participation of companies in foreign markets and in the respect of the conditions under which the market takes place. Changes in the economic environment affect marketing in regard to economic growth, interest rates and exchange rates movements. Innovation and technological development introduce standards for competition and opportunities for wealth creation in the marketing of products and services. While environmental analysis allows the company to respond to change and to cope with marketing uncertainty.

Porters Competitive Advantage Porters generic strategic describe how a company pursues competitive advantage across its chosen market scope. There are three generic strategies, either lower cost, differentiated, or focused. A company chooses to pursue one of two types of competitive advantage, either offering a lower price, so enabling them to be price leaders. This position may be achieved through economies of scale, which are likely to be associated with the experience curve effect. (Chinchillas, P. And Chinchillas, P. (1995). ) or providing greater benefits and services that justifies the higher price.

It involves efforts by companies to e come identified by their consumers and prospects with specific attributes of their products and services, such as quality, technical back-up services, effective distribution and speedy deliveries. Although the fashion apparel industry is mature and slow growing, it exists in a dynamic and competitive environment. In order to improve profitability, many companies are restructuring to create leaner organizations and adopt new technologies. In the apparel industry, companies can operate as retailers and manufacturers.

For instance Gap, manufactures and markets their own goods. New Look, is a nominative advantage in itself. The name is not attached to any particular group of customers and it allows entry into different segments of the industry. Another competitive advantage is the company’s marketing strategy, through the use Of celebrities, promotion and giveaways. The company is able to develop its presence in the market. Moreover, as large companies are experiencing economies of scale, they could also act as oligopolies and increase competitiveness by offering extremely low prices and increase barriers to entry.

Furthermore when retailers do not compete through price intention, they compete through differentiation. Anatolia Chagrin ( director at Electra) notes that brands are taking the fast Fabian approach and making it their own by coming up with their own consumer experience. For example, Tops offers personal shopping experiences and companies in France combining fast fashion with high quality fabrics and luxury level services to boost store traffic and increase consumer loyalty. Marketing Mix Product For a luxury brand like Hermes, there signature bags are very different to buy but products from Ezra are must easy to purchase.

Making the goods too easily available might reduce the perceived value of the brand. Packaging, value, quality, branding and design are very important to fashion industry. The pricing in the fashion industry is generally based on the costs Of the materials and brand. Price Fashion trade changes every year not matter premium or economy brands.. Brands like Channel and Hermes set up their price base on premium pricing and brands like H uses economy pricing because H mainly focus on quantity not the quality.

Place place is not always a physical building like retail shop but it can also be online hop. For example, SASS is one of the biggest online shopping website in the I-J and it does not need a retail outlet, customers just need to order goods online and it will delivery to customers’ address. Promotion Some people think of promotion is only advertisement but advertisement is only one part of it. Promotion can be direct mail from businesses to consumer for example, like catalogues or news-letters by email or post.

In fashion industry, fashion events, sales promotions, public relations, sponsorship, product placement and branding are the common way they used. Technological The technology environment affects a business in a number Of ways. In order to stay in competition, capital investment in technology would be taken to lower the cost, flexibility in design, quality and speed to market. (Sinai 2006). For instance, LIKE retailers such as New Look and George shifted sourcing of their products to Far East for cost control purpose. Therefore it increased the complexity of supplying merchandises due to the longer distance.

By then, some approaches had been adopted such as just-in time TIT) which improved quality and responsiveness in reduced time without holding lots of items in inventory which might be damaged, stolen or became obsolete. (Just In Time CIT- Strategy Skills Training) Commuter integrated manufacturing (COM) enhances engineering productivity and quality, also response quicker and shorter supply lines in the market. (Bruce, Daly, and Towers 2004). As the result, there is an increase in fashionably and choices for the customers by using the low cost approach. Additionally, it enhances the competitiveness, effectiveness and overall performance.

Moreover, it has been also important that retailers and producers get as quicker response as possible. Minimizing asset time results in more flexible supply chains. ( Fernier and Gamma 2004) Improving efficiency in a demand-driven market is significant, computer- aided-design (CAD) and electronic data interchange (EDI) are communication technologies which help a business to reduce the lead times. (Bruce, Daly, and Towers 2004) This could possibly reduce the complain levels and build a good reputation by delivering the products on time which is a competitive advantage.

By using computers, it is more effective as it helps to present ideas clearly with accuracy and less human errors made. Social and environmental The product of fur for fashion has a significant impact on the environment, social and health. More and more apparel companies and customers have been rejecting fur by boycotting their products since China made the news video of how animals skins were being removed alive. (Toxic Fur). It might lead to a fall in demand of fur products as consumers might think the process of getting fur is cruel and merciless.

Alternatively, they might consider to purchase synthetic fur in stead of real fur in order to stop trapping animals. In particular, luxury brands such as Airman and Valentine have been avoiding he ethical main issues and their reputations are damaged by the sweatshop scandals. (Luxury brands must wake up to ethical and environmental responsibilities) In addition, The production process of fur is likely to cause water and air pollution. The animal wastes have a high proportion of nitrogen and phosphorus, such excess levels of chemicals will cause a reduction of oxygen levels and fish kills.

Air pollution arises from burning of animals’ dead bodies as carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides ( Knox), sulfur dioxide (502) (Toxic Fur) are examples of the air pollutants. The use of animals’ fur by the suasion industry is absolutely far from environmentally friendly. Therefore, luxury brands should be aware of their ethical responsibilities and environmental issues. Economical Within the broad economic framework in society, government form or agree to industrial and trade policies which mean close collaboration between government and businesses.

This collaboration to achieve society’s economic objectives usually involves subsidies, tax incentives, regulations, trade protection, focused credit and certain forms of administrative guidance. (Bradley, F. (1995)) In recent years, government attempt to modernize their economies. This means liberalizing economies and opening them up to competition. Developing economies and less developed countries generally depend for their income on commodities and raw material. Traditional industries, such as textiles, clothing and raw materials.

There are many channels through which the UK fashion industry makes a contribution to the UK economy. The contribution includes the following economic impacts. Direct impacts: Employment and activity supported via the fashion industry itself. This includes all stages of fashion production and distribution that physically take place in the LIKE. Indirect impacts: Employment and activity supported the supply chain, as a result of 1. K fashion companies purchasing goods and services from XII suppliers. This includes, jobs supported by the transportation of fashion industry suppliers. Induced impacts: Employment and activity supported by the process of those people directly or indirectly employed in the UK fashion industry. The British fashion industry is worth $26 billion to the country’s economy, according to the British Fashion Council, while also estimated to support 797,000 jobs. Employment- number of employees in the fashion retail industry The XII fashion and textiles sectors as a whole employ an estimated 600 thousand people, making the United Kingdom the third-largest fashion employer in the EX.-27 surpassed only by Italy and Germany.

Within a decade UK employment in the production of textiles, apparel, footwear and leather products decreased from 285 thousand to 99 thousand people in 2009. Great Britain remains a leading center for the manufacturing of clothing and high- quality fabrics, with the clothing and textile industries combined producing ?8. 5 billion- worth of goods and employing 1 50,000 people in 2007. The I-J high street fashion industry is worth an estimated EYE. 5 billion. Len 2009 UK retail sales were over IEEE billion, compared to the IEEE million per annum that designer fashion makes to the UK economy.

The retail sector generates 8% of the Gross Domestic Product of the ASK. Tariffs and bans protects industries, such as the British textile industry, from countries that posted a serious competitive threat. To protect the local industry, the British government impose a quota to limit the quantity imports, and tariffs, putting a tax on foreign goods to increase the price. Depending on the material demanded by producers, they might change to domestic produce, thus closing the trade deficit. Political Companies have less power of the political factors especially on government influence.

Cultures, lifestyle, norms, demographics and population changes are affecting the fashion industry in many different ways. In the United Kingdom, the standard VAT rate is 20% in fashion industry and it have direct influence to the consumer because their need to pay more to consume clothing or shoes. However, businesses do not need to pay import tax in the UK. The government also set up few environmental laws and labor law to monitor the industry such as Integrated Pollution Prevention, Emission Trading System, Regulation on registration or Authorization and Restriction of Chemicals.

Political can have huge significance impact on businesses. Laws are repeatedly being change in a different way, such as employment law, consumer protection legislation and environmental legislation. Issues such as workers’ right and child labor laws have repeatedly affected the industry, such as Primary, especially if their medical benefits or wages are too low. This can cause delays for businesses getting their new collection on time. Also, some consumer may Stop buying product from countries known for violating child labor laws. This negative image may have direct impact on businesses’ sales and profit.

Correspondingly, all the trades from international have to go through the World Trade Organization but there is a special arrangement for clothing industry (The Multi Fiber Arrangement). Businesses also need to labeling garments before they sell their product, like the fiber connect, country of origin, care instructions and flammability. The ELI already has a number of Free Trade Agreements now so the government policy can affect companies directly. A common government regulation on fashion industry is advertisement law which means businesses need to be honest with there goods.

Segmentation and targeting Retailers often segment consumers into different groups by targeting their specific needs and wants. Therefore they conduct market research. A good segmentation and targeting Can improve the profit of the company. (peter Doyle 2002) In the fashion industry, we divide the people into two groups: female and male. For female consumers, they all are different and has their wan style and budget, therefore some are willing to purchase more high-end clothing. They are well aware of fashion trends but shop to suit their own individuality rather than relying entirely on the dictates of the season. Fashion segment) In light of this information, the managers can decide a significant marketing strategy. Owning to the development of UK , one- to-one marketing as becoming more important. They can segment the customers within the value and needs, so that the management becomes increasingly efficiency. For example, Tops has two lines. Unique and the mainline. This targets two crowds of consumers, while the older and more well off customers goes for unique which is more mature and fashion forward. While the mainline Tops is targeted for teenagers where the clothes are relatively cheaper and youthful.

Different groups of customers attach different economic value to the solution offered which increases the profit of the company. A increase in price may lead to an increase in the profit margin. They are easy achieved via a good segment of market. For instance, some markets have difficulty raising the price by 5-10%, as some consumers are price sensitive. However in some markets, is very often not difficult to raise 10% of the price to the customers. ( etc. Luxury goods market). As these consumers are less concerned about the price, but the quality of the good.

Moreover a significant segmentation can increase the profit by allowing the company to trade up customers to higher margin product that can make the company become more and more competitive. They trade the customers’ opinion in a high level. For example, Gap has caught up with the trend and introduced “Geek print T-shirts” to their collection to attract younger customers. In the target segment, we need to consider the size, growth, potential competition and capabilities of the business. (peter Doyle 2002)After this the company can set up a significant segment.

For example,fashion magazine mogul Vogue considers the size of market according to different cultures of specific countries, therefore they slightly change the context of the book in different area. Like in Asia, Vogue hires Asian models/actresses to be on the cover. Therefore it is nearly impossible to see Christy Texan on the cover like US Vogue. To decrease potential competition, Vogue wisely advertises. You old easily spot a large Vogue poster anywhere, this allows them attract new customer. Market targeting plays an important role, as it helps the company to gain more market share and gain new customers.

Fashion magazines constitute a major consumer product in their own right and contribute to the image and value Of the UK fashion industry. Fashion magazines earn most of their revenues from advertising and circulation. Assessment of the total revenues is mainly based on an estimate of the circulation split between newsstand purchases, subscription purchases and other sales and assumption of a 50/50 advertising ‘circulation split. Overall, we estimate the total annual revenue of the Auk’s fashion magazine industry at some $401 million. This adds to an additional 3101 jobs.

Breakdown of LIKE Fashion Industry SVGA by channel of production Given the importance of brand in the fashion industry, it is important to consider the promotional activities that retailers, in particular undertake in order to boost sales. Spending on marketing contributes to SVGA through creation of jobs and potential to boost profits. In order to estimate the contribution of marketing, PR and associated activities, it is possible to use the chart above which explains the spending on advertising. Overall, we estimate that fashion advertising and related activities create an extra $241 million of SVGA.