Heat

Copper in pure form has found its significant use only in electrical applications. But with the continued study of copper, the addition of other metals called alloys was developed which enhanced its various properties. Now, different Copper-based alloys were widely used in different aspects of engineering and manufacturing. One of the best known and is widely used is the Copper-Zinc Alloy or Brass. Brasses according to Yu Lakhtin are “binary and multiple-component alloys based on copper with which the main component is zinc. ” Below is the phase diagram of Copper-Zinc Alloy at different Cu-Zi percentage and temperature. The commercial value of Brass is in its, and ? +? phases. At these two different phases, different characteristics were distinct. Their distinction according to Lukhtin (1979) depended on Zinc content from 48% to 50%. The single-phase or  -brasses were characterized by Lukhtin (1979) as “can be readily worked in both the hot and cold conditions” while the two-phase ? +? ’ brasses are “hot-worked at temperatures corresponding to the regions of the ? ’ or ? +? ’ phases. ” He also described? +? ’ brasses as “having higher strength and wear resistance but less ductility. According to him, “? +? ’ brasses were often alloyed with Al, Fe, Ni, Sn, Mn, Pb, and other elements. ” And “the addition of these alloying elements, except Ni, reduces Zi solubility in Cu and promotes the formation of ? -phase. ” Further he wrote, “the addition of alloying elements, except Lead, raised the strength and hardness of brass but reduced its ductility. Lead improved the machinability and gentrification properties of brasses.

” According to De Garmo, et. al, “Copper-based alloys are commonly identified through a system of numbers standardized by the Copper Development Association (CDA) which was adopted later by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), and the US government. ” Brasses were classified into wrought and casting brasses. According to Lakhtin (1979), “wrought brasses are used to make sheets, band stock, tubing, wire, and other semi-fabricated products; and casting brasses for making foundry castings. ” Owen Ellis (1948) further classified Brasses casting alloys into Red Brass, Leaded Red Brass, Semi-Red Brass, Leaded Semi-Red Brass, Yellow Brass, Leaded Yellow Brass, High-Strength Yellow Brass (Manganese Bronze), Leaded High-Strength Yellow Brass (Leaded Manganese Bronze), Silicon Brass, Tin Brass, Tin-Nickel Brass, Nickel Brass (Nickel Silver) and Leaded Nickel Brass (Leaded Nickel Silver). In his classification, Red Brasses consisted of 2%-8% zinc, less 0.

5% lead, and with tin less than the zinc; the same amount consisted the Leaded Red Brass except that lead is over 0. 5%; Semi-Red Brass consisted 8%-17% zinc, less than 6% tin, and less than 0. 5% lead; the same amount consisted the Leaded Semi-Red Brass except that lead is over 0. 5%; Yellow Brass consisted over 17% zinc, less than 6% tin, under 2% total of aluminum, manganese, nickel, iron, or silicon, and with less than 0. 5% lead; the same constitutes for Leaded Yellow Brass except for lead which is over 0. 5%; High-Strength Yellow Brass consisted of over 17% zinc, over 2% total of aluminum, manganese, tin, nickel and iron, under 0. 5% silicon, under 0. 5% lead and less than 6% tin; Leaded High-Strength Yellow Brass has the same constituents except that lead is over 0. 5%; Silicon Brass has over 0. 5% silicon and over 5% zinc; Tin-Nickel Brass has over 6% tin, over 4% nickel and with zinc more than tin; Nickel Brass has over 10% zinc, with nickel in amount sufficient enough to give white color, and with lead under 0.

5%; and Led Nickel Brass has the same but with a lead over 0. 5%. From these different compositions of Copper-Zinc Alloys, different properties were possessed which gave them different uses. Ellis (1948) also wrote that. The different required properties of Brass such as conductivity and hardness can be secured through heat treatment,” Below is a table of the different compositions, properties, and uses of common Copper-Zinc Alloys.

Reference

1. De Garmo, P., Black, J., Kohser, R. (1997).
2. Materials and processes in manufacturing. (8th Ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall International, Inc. Ellis, O. (1948).
3. Copper and copper alloys. Cleveland, Ohio: American Society for Metals. Lakhtin, Y. (1979).
4. Engineering physical metallurgy and heat treatment. (Weinstein, N., Trans. ). Moscow: MIR Publishers. Mayers, J. Visual library.
5. http://www.sv.vt.edu/classes/MSE2094_NoteBook/96ClassProj/pics/Cu_Zn1.gif.

Running Head; WHICH NUT Which Nut has More Energy? Aidan J. Flood Christ the King Many people ate peanuts such as explorers; the ones that explored the colonies. They lived off of the types of nuts grown in the colonies. (The life and Times of a Peanut) Many people ate nuts such as walnuts, peanuts, and almonds. All of the nuts pack a ton of energy inside. The testing was on which nut had more energy. It is necessary to test or experiment with the power of a nut, so people know how much energy each nut really holds, so they know which one to buy.

In order to understand a nuts’ energy, it is necessary to know the following terms and formulas. You may need to understand energy. Energy is a usable heat or power, powers something or someone. You may need to know temperature, a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a sample of matter, expressed in terms of units or degrees designated on a standard scale. (http://www. thefreedictionary. com) BTU means British thermal units, it means the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water from 60 degrees Fahrenheit to 61 degrees Fahrenheit.

I am using 125 ml, half a cup of water, which is equal 4. 17 ounces. The formula that I have for energy is, Energy= mass (125ml or half a cup, 4. 17 ounces) x increased temp Mass of the nut x 1000 (nut as in walnut or peanut) One is Celsius; Celsius is the type of temperature measurement in almost every other country except America. It was named after an astronomer; he created the scale of temperature. The other is Fahrenheit; Fahrenheit is mostly used in the U. S. It is a scale temperature which water freezes at 32 degrees Fahrenheit, and boils at 212 degrees Fahrenheit.

Now for the things that are being tested, A Peanut is a small oval seed of South American plant, mostly roasted, salted, and eaten as a snack. Also called a one seeded plant, grown on large farms. A nut is a hard shelled, one seeded fruit like an acorn or hazel nut. You will also need to know what a graph is, a graph is a diagram that exhibits a relationship between different sets of numbers and items. (http://www. thefreedictionary. com) Many plants and crops are grown organically and inorganically so that must be explained too.

Organic means that the plants or crops are grown naturally without pesticides and any harmful chemicals. (http://www. thefreedictionary. com) This actually doesn’t affect the peanut because it is hard shelled and no pests can get in. Inorganic means not made with any organic materials at all and is protected with man made items that are not always helpful to the environment. The plants are grown with pesticides and chemicals. Morgan D. Nagatani conducted the same type of experiment in 2002. She thought that the walnut would have the most energy and it did.

She stuck the needle into the nut and burned it with a lighter, but she used a small bucket instead of a juice can. The walnut did show the highest BTU, with cashew in second (I did not test the cashew), and the almond in 3rd. These results caused me to be more interested in for walnut . It had the highest in my experiment. This also helped me explain BTU, British Thermal Units, and it did affect my experiment. There are some things were noticed in the experiment that I learned. The walnut had the most energy out of many different nuts.

Also people wanted to know what Joules were and I found that they are also another measurement of energy and heat. Something that I noticed was that when I was testing the bottom of the can would turn black, so I needed to know if the soot on the bottom would effect the heat that it gave off, and it did so I had to clean the can after every trial. Many people expected the walnut because of its mass, and it was because it was grown inorganic plus very large so it can burn longer. In the past experiment the walnut also won the prize for nut with most energy. It relates to my experiment because it tells me which nut to expect to win.

The hypothesis about the heat death of the universe Our knowledge of the universe is still negligible, and we can not confidently assert that the universe is not under the influence of external forces, or may be considered as a thermodynamic system. However, it is the concept of heat death was the first step to realize the possible finiteness of the Universe, although we do not know when and on what scenario will happen of its destruction. At the present stage of existence (13. 72 billion years), the universe radiates as a black body with a temperature of 2,725 K. Its maximum frequency 160. GHz (microwave radiation), which corresponds to a wavelength of 1. 9 mm. It is isotropic up to 0,001% – the standard deviation of temperature is approximately 18 IWC. The heat death is a possible final thermodynamic state of the universe, in which it has “run down” to a state of no thermodynamic free energy to sustain motion or life. In physical terms, it has reached maximum entropy. The hypothesis of universal heat death stems from the 1850s ideas of William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin who extrapolated the theory of heat views of mechanical energy loss in nature, as embodied in the first two laws of thermodynamics, to universal operation.

The idea of the heat death of the universe derives from the discussion of the application of the first two laws of thermodynamics to universal processes. Specifically, in 1851 William Thomson outlined the view, as based on recent experiments on the dynamical theory of heat, that “heat is not a substance, but a dynamical form of mechanical effect, we perceive that there must be an equivalence between mechanical work and heat, as between cause and effect. In 1852, Thomson published his “On a Universal Tendency in Nature to the Dissipation of Mechanical Energy” in which he outlined the rudiments of the second law of thermodynamics summarized by the view that mechanical motion and the energy used to create that motion will tend to dissipate or run down, naturally. The ideas in this paper, in relation to their application to the age of the sun and the dynamics of the universal operation, attracted the likes of William Rankine and Hermann von Helmholtz.

The three of them were said to have exchanged ideas on this subject. In 1862, Thomson published “On the age of the sun’s heat”, an article in which he reiterated his fundamental beliefs in the indestructibility of energy (the first law) and the universal dissipation of energy (the second law), leading to diffusion of heat, cessation of motion, and exhaustion of potential energy through the material universe while clarifying his view of the consequences for the universe as a whole.

In a key paragraph, Thomson wrote: The result would inevitably be a state of universal rest and death if the universe were finite and left to obey existing laws. But it is impossible to conceive a limit to the extent of matter in the universe; and therefore science points rather to endless progress, through endless space, of action involving the transformation of potential energy into palpable motion and hence into heat, than to a single finite mechanism, running down like a clock, and stopping forever. Boltzmann, open the connection of entropy S and the statistical weight of P, considered that the current state of the universe is homogeneous grand fluctuation *, although its appearance has a negligible probability. In a “heat death”, the temperature of the entire universe would be very close to absolute zero. Heat death is, however, not quite the same as “cold death”, or the “Big Freeze”, in which the universe simply becomes too cold to sustain life due to continued expansion; though, from the point of view of anything that might be alive, the result is quite similar. Inflationary cosmology suggests that in the early universe, before cosmic expansion, energy was uniformly distributed, and thus the universe was in a state superficially similar to heat death. However, the two states are in fact very different: in the early universe, gravity was a very important force, and in a gravitational system, if energy is uniformly distributed, entropy is quite low, compared to a state in which most matter has collapsed into black holes.

Thus, such a state is not in thermal equilibrium, and in fact, there is no thermal equilibrium for such a system, as it is thermodynamically unstable. However, in the heat death scenario, the energy density is so low that the system can be thought of as non-gravitational, such that a state in which energy is uniformly distributed is a thermal equilibrium state, i. e. , the state of maximal entropy. The final state of the universe depends on the assumptions made about its ultimate fate, and these assumptions have varied considerably over the late 20th century and early 21st century.

In a “closed” universe that undergoes recollapse, a heat death is expected to occur, with the universe approaching arbitrarily high temperature and maximal entropy as the end of the collapse approaches. [citation needed] In an “open” or “flat” universe that continues expanding indefinitely, a heat death is also expected to occur[citation needed], with the universe cooling to approach absolute zero temperature and approaching a state of maximal entropy over a very long time period.

There is dispute over whether or not an expanding universe can approach maximal entropy; it has been proposed that in an expanding universe, the value of maximum entropy increases faster than the universe gains entropy, causing the universe to move progressively further away from heat death. However, the current analysis of entropy suggests that the visible universe has more entropy than previously thought. This is because the research concludes that supermassive black holes are the largest contributor. From the Big Bang through the present day and well into the future, matter and dark matter in the universe is concentrated in stars, galaxies, and galaxy clusters. Therefore, the universe is not in thermodynamic equilibrium and objects can do physical work. The decay time of a roughly galaxy-mass (1011 solar masses) supermassive black hole due to Hawking radiation is on the order of 10100 years, so entropy can be produced until at least that time. After that time, the universe enters the so-called dark era and is expected to consist chiefly of a dilute gas of photons and leptons.

With only very diffuse matter remaining, activity in the universe will have tailed off dramatically, with very low energy levels and very large time scales. Speculatively, it is possible that the Universe may enter a second inflationary epoch, or, assuming that the current vacuum state is a false vacuum, the vacuum may decay into a lower-energy state. It is also possible that entropy production will cease and the universe will achieve heat death.