Genetics

The perennial debate about nature and nurture–which is the more potent shaper of the human essence? –is perennially rekindled. It flared up again in the London Observer of Feb. 11, 2001. REVEALED: THE SECRET OF HUMAN BEHAVIOR, read the banner headline. ENVIRONMENT, NOT GENES, KEY TO OUR ACTS. The source of the story was Craig Venter, the self-made man of genes who had built a private company to read the full sequence of the human genome in competition with an international consortium funded by taxes and charities.

That sequence–a string of 3 billion letters, composed in a four-letter alphabet, containing the complete recipe for building and running a human body–was to be published the very next day (the competition ended in an arranged tie). The first analysis of it had revealed that there were just 30,000 genes in it, not the 100,000 that many had been estimating until a few months before. Details had already been circulated to journalists under embargo. But Venter, by speaking to a reporter at a biotechnology conference in France on Feb. , had effectively broken the embargo. Not for the first time in the increasingly bitter rivalry over the genome project, Venter’s version of the story would hit the headlines before his rivals’. “We simply do not have enough genes for this idea of biological determinism to be right,” Venter told the Observer. “The wonderful diversity of the human species is not hard-wired in our genetic code. Our environments are critical. ” In truth, the number of human genes changed nothing.

Venter’s remarks concealed two whopping nonsequiturs: that fewer genes implied more environmental influences and that 30,000 genes were too few to explain human nature, whereas 100,000 would have been enough. As one scientist put it to me a few weeks later, just 33 genes, each coming in two varieties (on or off), would be enough to make every human being in the world unique. There are more than 10 billion combinations that could come from flipping a coin 33 times, so 30,000 does not seem such a small number after all.

Besides, if fewer genes meant more free will, fruit flies would be freer than we are, bacteria freer still and viruses the John Stuart Mill of biology. Fortunately, there was no need to reassure the population with such sophisticated calculations. People did not weep at the humiliating news that our genome has only about twice as many genes as a worm’s. Nothing had been hung on the number 100,000, which was just a bad guess. But the human genome project–and the decades of research that preceded it–did force a much more nuanced understanding of how genes work.

In the early days, scientists detailed how genes encode the various proteins that make up the cells in our bodies. Their more sophisticated and ultimately more satisfying discovery–that gene expression can be modified by experience–has been gradually emerging since the 1980s. Only now is it dawning on scientists what a big and general idea it implies: that learning itself consists of nothing more than switching genes on and off. The more we lift the lid on the genome, the more vulnerable to experience genes appear to be.

Russell Barkley (1995) defines Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder as a disorder experienced in the developmental stage of children which is manifested by signs such as attention problems, impulsivity, and hyperactivity. It is a real disorder and a real problem and often results to negative implications.

It can cause emotional difficulties too on the part of the parent. Attention Deficit Disorder is a hidden disability as there are no outward signs that there is something physically wrong with the central nervous system or brain except for the series of behavioral changes (as cited in the About Website, 2006) . It is a real childhood illness that affect the way children act, think, and feel.

Several explanations of the factors that led to the development of this disorder have been offered. The genetic aspect bears one. As cited in the report by the National Health and Medical Research Council Government of Australia (2000), people with this disorder underwent cases of mutations in their dopamine transporter genes (Cook, Stein, Krakowski et al 1995) or receptor genes (D4 receptor gene ÷ Ebstein, Novick, Umansky et al. 1996). Also in this report, congenital factors may also play a role in the development of ADHD. Maternal substance abuse such as the use of nicotine, cocaine may induce symptoms related to ADHD (Nichols and Chen 1981).

The strength of genetic influence on ADHD is confounded in these evidences from previous studies taking into account environmental influences as written through a personal communication by Dr. Galves et al (2003) as they explain that the findings on how genes can affect the development of ADHD is strengthened by the fact that through the direct synthesis of proteins — stress, trauma, and lack of parental responsiveness can alter the correct processes of this. This process of protein synthesis is far more complicated than the common knowledge on this as purveyed by the media. Simply stated, the process of gene transcription can be influenced by external factors mentioned above.

Attention disorders also run in families, so there are likely to be genetic influences. On some previous studies on children, 25% of the close relatives of these children with ADHD also have the same disorder. Studies of twins even strengthen the positive relationship between genes and ADHD.

The relationship between the parent and child temperament is also an important thing to look at in analyzing the factors that may contribute to the development of this disorder. However, Dr. Galves et. al (2003). maintain that genetic factors are not the major influences of ADHD as they cite the study of Lewis, Amini, and Lannon (2000) for this argument: “The process of genetic information sets down the brain’s basic macro and microanatomy. But experiences also play a vital role here.

It narrows down the macro possibilities into an outcome. Experience then can induce or deter genetic capacities. Infant-parent interaction affects the neurodevelopment of the baby in his primal years. Parents mold the child’s inherited emotional brain into the neural core of the self. In conclusion, Genes and experience contribute to the make-up of child’s neural core”.

The development of genetic engineering has increased notably in the last few years. Some people support the investment in this field whereas others are against to. I would like to present both sides before presenting my opinion. Genetic engineering is the process of manipulating the genes of an organism. People supporting it use argue that for instance farmers could have crops more resistant to insects and diseases, and many genetically modified crops can grow faster. These advantages can be extremely positive for food production in developing nations where people starve. Faster growing cereals, fruits and vegetables would mean more profit.

Moreover, some medicines and vaccines are obtained throw genetic engineering process. An important breakthrough that genetic engineering can help society to fight with inherited diseases. Some genes can be modified before a baby is born improving its life. It could be said then that genetic engineering might cure some diseases. However there are ethical concerns about it use. Some ecologists warn about the disaster consequences to the Earth. They say that genetically modified crops can affect seriously whole ecosystems as the food chain can be broken if crops are more resistant to predators.

Furthermore, some people are strongly against to human genetic engineering as parents might want to choose their children’s characteristics. They support this argument saying that it would be unnatural and in some religions would be unacceptable. Society and human evolution would change completely. To sum up, both sides have strong arguments to support their opinions. As far as my opinion is concerned genetic engineering can bring to humans longer and healthier lives. However there is a thin line between what is ethical and what not.

As the world has changed into computer based and more of technology based, so has the various fields changed. Molecular biology is concerned with how the systems of a cell interact which also includes the DNA and RNA interactions plus the protein biosynthesis. It therefore involves several techniques which include Polymerase Chain Reactions, Western Blotting, southern blotting, expression cloning, gel electrophoresis and so many other techniques.

Since it is mostly involved in the interactions of the cell systems, it requires means to be able to identify the DNA which are similar, if the DNA of some organism are evolving, if some mutation in a DNA can help in new inventions about how to deal with certain problems of the world among others. Determination of all these requires the use of information technology. There have been major advances in molecular biology and advances in technologies of genomic study too. This is the reason why there has been growth in biological information created by the scientists (Gibas and Jambeck, 2001).

Because of these advances, genomic information has to be computerized and stored in databases in an organized manner for use. The databases are organized in a manner that scientists can retrieve information about a genome and more, add more information if need be and for future references (Gibas and Jambeck, 2001). It therefore means that the databases index the data for viewing and analysis purposes. Application of information technology in the field of molecular biology is what is known as Bioinformatics.

It involves the creation of algorithms statistical techniques, databases and computational techniques in molecular biology. There are theories on how the biological data should be solved and how they should be managed. These are the theories that are the base of computation, data storage, data analysis and formation of algorithms (Letovsky, 1999). Bioinformatics This is a field of science, created due to the changing world enabling advances in molecular biology, that merge molecular biology, information technology and computer science together (Baxevanis and Ouellette, 2001).

It is therefore a single discipline meant to make possible biological insight discoveries. It also creates an international perspective of biological principles discernation (Letovsky, 1999). As has been noted, this field was created due to the advances in molecular biology. At the beginning, as the world of computer began to take over, Bioinformatics was just meant for biological information storage. It was as simple as creation of the databases and maintaining them. Information stored at that time was amino acid sequences and nucleotide sequences.

At this time though, the researchers could retrieve information and put in more either revised or new invention (Baxevanis and Ouellette, 2001). As time and more advances are being made and more information is needed about the interaction of the cell system, Bioinformatics is evolving too. It is getting more complex with more information and more activities on molecular biology. This is due to the need to comprehend the normal cellular activities so that any abnormalities can be easily detected. Bioinformatics currently provides options of analysis and interpretation of data.

Most analyzed and interpreted data include amino acid sequences, nucleotide sequences, structures of protein and protein domains. This is what is referred to as computational biology (Baxevanis and Ouellette, 2001). There are two sub disciplines in Bioinformatics and computational biology. One is algorithm and statistics development for the assessment of large data sets. This includes data sets such as gene allocation from a specific sequence, formation of protein families from related protein sequences, protein structure prediction and protein function prediction (Westhead et al. , 2002).

The other sub discipline is information management which requires development of tools that allow retrieval, use and management of information (Westhead et al. , 2002). Importance of Bioinformatics Since there is advancement in the world of technology, bioinformatics is to improve the understanding of the so many biological processes. This involves research areas of involvement such as evolutionary biology, gene expression analysis, analysis of cancer mutations, determination of biodiversity, analysis of sequences, comparative genomics, genome annotation and several others (Lesk, 2005). Gene Expression Analysis

As this information technology system enables storage of information, analysis and interpretation, gene expression can be performed. This is done by the use of appropriate techniques which measure RNA levels such as sequencing of expressed complementary DNA, Serial Analysis of Gene Expression, micro arrays and so many other techniques. This is important in the determination of genes expressed in certain disorders (Lesk, 2005). Determination of such kinds of genes is important in the development of therapies, as developments have gone further in molecular biology so that disorders can be corrected using gene therapies.

An example is gene replacement therapy. When a gene causing a specific disorder or disease is determined, a means of replacing it with a normal one could also be determined (Lesk, 2005). Evolutionary Biology Bioinformatics enables measurement of changes in the DNA of animals therefore determination of origins of evolution of animals from their ancestors. Other ways in which Bioinformatics has enabled researchers to study the origins of organism and animal species is through comparison of their genomes, hence classifying animals that originated from the same ancestor.

Bioinformatics through computational models enable prediction of system outcome over a specified period of time (Lesk, 2005). Analysis of Sequences There are so many sequences that decode different proteins. These sequences are made available in the databases. This provides sequences for analysis, for example if a scientist has a sequence of a gene obtained from a species of organism and would like to know the sequence, he/she would check with the sequences in the data bases. In these databases, the information helps determine the genes that encode specific polypeptides and regulatory sequences.

Sequence analysis also enables comparison of genes of species hence determination of certain protein functions (Lesk, 2005). Biodiversity Measurement Bioinformatics is also important as it enables measurement of biodiversity of an ecosystem. Biodiversity is all the genomes of all the different species of organisms and animals in an ecosystem. The animals and organisms’ names have therefore to be collected, including their descriptions, genetic information and distribution in a specific ecosystem. There are so many other important information about the organisms that have to be noted alongside the genetic information.

These are such as habitat needs, species and population size (Barnes and Gray, 2003). All this information is stored in the databases and is collected for a reason. Several studies that require animal genomic constitution in an ecosystem do take place, therefore need an information source. Information technology has enabled formation of specialized programs of software which are used by the scientists and researchers to retrieve, analyze and share information about their research. This leads to more progress in the field of molecular biology.

The importance of this is that it helps in the conservation of the ecosystem. For example, in an ecosystem, there are always those species that are endangered, this can easily be determined by this information technology system of biodiversity determination. Computer simulations has enabled modeling of conservation, population dynamics and calculation of a breeding pool’s genetic health (Barnes and Gray, 2003). Cancer Mutation Analysis Since bioinformatics has enabled storage of sequences of several genes and provided means through which analysis can be carried out, cancer mutations can be detected.

Sequences of normal genes are stored in the databases. Determination of a cancer mutation is therefore not difficult as the normal sequence can be compared to the abnormal one and the area of difference marked. This has been used to find out point mutations and other types of mutations. As noted earlier, this is important in cancer therapy (Higgins and Taylor, 2000; (Lesk, 2005). Conclusion Bioinformatics has lead to enormous discoveries due to the provision of information about the genomes of different species, their characteristics and other biological information in the databases.

The main issue here is the biological information, how to retrieve it, provision of analysis methods and provision of interpretation methods thereby assisting many studies in many areas. Application of information technology in molecular biology has enabled discoveries of therapies and genetic information about disease causing organisms. This application of information technology is very important as with the changes in the world, evolution is taking place and several different organisms are coming up. Some of these organisms can cause diseases to human and can be a threat if nothing is done about them.

Since genome sequences, analysis methods and other important biological information are provided in the programs and databases, determination of the origin of such an organism can be easy and ways of treating it can also be established, therefore eliminating the threat to humans. If for example HIV mutates, like it does, and there are no effective ways of determining the mutation, it means the virus will kill so many people as the new strain has no way to be controlled. Bioinformatics is therefore very important in molecular biology. References Barnes, M. R. and Gray, I. C. (2003). Bioinformatics for Geneticists. US: Wiley.

Baxevanis, A. D. and Ouellette, B. F. (2001). Bioinformatics: A Practical Guide to the Analysis of Genes and Proteins. US: Wiley-IEEE. Gibas, C. and Jambeck, P. (2001). Developing Bioinformatics Computer Skills. Oreilly & Associates Inc. Higgins, D. and Taylor, W. (2000). Bioinformatics: Sequence, Structure, and Databanks : a Practical Approach. UK: Oxford University Press. Letovsky, S. (1999). Bioinformatics: Databases and Systems. US: Springer. Lesk, A. M. (2005). Introduction to Bioinformatics. UK: Oxford University Press, 2005 Westhead, R. D. , Parish, J. H. and Twyman, M. R. (2002). Bioinformatics. UK: BIOS, 2002

Agriculture – the study of producing crops from the land, with an emphasis on practical applications Anatomy – the study of form and function, in plants, animals, and other organisms, or specifically in humans Arachnology – the study of arachnids

Astrobiology – the study of evolution, distribution, and future of life in the universe—also known as exobiology, exopaleontology, and bioastronomy Biochemistry – the study of the chemical reactions required for life to exist and function, usually a focus on the cellular level Bioengineering – the study of biology through the means of engineering with an emphasis on applied knowledge and especially related to biotechnology Biogeography – the study of the distribution of species spatially and temporally Bioinformatics – the use of information technology for the study, collection, and storage of genomic and other biological data Biomathematics (or Mathematical biology) – the quantitative or mathematical study of biological processes, with an emphasis on modeling

Biomechanics – often considered a branch of medicine, the study of the mechanics of living beings, with an emphasis on applied use through prosthetics or orthotics Biomedical research – the study of the human body in health and disease Biomusicology – study of music from a biological point of view. Biophysics – the study of biological processes through physics, by applying the theories and methods traditionally used in the physical sciences Biotechnology – a new and sometimes controversial branch of biology that studies the manipulation of living matter, including genetic modification and synthetic biology Building biology – the study of the indoor living environment Botany – the study of plants

Cell biology – the study of the cell as a complete unit, and the molecular and chemical interactions that occur within a living cell Conservation biology – the study of the preservation, protection, or restoration of the natural environment, natural ecosystems, vegetation, and wildlife Cryobiology – the study of the effects of lower than normally preferred temperatures on living beings Developmental biology – the study of the processes through which an organism forms, from zygote to full structure Ecology – the study of the interactions of living organisms with one another and with the non-living elements of their environment Embryology – the study of the development of embryo (from fecundation to birth) Entomology – the study of insects

Environmental biology – the study of the natural world, as a whole or in a particular area, especially as affected by human activity Epidemiology – a major component of public health research, studying factors affecting the health of populations Epigenetics – the study of heritable changes in gene expression or cellular phenotype caused by mechanisms other than changes in the underlying DNA sequence Ethology – the study of animal behavior Evolutionary biology – the study of the origin and descent of species over time Genetics – the study of genes and heredity Hematology ( also known as Haematology ) – the study of blood and blood – forming organs.

Herpetology – the study of reptiles and amphibians Histology – the study of cells and tissues, a microscopic branch of anatomy Ichthyology – the study of fish Integrative biology – the study of whole organisms Limnology – the study of inland waters Mammalogy – the study of mammals Marine biology (or Biological oceanography) – the study of ocean ecosystems, plants, animals, and other living beings Microbiology – the study of microscopic organisms (microorganisms) and their interactions with other living things Molecular biology – the study of biology and biological functions at the molecular level, some cross over with biochemistry Mycology – the study of fungi

Neurobiology – the study of the nervous system, including anatomy, physiology and pathology Oncology – the study of cancer processes, including virus or mutation oncogenesis, angiogenesis and tissues remoldings Ornithology – the study of birds Population biology – the study of groups of conspecific organisms, including Population ecology – the study of how population dynamics and extinction Population genetics – the study of changes in gene frequencies in populations of organisms Paleontology – the study of fossils and sometimes geographic evidence of prehistoric life Pathobiology or pathology – the study of diseases, and the causes, processes, nature, and development of disease Parasitology – the study of parasites and parasitism

Pharmacology – the study and practical application of preparation, use, and effects of drugs and synthetic medicines Physiology – the study of the functioning of living organisms and the organs and parts of living organisms Phytopathology – the study of plant diseases (also called Plant Pathology) Psychobiology – the study of the biological bases of psychology Sociobiology – the study of the biological bases of sociology Structural biology – a branch of molecular biology, biochemistry, and biophysics concerned with the molecular structure of biological macromolecules

Synthetic Biology- research integrating biology and engineering; construction of biological functions not found in nature Virology – the study of viruses and some other virus-like agents Zoology – the study of animals, including classification, physiology, development, and behavior (branches include: Entomology, Ethology, Herpetology, Ichthyology,Mammalogy, and Ornithology) History of Philippine Money Philippine money–multi-colored threads woven into the fabric of our social, political and economic life.

From its early bead-like form to the paper notes and coins that we know today, our money has been a constant reminder of our journey through centuries as a people relating with one another and with other peoples of the world. Pre-Hipic Era Trade among the early Filipinos and with traders from the neighboring islands was conducted through barter. The inconvenience of barter later led to the use of some objects as medium of exchange. Gold, which was plentiful in many parts of the islands, invariably found its way into these objects that included the piloncitos, small bead-likeb gold bits considered by the local numismatists as the earliest coin of the ancient Filipinos, and gold barter rings. Spanish Era (1521-1897) Three hundred years of Spanish rule left many indelible imprints on Philippine numismatics.

At the end of the Spanish regime, Philippine money was a multiplicity of currencies that included Mexican pesos, Alfonsino pesos and copper coins of other currencies. The cobs or macuquinas of colonial mints were the earliest coins brought in by the galleons from Mexico and other Spanish colonies. The silver dos mundos or pillar dollar is considered one of the world’s most beautiful coins. The barilla, a crude bronze or copper coin worth about one centavo, was the first coin struck in the country. Coins from other Spanish colonies also reached the Philippines and were counterstamped. Gold coins with the portrait of Queen Isabela were minted in Manila. Silver pesos with the profile of young Alfonso XIII were the last coins minted in Spain.

The pesos fuertes, issued by the country’s first bank, the El Banco Epol Filipino de Isabel II, were the first paper money circulated in the country. Revolutionary Period (1898-1899) Asserting its independence, the Philippine Republic of 1898 under General Emilio Aguinaldo issued its own coins and paper currency backed by the country’s natural resources. One peso and five peso notes printed as Republika Filipina Papel Moneda de Un Peso and Cinco Pesos were freely circulated. 2 centimos de peso copper were also issued in 1899. The American Period (1900-1941) The Americans instituted a monetary system for the Philippine based on gold and pegged the Philippine peso to the American dollar at the ratio of 2:1. The US Congress approved the Coinage Act for the Philippines in 1903.

The coins issued under the system bore the designs of Filipino engraver and artist, Melecio Figueroa. Coins in denomination of one-half centavo to one peso were minted. The renaming of El Banco Epol Filipino to Bank of the Philippine Islands in 1912 paved the way for the use of English from Spanish in all notes and coins issued up to 1933. Beginning May 1918, treasury certificates replaced the silver certificates series, and a one-peso note was added. The Japanese Occupation (1942-1945) The outbreak of World War II caused serious disturbances in the Philippine monetary system. Two kinds of notes circulated in the country during this period. The Japanese Occupation Forces issued war notes in big denominations.

Provinces and municipalities, on the other hand, issued their own guerrilla notes or resistance currencies, most of which were sanctioned by the Philippine government in-exile, and partially redeemed after the war. The Philippine Republic A nation in command of its destiny is the message reflected in the evolution of Philippine money under the Philippine Republic. Having gained independence from the United States following the end of World War II, the country used as currency old treasury certificates overprinted with the word “Victory”. With the establishment of the Central Bank of the Philippines in 1949, the first currencies issued were the English series notes printed by the Thomas de la Rue & Co. , Ltd.

in England and the coins minted at the US Bureau of Mint. The Filipinazation of the Republic coins and paper money began in the late 60’s and is carried through to the present. In the 70’s, the Ang Bagong Lipunan (ABL) series notes were circulated, which were printed at the Security Printing Plant starting 1978. A new wave of change swept through the Philippine coinage system with the flora and fauna coins initially issued in 1983. These series featured national heroes and species of flora and fauna. The new design series of banknotes issued in 1985 replaced the ABL series. Ten years later, a new set of coins and notes were issued carrying the logo of the Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas.

Organelles can contribute or cause a disease like Cystic Fibrosis. First the organelle itself may be defective because its molecules do not function well or because there has been damage to it by exposure to some harmful substance such as a chemical. Within the endoplasmic reticulum or ER where the synthesis of this protein occurs there may be a disturbance in the functions. Normally the proteins are coded within the ER for normal production and functioning of CFTR. It he protein is misfolded during the processing a disease like Cystic Fibrosis may occur.

The belief is that the PH of the CFTR protein is altered and because of this PH changes the surface tension of the CFTR changes. That change in surface tension changes the trafficking of the protein and mucus causing thicker mucus to get trapped in several organs but mostly in the lungs and pancreas. Because the surface tension is changed it becomes nearly impossible for the patient to move the mucus there for it accumulates in the lungs and is very sticky. Bacteria more easily bind to the sticky protein causing consistent infections in the lungs.

The missing or defective membrane proteins that are causing the CF become the reason why there are so many increased secretions but the worst of the problem is that with the change in the PH, the consistency of the secretions have changed and the person with the CF can just not handle them. That with the increased infections and the fact that this continues to happen throughout the other organs causes the patient to be extremely debilitated with the chance of early loss of life.

A DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is composed of 4 different bases; adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and thymine (T). Applying these 4 bases it may contain thousands of sequences within a single strand. Each of these bases makes a specific pairing with a corresponding base whereby the double helix structure is synthesised. This interaction is called base-paring and the complementary base pairs are; T pairs only with A and C only with G. Through this simple coding language, the DNA carries and represents its vast genetic information.

Through a process called transcription, the genetic information of DNA is copied to form an intermediary molecule termed ribonucleic acid (RNA/messenger RNA). This formation is synthesised in the same way as DNA replication. However this process occurs only on one DNA strand called template strand. Thus the mRNA is only a single strand with 4 bases; adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C) and uracil (U). The base-pairing rules are,

DNAmRNA

GC
CG
TA
AU

This will be synthesised through enzyme RNA polymerase and happens in the nucleus of the cell.

This transcribed mRNA consist the genetic code, which is used to generate proteins in the following process called translation. This code is comprised of triplets that specifies an amino acid (e.g. AUG for methionine) and named as codon. These codons are recognised by transfer RNA. T-RNA can bind specific amino acid on one side by means of enzymes and has got an anticodon consists of triplets on the other side.

Each amino acid has got its own tRNA. The 1st mRNA codon will be always AUG, the start codon. Once the 2nd amino acid is bound to the 1st one, the 1st tRNA will be released and the 3rd one follows. This process is repeated until the so-called stop-codon in the mRNA terminates the growing protein synthesis. The completed protein is then released and takes its own characteristic shape. This process occurs in the cytosol of the cell.

The four-character language of DNA/mRNA can be converted into 20-character language of protein. However there are 64 combinations of mRNA codons as there are 4 possibilities for the 1st codon and 4 for the 2nd and 4 for the 3rd (4 x 4 x 4 = 64). Certainly there are many codons for many amino acids; however some are not, for instant stop-/start codons.