The American History 

the time frame for the explores began in the early 15th century and continued into the 17th century. The explorers found lots of significant items such as the 4 s’s. the 4 s’s are spice, silk, scent, and stones such as gold, and silver. The reason why these items were so valuable was that they were very expensive. New lands that were mapped were also very important because it allowed for expansion. Another big reason explorer would explore was because of the slave trade. In the early 1400s south America wasn’t governed by any main empires of its history. Enslaving captured enemies was by this time (sadly) well-known. Muslims sellers’ extra slaves to their ships as early as the 600s CE. By 1480s the Europeans arrived, the slave trade was huge by this time. another big reason explorer would explorer was to convert people to Christianity.

Marco polo said that he was asked by the emperor of china to go back to Italy, and bring missionaries with him, the next time he went to china to help convert people, but nobody believed him. Who knows maybe could have been a Christian nation today, if that would have happened? There are tons of famous explorer. One that is the most well know would be Ferdinand Magellan. Ferdinand Magellan was famous for circumnavigating the globe in 1522. A few other great explorers are Leif Ericson, Marco polo, prince henry, Columbus, Vespucci, the French explorer of the northeast united states, and last of all the most famous explorers would be the Spanish explorer.

There are many different reasons that make these explorers so great. Let’s look at Leif Ericson. Life Erikson was a explorer from Iceland. He was the first explorer to step foot on north America besides green land that brings us to Columbus. Columbus on august 3rd Columbus sent out three ships the Nina, the pinta, and the Santa Maria with six months of supplies. Finally, in October Christopher and the crew landing in south and central America. the European people were more interested in finding gold and tobacco then friendships with the people that lived there. In the end they enslaved the native people and treated them terribly. The next great explorer to talk about is going to be prince henry the navigator. Prince is interesting because he says he was an explorer, but he never explored. Prince henry opened a school of navigation in the 1400s. this school invented the carvel and started Portuguese sailors to explore the coast of west Africa. The next explorer would be Amerigo Vespucci.

Vespucci sailed beside the coast of south Africa. He was one of the first to realize he wasn’t in Asia. A German cartographer categorized the new land America in his honor. another well-known group of explorers would be the French explorers of the northeast united states. This group had 3 people in it. Cartier, Champlain, and Cabot. Cabot who was the first European to reach the coast of north America. This was five years after Columbus, and just like Columbus, Cabot thought he had reached the indies too. Thirty-seven year later Jacques Cartier went to the place that Cabot landed and explored the area further. Last and final, in 1603 another explorer studied the area more. his name was Samuel de Champlain. Samuel de Champlain also founded Quebec and discovered Lake Champlain. There are many more very great explorers who were courageous and went above and beyond to explore and discover new things. These are just some of the most well know explorers.

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Geography Coursework – Methodology – Centre Of Leeds’ CBD

Table of contents

For my geography project I visited Leeds to try and find the economic centre of the CBD of Leeds. I needed to collect land use data as this would help me investigate the first of my hypotheses which is the nearer to the centre of the CBD, the taller the buildings as I counted the heights of buildings in my area on the geography field trip and with the groups data of the building height of the whole CBD. Also I would have needed to count the pedestrian flow as this would help me investigate the second of my hypotheses which is there will be a higher volume of pedestrians nearer the centre of the CBD .The data collection area was near the centre of Leeds CBD as I collected my data around Briggate as the edge of the Leeds CBD is near the tall office buildings.

The two pieces of individual data that I collected was:

  • Traffic count
  • Environmental quality assessment

The pieces of group data we collected was:

  • Pedestrian flow
  • Land use
  • Building height

The individual secondary data that I will be collecting is Land values

The structure of the day was that we were going to split the day into two halves. We collected the group data in the morning and the individual data in the afternoon so we had much more time to collect our individual data.

Group Data

For our group data we split the CBD into grid squares and two people were responsible for recording the building height and land use for the buildings in the given area and to do four pedestrian flows and we did the pedestrians flow outside the Town Hall on Westgate.

We did this so we could cover more area and therefore the data collection techniques had to be the same throughout the whole year.

For the group data we calculated the Pedestrian flow in a certain area at four different times also we calculated of the building height of the buildings in my groups square and started straight after we got out off the coach. Also we did land use of the buildings for this we calculated what particular use a building would be.

We put letters on a map of Leeds that sod for type of the building e.g. a=commerce, b=administration etc.

All the data in the Group Data was to be shared between all the groups.

Building Height

To collect data for building height I worked with a partner and we counted the number of windows of each building in our grid and used this as the height, we did this because we didn’t have the time or equipment to measure the exact heights. We then collected the whole of the year’s data and have a good number of buildings from each grid to see where the tallest buildings are also the Building Height was fairly easy at times as you had to count the floors on the outside of the buildings, but there were problems counting the building height as we agreed not to count the cellars, but some buildings on slopes had cellars at the back and ground floors at the front of the buildings and we did not agree to count these as well.

Pedestrian flow

We marked out four points on our maps equally distant apart and took counts of people who pass us. One of our pair counted right to left and the other counted left to right so we could efficiently record everyone. We went to the Town Hall on Westgate and we counted the number of pedestrians who were walking either in or out of the CBD. We thought this was an ideal to do our pedestrian count as we were near the edge of the CBD, so it was an ideal place to count the number of pedestrians walking in and out of the CBD.

Land Use

For this we used the ground floor land use of each building on our maps; we had certain categories and we put them in the ones which best fitted the land use. We did this because the categories gave an idea of the type of land and what it was used for. We then collected them with the rest of the year’s data on a database to see the different land uses around the CBD. We had filled in the land use of the buildings in a table which has all the number of the buildings. I think that the amount of categories that sort out the buildings was the right amount because if there were more categories it would have made it more complicated to organise the Land use on GIS, if there was less categories then it would have made it hard to organise the different types of buildings in the categories. Luckily we had successfully had no problems classifying the buildings into different categories.

Individual data

For individual data I collected raw data for the two options I chose. I did this by going round Leeds CBD and recording the data. In the second part of the day we did Individual Data. I did 10 environmental quality assessments and I did 2 traffic counts as they took 5 minutes each and the environmental quality assessments were scattered around the Leeds CBD.

Environmental quality survey

I did many of these all around the CBD of Leeds as I had done 10 environmental quality assessments and I had done many of these near the centre of the CBD as my investigation is to find the centre of the CBD of Leeds. I did many of the environmental quality assessments around the centre of the CBD (which I think it is near or on Briggate) and I did the rest of the environmental quality assessment sheets around the edges of the CBD. The reason I did the survey in different areas of the CBD was to see the difference of the quality of the environment throughout the CBD of Leeds. I also thought that this survey was important as the centre of the CBD is supposed to have the best quality of environment in the whole CBD of Leeds. As the table shows this is not true and the cleanest area is in Gourmet Pizzeria, St Paul’s Street.

Traffic Count

Our group did the Traffic count in a busy location. We did our traffic on Bishopgate Street, beside Leeds Train station. The reason of us choosing the location was because it was at the edge of the CBD meaning the traffic that we had counted had been going in and out of the CBD. We did 3 traffic counts at different times but at the same location as we wanted to see the change of the traffic flow throughout the day. In our traffic count we had counted all the vehicles that came passed the road, cars, buses, taxis e.t.c. The most amount of traffic that had come past our point (the highest number of vehicles an hour) was at 2.30 pm and there was 1524 Vehicles an hour.

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Geography Assessment Fertility and Mortality

1. Suggest & explain why, within a country, crude birth rate varies over time. Use named examples and evidence to support your answer.

In the 19th century most countries had a very high birth rate. Since then different countries birth rate has changed and this is mainly because the government implement different polices towards their population.

One set of polices is a pro-natal view and this encourages the population to have children and fertility is promoted. One reason for increasing fertility is to compensate for wartime losses for example France in 1918 after the First World War. Germany additionally applied a pro natal strategy to promote Nazi Germany as they wanted to encourage a particular race in pursuit of racially motivated polices. Also, in Japan they want to preserve the labor force from an ageing population and recently they have seen a rise in the birth rate for the first time in six years.

Governments have also applied two types of Anti-natal policies to their country and these can be either voluntary or coercive. Voluntary polices include spreading information about family planning clinics with funding form the World Health Organization. They reach out to try and persuade the population to keep below a certain number of children. The earliest examples are in India and Pakistan and now Indonesia is following in their footsteps with setting up 2000 family planning clinics.

However some governments turned to an involuntary anti-natal policy, Chinas one child policy is an example of this but researchers are realizing today that even though it may have been strict at the time they have come to understand that it has had very little impact on the population at all. China had and is stilling having a major population crisis. It was introduced in 1979 and if families followed this policy they received free education, health care, pensions and family benefits but these would be taken away if the couple has more than one child.

However, the scheme has caused a number of problems in China. This is particularly the case for hundreds of thousands of young females. Many thousands of young girls have been abandoned by their parents as the result of the one child policy. This is because many parents in China prefer to have a boy to carry on the family name. As a result large numbers of girls have either ended up in orphanages, homeless or in some cases killed. The policy has had little impact on the population, it was already decreasing from 1970 – 1979 and had dropped from 34 per 1000 to 18 per 1000 and is now 14 per 1000. It has only gone down 4 per 1000 over 28 years and it has been resisted strongly by the people especially in rural areas as there are not enough people to work on farms.

There have also been some changing polices for example in Singapore. From 1965-1987 they introduced a ‘stop at two’ campaign this was designed to improve the quality of life for the Singaporean people as the live on such a small island. However the scheme changed dramatically as the government saw the population was the only asset it had. Advance in technology have allowed Singapore to do well in the global economy this is also because of its highly educated population. However now the fertility is continuing to drop and is starting to go into an ageing population. To try and increase the TRF they have introduced incentives for more children and the baby bonus scheme. This includes things such as when have a second child the government will open a children development account and money will be added to the account. Governments mainly influence the birth rates within a country because of the different policies they set in place.

2. Suggest & explain reasons why crude birth rates vary between countries at different levels of economic development

There are many reasons why birth rates vary between countries which are at different levels of economic development. LEDC’s tend to have very high birth rates and this is because of lack of education about family planning and contraception. In places such as Tanzania there is no access to contraception and therefore the birth rate is high at 39 per 1000. In MEDC’s contraception is widely available and there this will make the birth rate decrease. You are able to buy all forms of contraception and in MEDC’s people are very well educated on them and how to use them.

Also, in LEDC’s children are economic assets the more children you have the great income the family will gain. This is because at a very young age children are able to work on farms and earn money for the family. However, in present day this is even seen less in LEDC’s as more and more children are trying to go to school to get an education. Where as in an MEDC children are known as economic burdens, they do not start working until 18 and live off there parents until then. Children in MEDC’s expect a lot more in there youth such as a good education, clothes, pocket and the general living expenses for food and clothes is much more expensive than in an LEDC.

Another reason that birth rates are very high in LEDC’s compared to MEDC’s is because there is a high infant mortality rate in most LEDC’s. Sierra Leone has an infant mortality rate of 160 deaths per 1000 live births. This means that the more children a woman has then there is greater chance of survival for one of them to grow up till adult level. This is generally because of the lack of medical care available in LEDC’s where as in a MEDC there is easy access to medical attention. Most babies’ die of malnutrition or malaria and these are both easy dealt with in an MEDC however it is much more difficult in a place such as Kenya.

In MEDC’s there is lower birth rate because women’s role society has changed over time. In present day a lot of women are going through higher education onto university and ready to start careers before settling down. This leads to having children later when they are older which to there ‘fertility window’ being limited or not at all. Women’s role in society is also linked very closely to children becoming economic burdens. Couples cannot afford having a lot of children as it is too expensive leading to smaller families with fewer children.

However, the difference between LEDC and MEDC birth rates are becoming more alike. Since 2000 the total fertility rate in LEDC’s are dramatically decreasing. In 2000 Ethiopia’s the TRF was 7.07 and now in 2007 this has decreased to 5.10 and the same is happening in Saudi Arabia going from 6.39 children down to 3.94. However, MEDC’s birth rate is also decreasing and going into an ageing population, Finland going from a Total Fertility rate of 2.04 down to 1.73 showing that the rate is now below replacement level.

3. Suggest & explain why, within a country, crude death rate varies over time.

In the UK the death rate has been fluctuating since the beginning of the 18th century. The death rate was steady decreasing in the second half of the 18th century however, in the start of the 19th century this started to change. Firstly, there was a war in France although this death count was nothing compared to the deaths caused by the potato famine in 1845 over 1 million people died from starvation and disease in Ireland because of failure of the potato crop. However the death rate continued to rise from the outbreak of cholera in 1848 when over 13,000 people died. At the time there was no cure for the disease and no body new the cause of it.

Before 1820 a lot of the population was insolvent and was dying because of starvation however since 1760 major advances in agriculture was made. Selective breeding was starting to occur and was soon producing ‘superior’ animals. New vegetable such as carrots were being grown and the land was becoming much more productive. This then had a reflection on the life expectancy and was now more than 40 years.

However, social class was definitely affecting the death rate. Research has shown that more affluent areas had a lower death rate than working class and this could be linked to poorer housing conditions which meant that disease is able to spread quicker and affect more people. In 1843 the life expectancy in Manchester was just 24 years old and with the over crowding and lack of hygiene allowed many diseases to multiply such as tuberculosis and typhus fever. Water became very contaminated and people would drink this and become very sick.

Nevertheless, medical developments started to be discovered and soon enough a cure for smallpox was found. Small pox was responsible for over 21/2 million people a year and 1 in 13 children would die from it, it was the world’s most feared disease. Since then medical care kept improving and they established anesthetic for operations and penicillin to kill bacteria. National Health Service was introduced in 1948 to cover the population’s medical needs.

In the 20th century the death rate continued to decline despite the wars and weapons and the life expectancy had risen to 75 years. However, now we have new medical issues to worry about since AIDS is the new feared disease and cancer seems to be striking more and more.

However, within a country certain ages migrate to certain areas of the country for example there is a higher death rate in the south coast of England because there are lots of retirement centers down there and many people of the older generation move there for the scenery, quietness and relaxation as they do not want to retire in a city.

The futures death path is undecided no one can predict what will happen. With the UK now becoming the fattest nation in Europe it seems that they have fight obesity as well. Two-thirds of men and almost 60% of women are unhealthily heavy and if nothing changes, nearly a third of boys and girls aged under 11 will be overweight or obese by 2010. With unhealthy diets, little exercise and fast food it seems like the new epidemic to beat is obesity.

4. Why do crude death rates vary between countries at different levels of economic development?

Death rates between countries with different levels of economic development because of many reasons. Firstly, in LEDC’s there is a much higher death rate than in MEDC’s, one reason for this is access to clean water, sanitation and a reliable food supply. MEDC’s have a much more reliable food supply than countries such as Ethiopia and because of this many people there die of starvation or malnutrition. The developed world has more money and infrastructure to control sewage and water filtration to make sure that water is clean and drinkable. Food has become more widely available with reliable with application of fertilisers, pesticides and agro-chemicals. In MEDC’s the land area required to grow crops has decreased substantially yet the yield outputs have increased also intensive farming methods have been introduced such as the green revolution in the EU.

Also, medical care in MEDC’s is of a higher standard compared to LEDC’s. More and more vaccinations are being introduced in MEDC’s to prevent diseases and this also helps to lower the infant mortality as well as the death rate. People in MEDC’s also have a higher life expectancy which lowers the death rate as people are living for longer.

Disease control shows the development and access to medication. If there is good access to medical care then there is a low number of population per doctor. Somewhere such as the UK with 300 pop per doc has a better access to medical care than Ethiopia with a pop per doc of 32 499! Advances in medical technology have also helped reduce the death rate such as keyhole surgery and antibiotics.

Also, some countries have a National Health Service such as the UK this means that any medical attention is free. Many LEDC’s do not have this and a lot of the population cannot afford doctors which therefore mean there is a greater risk of dying from curable diseases.

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Discuss the history, geography and ecology of the rabbit invasion in Australia

Numerous studies have been contacted on the Rabbit in Australia (Parer,I.(1977),Twigg, E.L., Lowe, J.T., Wheeler, G.A., Gray, S.G., Martin, R.G. & Barker,W.(1998), Wheeler,H.S. &King,R.D. (1985),  Rolls,E.C. (1969)), covering issues such as it’s population ecology, dispersal, survival and the efficiencies of the various control methods that have been used up to date. In the early stages of the rabbit plague, fences were erected to prevent dispersal or slow the rate of dispersal, but these proved to costly and ineffective. The fifties saw the introduction of the biological control agent, myxoma virus. This had great success initially but unfortunately the government failed to capitalize on the success, with continued control. The Rabbit Calcivirus Disease (RCD) was introduced (albeit accidentally) in the early 1990’s. A highly infectious disease, spread by direct contact or by vectors (mosquito) with a mortality rate between 50-90%. However young kittens are not as susceptible as older rabbits.

(Linton 2001) and when the female goes on to breed they are able to pass on maternal antibodies to their young.

In determining whether or not the complete eradication of the rabbit in Australia is a feasible concept, one needs to study or be aware of certain aspects of their ecology. Such as their breeding and dispersal patterns and from this weaknesses might become evident, which would then aide in the eradication of the rabbit.

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The Rabbit made its’ first appearance is the Eocene in Asia and North America, arriving in Europe during the Miocene period. Two sub species from Southern France and Spain were identified O.cuniculus cuniculus and O.cunniculus buxteyi. The first named sub species from France was frequently released on islands as a food source for sailors that might become shipwrecked. The image of the rabbit had some bearing on its’ dispersal and protection. In that it provided the people with their main source of food during times of hardship or depression and therefore they attained a rather prestigious image. This in turn further aided their rapid dispersal.

The arrival of the 1st fleet in 1788 saw the introduction of the rabbit in Australia. However, it was Tasmania that had the first recording of a feral rabbit population in 1827. Mainland Australia remained rabbit free until 1859, when a grazier and sportsman arranged for the shipment of twenty-four rabbits from England. Thomas Austin released the rabbits on his property in Geelong, Victoria around Christmas of 1859. Ten years from this initial release, 14,253 rabbits were shot for sport on this same property. This illustrates the high fertility and dispersal rates of the rabbit. By the year 1910, two-thirds of Australia was inhabited by the rabbit (Parer (1982) for Ratcliffe 1959). With a dispersal rate of approximately 70km/yr (Parer 1982), the rabbit went to colonise Queensland within 30 years and reaching Western Australia within 40 years of its release. Stodart and Parer suggest that it has the fastest dispersal rate of any colonising mammal in the world.

The introduction of the rabbit had an enormous impact on the native wildlife, displacing many small-medium sized native mammals; the greater Bilby, Bettongia Leseur are but a few. The displaced was largely due to competition for food and the altering of their ecosystems. With the enormity of their population, widespread impacts were inevitable: depletion of native vegetation, competition for space, resulting warrens and burrows of native animals being overtaken by the rabbit. Predators such as foxes increased in numbers as a direct result of the high number of rabbits to prey on. Unfortunately when the rabbit numbers declined due to drought, etc the foxes would turn on the small native mammals. The economic implications were also enormous; Sloane etal (1988) puts the impact at approximately $90 million in lost production and a further $20 million on the control.

The European rabbit has an extremely high fertility rate together with a relatively short gestation period of approximately 30 days. They are able to fall pregnant immediately after giving birth. Their litter size fluctuates between four to seven kittens. Although small at birth, weighing about thirty-five grams they are able to increase their birth weight by a staggering 600% by the time they are ready to leave the warren, generally at about 21 days of age. They will be capable of breeding when they reach an age of 3-4 months (Parer 1977). The prolificacy of their breeding season is regulated by rainfall and hence the availability of food. When the rainfall is in short supply or during the occurrence of a drought, the breeding season will be short, litter sizes will be smaller and fewer females will breed (Twigg et al 1998).

The warren provides the newly born and the young kittens with shelter from the harsh elements and protection from predators. This is especially so in the open, cleared grazing land where there is little, if any, shelter or protection provided by natural vegetation (Parer 1997). Linton (2001) supports this by stating that the rabbit lowers it chances of survival outside the warren and that the warren is the centre of the rabbit’s life. This therefore seems to suggest that the destruction of the warren would facilitate in the long term eradication of the rabbit.

“Rabbit control is the (artificial) imposition of mortality. It is generally assumed that, under normal circumstances, 100% mortality as a result of control is unlikely” (Wheeler and King 1985:224). They continue by suggesting that since complete eradication is not possible, one needs to ascertain when the best time of impact would be. The best time would seem to be when the rabbit is in its’ most vulnerable state, i.e. when it is a kitten. Wheeler and King (1985) argue that by targeting the young kittens, resources are increased for those that survive and for the litters born later in that year. They suggest that targeting the adults just at the commencement of their breeding season would impact more on the actual population size.

That is, there would be a reduction in the total number of kittens or litters born during that breeding season. Linton (2001) argues that the greatest influence on the control of the rabbit is the actual rabbit habitat itself. That is a habitat which has a high rabbit population will always be highly susceptible to re-establishment. Linton (2001) continues by suggesting that a control program which concentrates on those components of the habitat that make it susceptible to rabbit infestation, would then greatly reduce re-establishment of the rabbit. Twigg etal (1998) suggest that the rabbit problem needs to be addressed on a regional basis, not as an Australian wide problem, even though it is. Parer (1982) supports this but, suggests that in it infancy a control program aimed at isolated populations would be more beneficial. Parer puts this down to the reduced invasion by immigrants due to its location and therefore the reduced population would be kept at low densities by resident facultative predators.

It would seem that the complete eradication of the rabbit in Australia is insurmountable due to the enormity of our country and its’ varied landscape. However with a management plan the targets individual regions, a reduction in the population density of the rabbit is achievable. This would involve a combination of control methods which would incorporate environmental, biological, economic factors (Linton 2001, Twigg etal 1998.Parer 1982). The biological controls still have an effect on the rabbit, so this together with mechanical controls and timing would beneficial to the overall problem. Mechanical controls such as warren ripping is an important element in the long term plan and the commencement of this should be when the rabbit population is low (Linton 2001).

Therefore the likelihood of re-colonisation is reduced. Follow up procedures of fumigation; poisoning might be necessary to ensure that the population has been eradicated from within that area. The timing of these methods seems to play an intricate role in the rabbits’ demise. Perhaps with time and proper management the eradication of the rabbit is feasible, but not without the financial support and backing of both regional and commonwealth governments. The key seems to be to start on a small scale and work up to larger regional control or eradication.

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Coasts Revision Notes – AQA Geography

Table of contents

Spring and Neap Tides Spring vs. Neap Tides

Spring tides occur when the Earth, Sun and the Moon are all about in the same line. This causes the highest tidal range due to the strongest gravitational pulls with the high tides being the largest and the low tides being the smallest.

Neap tides occur when the Earth, Sun and Moon are at 90 degrees which causes the gravitational pull to be less effective. This produces the lowest tidal range of tides.

Coastal Transport

Long shore drift transports material along the coast. In the UK, the prevailing wind blows from the South West causing the waves to approach the southern coast at an angle of 45 degrees. Therefore material moves from the west to the east.

The swash of the wave carries the material up to the beach at this angle. The bed load is moved along by rolling by traction however pebbles are lifted and bounced along the floor in a leap frog action – this is saltation. Lighter material is carried by suspension (such as grains of sand) and weak acids (e.g. carbonic acid from precipitation) may act on soluble rocks (carbonate rocks e.g. limestone) and move the material in solution.

The backwash carries the material at 90 degrees- causing a zig-zag motion. Groynes may be in place to reduce this – however they can be expensive (around £5,000 per groyne and are unasthecially pleasing) yet they do trap the sand.

Headland Formation

Headland formation occurs when the bands rock type run perpendicular to the coast – this is known as a discordant coastline. The coast has alternating bands of resistant (hard) and less resistant (soft) rock – these types of rocks erode at different rates.

The less resistant rock are eroded at a faster rate (through the processes of hydraulic action, abrasion and corrosion) and the more resistant rock erodes at a slower rate and protrudes out into the sea.

Wave Refraction

Now the headland is protruding out into the sea, this receives high energy waves. When the waves hit the coastline, they are refracted and they tend to ‘bend’ round the headland, into lower energy waves. These waves then deposit sediment and beaches eventually build up.

Causes of cliff collapse

Coastal Reasons

When waves head towards the coastline and the sea gets shallower, friction in the bed slows the bottom of the waves and make them more elliptical. The crest of the wave rises and then it collapses.

  • Destructive waves are high frequency, and are high and deep. They are around 10-14 waves per minute and their strong backwash removes material.
  • The waves break at the base of the cliff where the wave energy is concentrated.
  • This part of the cliff experiences rapid erosion thorough – abrasion, where material carried by the waves (eg rocks) are hurled against it. Also, H.A where the pressure of the air in the cracks from the water compress and release which erodes it.
  • This forms a wave cut notch
  • Over time, under the force of gravity, the mass above the wave cut notch cannot hold and collapses.
  • This processes of collapsing continues and the cliff retreats back.
  • This then leaves behind a wave cut platform that is no more than 5 degrees at the Low Water Mark.
  • As the platform gets longer, the waves have to reach further and many dissipate reducing the rate of erosion.
  • Sub Arial processes erode the platform such as paddock and seaweed.

Sub-Arial

  • Not directly linked to sea, but from land
  • Freeze Thaw – When the diurnal range is around 0 dregrees – Scottish Highlands – Water expands by around 9%. Fluccutations in pressure fragments of rock may break off.
  • Biological – Rabbits may burrow into the cliff and piddocks may also weaken the rock which may remove some of the rock.
  • Chemical weathering, CO2 found in rainwater may form carbonic acid when it rains – attacks the calcium carbonate such as in limestone.
  • Mass Movement
  • Slumping – Rainfall infiltrates the soil, making it heaver.
  • The material moves downhill, leaving a exposed scarp face

 

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Coral Reefs: Description And Features

Coral reefs are elaborate networks of crevices, ledges, and holes made up of calcium carbonate; coral polyps are tiny animals that build coral reefs by secreting a crust of limestone around their bodies that accumulate once multiple polyps die.

Coral reefs help moderate atmospheric temperatures by removing CA from the atmosphere, act as natural barriers that help protect of the world’s coastlines from erosion by battering waves and storms, provide habitats for a variety of marine organisms, produce about one-tenth of the global fish catch, one-fourth of the catch n developing countries, provide Jobs and building materials for some of the world’s poorest countries, and support fishing and tourism Industries worth billions of dollars each year.

Coral bleaching is when a coral becomes stressed and the algae on which it depends for food and color die out, leaving an underlying white or bleached skeleton of calcium carbonate; this occurs because of increased water temperatures and runoff of silt from the land. 2. The two major aquatic life zones are saltwater (marine) and freshwater life zones. 3. Phytoplankton (plank plankton) are multiple types of algae; Zooplankton (animal Lankan) are primary and secondary consumers which feed off phytoplankton (primary consumers) or other zooplankton (secondary consumers these range from protozoa to large invertebrates such as Jellyfish. Alternation are much smaller plankton that may be responsible for 70% of the primary productivity near the ocean surface. Nektons are strongly swimming consumers such as fish, turtles, and whales. Penthouses are bottom dwellers that attach themselves to one spot (e. G. Barnacles, oysters, worms, lobsters, crabs). Decomposer are organisms (mainly bacteria) which break down the organic compounds in the dead bodies and wastes of aquatic organisms into simple nutrient compounds for use by aquatic producers. 4. A major advantage of living In an aquatic life zone Is the fact that there Is high biodiversity.

A disadvantage Is that It Is constantly affected by human activities. 5. The four factors that determine the types and numbers of organisms found in these layers are temperature, access to sunlight for photosynthesis, dissolved 02 content, and availability of nutrients. 6. The marine systems provide climate moderation, carbon doodle absorption, nutrient cycling, waste treatment, reduced storm impact, habitats and nursery areas, emetic resources and biodiversity, scientific information, food, animal and pet feed, pharmaceuticals, harbors and transportation routes, recreation, employment, oil and natural gas, minerals, and building materials. . The coastal zone Is the warm, nutrient-rich, shallow water that extends from the Estuaries are regions where rivers meet the ocean. Coastal wetlands are land areas covered with water all or part of the year. Mangroves are the tropical counterparts of salt marshes. Temperature and salinity vary greatly in estuaries and coastal wetlands because seawater and freshwater mix, because tidal and river flows vary, and cause of land runoff.

These have such a high NP because of high nutrient inputs from rivers and nearby land, rapid circulation of nutrients by tidal flows, presence of many producer plants, and ample sunlight penetrating the shallow waters. 8. The intertribal zone is the area between low and high tides. Rocky shores are beaches with a remarkable variety of species that occupy different niches in response to daily and seasonal changes in environmental conditions such as temperature, water flows, and salinity. Sandy shores are beaches with niches for different marine organisms. . Barrier islands are low, narrow, sandy islands that form offshore from a coastline. These are sought for human development because they are beautiful; however, these are at risk because the can be damaged or destroyed by flooding, severe beach erosion, or storms. The dunes should be protected because they serve as the first line of defense against the ravages of the sea. 10. Coral reefs are vulnerable to damage because they grow slowly, are disrupted easily, and only thrive in clear, warm, and fairly shallow water of constant high salinity.

Humans impact coral reefs negatively by causing ocean warming, soil erosion, algae growth from fertilizer runoff, mangrove destruction, bleaching, rising sea levels, increased UP exposure, damage from anchors, and damage from fishing and diving. 11 . The open sea is the sharp increase in water depth at the edge of the continental shelf separated from the coastal zone. Its three main vertical zones are the epiphytic zone, the bathmat zone, and the abyssal zone. The NP per unit of area is so low because of its size. 2. Humans destroy coastal wetlands for agriculture and urban development, destroy mangroves for agriculture, development, and aquaculture, erode beaches because of coastal development and rising sea levels, degrade ocean bottom habitats by dredging and trawler fishing, and damage coral reefs. 13. Freshwater life zones are the freshwater bodies of water. The two main types are standing (lentil) bodies of freshwater and flowing (lactic) bodies of freshwater. 14.

Freshwater systems provide climate moderation, nutrient cycling, waste treatment, flood control, groundwater recharge, habitats for many species, genetic resources for biodiversity, scientific information, food, drinking water, irrigation water, hydroelectricity, transportation corridors, recreation, and employment. Unify, and groundwater seepage fills the depressions in the earth’s surface. The literal zone is the zone near the shore which consists of the shallow sunlit waters to the depths at which rooted plants stop growing.

The liniment zone is the open, sunlit water surface layer away from the shore that extends to the depth penetrated by the sunlight. The profoundly zone is the deep, open water where is too dark for photosynthesis. Then benthic zone is the lowest part of the lake where mostly decomposer and detritus feeders are located. 16. The three types of lakes are the oligarchic (poorly nourished) lake, atrophic well nourished) lake, and the mesospheric (middle) lake. 17. Surface water is the water which doesn’t seep into the ground or evaporate.

Runoff is surface water once it flows into streams. A watershed is a land area that delivers runoff, sediment, and dissolved substances to a stream. The floodplain zone is generally populated by cold-water fish. The transition zone is inhabited by producers and cool- and warm-water fish species. The floodplain zone is populated by producers such as algae, contractible, and rooted aquatic plants along the shore. 18. Inland wetlands are lands covered with freshwater all or part of the time.

Marshes, swamps, prairie potholes, floodplains, and arctic tundra in the summer are examples of inland wetlands. Seasonal inland wetlands are wetlands that are only covered by water during certain times of the year. 19. Dams, diversions, and canals fragment 40% of the world’s 237 large rivers. Flood control methods built along rivers alter and destroy aquatic habitats. Cities and farmlands add pollutants and excess plant nutrients to nearby streams and rivers. Many inland wetlands have been drained or filled to grow crops or have been covered with concrete, asphalt, and buildings.

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Spatial Information and Occupational Roles

Drafting It Is the representation or a draft of an object or an area with specific measures. It Is armorial done with the lad of rulers, scales, compasses, etc, 7. Geographical information systems (GIS) geographical information, especially maps. Part C Use the internet and/or local newspapers to find and list five Jobs that require people with one or more of the abovementioned skills. List the complete Jobs (I. E. Where it is located, who it is for and what skill is required).

Job number 1: Researcher in Forest Remote Sensing; Location: Vienna, Austria; Company: University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences (BOOKIE, Vienna); Skills: You possess a Master degree in Conscience, Geography, Natural Resource Management, Forestry, Agronomy or related field. You have significant practical experience in the use of optical remote sensing data. You are highly interested in scientific research questions and you are creative. You possess experience in digital image processing and have a good knowledge in ERDA Imagine or similar software for digital image processing (e. . IDLE-Nevi). Job Number 2: GIS Officer; Location: Western Australia; Company: Dumpier Port Authority; Skills: tertiary or post graduate qualification in GIS or related field alongside a minimum of here years’ experience with GIS applications and SERIES suite extensions, relational databases and various other data formatting applications. You will also have a sound knowledge of geodetic concepts and cartographic standards. Your demonstrated ability to problem solve and communicate with various stake holders and work autonomously with strict deadlines will be the key to success in this role.

Job Number 3: Spatial Consultant; Location: Company: Western Australia; Spatial Solutions Pity Ltd; Skills: A high level of attention to detail, Team spirit – with a desire to contribute and elaborate, an ability to think laterally, excellent communication skills, a dedication to innovation, a GIS related qualification, an ability to manage expectations with a strong service orientation, excellent organizational and time management skills, the ability to work under pressure and coordinate workflow to meet deadlines.

Job Number 4: Coastal Resource Management Officer (Philippines); Location: Philippines; Company: Australian Red Cross; The volunteer will need significant diving experience in order to view and map underwater systems. Through GIS they will collect crucial data about henchmen, potential impacts, existing stress and the area’s physical geography which will identify vulnerable areas and support provincial decision making.

The successful candidate will demonstrate: Experience in GIS and data management analysis certified and experience diver, tertiary, professional or technical qualifications in GIS or equivalent work experience, self-awareness, cultural sensitivity, flexibility and adaptability, resilience.

Job Number 5: Land Surveyor; Location: Darwin; Company: Swift Worldwide Resources; Skills: looking for someone tit the following: Certificate, Associate or Bachelor degree qualification in Spatial Sciences, current manual drivers’ license, able to work away from home for extended periods, motivated and able to work autonomously, fit, healthy and able to cope with challenging work and environmental conditions.

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