History

Introduction

The Boston Tea Party refers to a political protest organized to oppose the Tea Act that had been ratified in 1773 and that imposed what people referred to as unfair taxes on colonists in Massachusetts (Carp 34). The protest involved Sons of Liberty, an organization that had been founded to fight the oppressive rule of the British government. The act had been enacted by Parliament in efforts to boost the performance of East India Company that was failing. Protesters in other colonies held peaceful demonstrations. However, those in Boston went a step further and destroyed a tea shipment that had come from England.

The British government harassed the protesters and devised ways to stop the rebellion. This altercation resulted in the American Revolution that was an important event in the attainment of American independence (Walker 43). This paper will describe the protest and explore its historical significance in heralding the American Revolution and aiding to attain freedom for America. It will also discuss the most important events of the Boston Tea Party and their historical relevance.

The Boston Tea Party is one of the most important events in American history because it began protests that culminated in emancipation of Americans from British colonial rule.

The Boston Tea Party

The Boston Tea Party occurred on May 10, 1773 and was a protest against the unfair taxation imposed by the British government through the enactment of the Tea Act (Carp 34). Protesters in Boston destroyed a tea consignment that had been shipped by the East India Company resulting in an altercation with the British government. The protesters boarded the ship carrying the batch and threw 342 packaged boxes into the Boston Harbor (Walker 45). They destroyed the tea and that way sent a message to the British government about their readiness to fight for their freedom.

This act of defiance angered the British government that responded by passing Coercive Acts that aimed to punish members of Sons of Liberty and the whole colony. The protest was not a solitary event but a culmination of years of oppressive rule by the British government against the colonists in Massachusetts (Carp 38).

The protest emerged because colonists opposed the oppressive act. It imposed taxes even though they had no representatives in the British parliament. They felt that the government was oppressing them and violating their right to desist from paying taxes in case they were not represented in parliament. The requirement to pay taxes angered the colonists because they had no representatives.

Causes of the protest

The protest emanated from the British parliament’s efforts to salvage a failing East India Company in order to continue enjoying the financial benefits it afforded the government. Prior to the protest’s commencement, a wave of resistance throughout the colonies had emerged and was threatening the rule of the British government. Parliament passed the Tea Act that gave the East India Company competitive advantage over other tea dealers in the colonies (Volo 57). The act ensured that the company could undersell all merchants even those that were selling the commodity illegally.

The company had chosen consignees in different cities who were responsible for receiving tea consignments from the company. They received and transported it to designated locations for sale. However, during the protest, several consignees refused to accept the consignments because they were afraid of Patriotic groups that were determined to fight the new act. Consignees in Boston ignored the warnings of the Patriots and accepted them.

After the arrival of the tea in Boston, the consignees were asked to return it to its source but declined to heed to the calls. Refusal to return the consignments resulted in the destruction of the tea by members of Sons of liberty and Patriotic groups (Volo 59). After this event, the British government passed the Coercive Acts that would help them combat the resistance that was growing in the colony. In addition, the acts aimed to punish Massachusetts as a whole for resisting the British rule (Walker 48).

Coercive Acts and their significance

Coercive Acts refer to a set of laws passed by the British government after the destruction of a tea consignment by members of the organization Sons of Liberty (Kennedy 55). Massachusetts had been identified as a colony that defied the rule of the British government by destroying a tea consignment that belonged to the East India Company. The acts played an important role in awakening the wrath of the people because they abolished self-government in the colony and eradicated the people’s historic rights (Carp 64). Instead of squashing the colonists’ resistance, it heightened it.

The acts backfired on the British parliament and led to the outbreak of the American Revolution. The patriots disliked the new laws because they felt that they were violating their human and constitutional rights. Continued resistance from the colonists led to the First Continental Congress that culminated in a revolutionary war that freed America form colonial rule (Kennedy 57).

The Coercive Acts played an important role in the attainment of independence for Americas. They increased resistance against Britons because they convinced that the Coercive Acts were intended to deny them freedom and promote oppression throughout the colonies. Therefore, it empowered the colonists to revolt against Britain due to the severe violations of human and constitutional rights that the acts promoted.

Significance of the Tea Party

The Boston Tea Party played a key role in the emancipation of America from British colonial rule. The government of Great Britain did its best to ensure that its American colonies remained submissive to its oppressive rule that was a threat to their liberty. In order to promote and augment its rule, the British government imposed taxes that were opposed by the colonists who wanted to be free from colonial rule. The Boston Tea Party was a message to the British government that the colonists were unwilling to continue living under oppressive rule (Kennedy 64).

It indicated the extent to which they were willing to go in order to gain their freedom and independence. The protest angered the British parliament, which responded by enacting acts that increased oppressive rule against the people. The people had already made a choice to fight for their freedom and therefore increased resistance against the parliament. Tension between the two sides escalated to a point that war broke out.

The American Revolutionary War broke out in 1775 and lasted until 1783 (Volo 66). The reactions of the colonists and the British parliament are the most important in establishing the historical significance of the Boston Tea Party. The British parliament passed the Intolerable Acts and the colonists opposed violently. During the 1760s, the colonists were gradually becoming independent and were convinced that they could run their colony without Great Britain. This confidence in their ability to act independent of Great Britain gave them the impetus to resist further oppression.

The Revolutionary War broke out two years after the Boston Tea Party (Walker 51). The declaration of Independence was drafted during the Second Continental Congress meeting that is an important event in the history of America (Volo 69). The imposition of taxes by the British government on the colonies was the main reason for the revolutionary War that brought freedom to Americans. The Boston Tea Party was the starting point of a long struggle that emancipated America from colonial rule.

Conclusion

The Boston Tea Party refers to a protest that was organized to fight the Tea Act that was ratified by the British Government. The protest involved destruction of a tea consignment that had been shipped from England by the East India Company. The protest took place in the wake of the passage of the Tea Act by the British government. It was meant to save the collapse of the East India Company that was shipping tea to America.

However, the act imposed unfair taxes that the colonists opposed. This opposition resulted in the passage of Coercive Acts that aimed to punish Massachusetts for rebelling against British rule and destroying the tea consignment. The acts were oppressive and resulted in heightened tension between the British government and the colonies. This tension caused more rebellions that culminated in the Revolutionary war that emancipated Americans from colonial rule. The Boston Tea Party is a very significant event in American history because it marked the beginning of a string of events that resulted in the emancipation of America from colonial rule.

Works Cited

Carp, Benjamin. Defiance of the Patriots. New York: Yale University Press, 2010. Print.

Kennedy, Frances. The American Revolution: A Historical Handbook. London: Oxford University Press, 2014. Print.

Volo, James. The Boston Tea Party: The Foundations of Revolution. New York: ABC-CLIO, 2012. Print.

Walker, Ida. The Boston Tea Party. New York: ABDO, 2010. Print.

Introduction

David Potter, in his book, “The Impending Crisis,” analyzed in detail issues, events, and personalities that occurred in American history between 1848 and 1861. The author explored the genesis and impacts of the conflict between the South and the North. Potter argued that although the Northerners and Southerners had common ideals that tied them together as a nation, social, economic, and racial factors deeply divided the American society. Potter showed how these factors divided the American society into two different societies with incompatible ideologies, values, and institutions. A conflict between the South and the North later arose and compelled the South to agitate for secession. Potter argued convincingly that language, politics, the legal system, religion, and an interdependent economy served to unite the American society for common nationhood. While the South valued a rural, agriculture-based social structure, the Northern society had advanced to a commercial, industrial, and urbanized system and regarded itself as a free society (p. 371). Therefore, the book review asserts that, despite sectional differences, the commonalities allowed the U.S. to overcome challenges during the antebellum period and ultimately emerge as a superpower in global politics.

Summation of Chapter 11-20

In chapter 11, Potter described economic and political development in the South and examined the impact of the South’s institutions on the lifestyles of people. It was during the slavery period that the economic and political divisions between the North and the South became clear. While the South’s economy had an agricultural basis, industrialization was the basis of the Northern economy. The South later faced economic challenges as the antislavery movement emerged (p. 316). Intellectuals such as Edgar Allan Poe led the slavery movement and James Cooper demanded reforms and termination of slavery in the South. Later, the North supported the movement that sought to abolish slavery through a Congressional vote. Unfortunately, this action severed relations between the North and the South and consequently led to a bitter conflict that deteriorated into the Civil War. Potter stated that the events triggered a severe crisis in the South, which transformed it into a closed society (p. 225). At this point, Potter noted that sectional divisions motivated the South to root for secession from the Union.

The victory for the Union in the Civil War destroyed the South’s idea of republicanism. The victory made a turning point in America’s history as the nation started the path to industrialization. As described in chapter 16, settlers in the Far East transformed the region into an economic hub through industries such as mining, ranching, and agriculture. Potter described how technological advancement, labor availability, and expansion of markets further contributed to economic growth, expansion in the education sector, and the emergence of modern consumerism culture (p. 415). This showed how economic interdependence strengthened the ties between the North and the South after the war. Besides economic transformation, political development provided a favorable environment that enabled the North to spread its vision to the South, which later became the vision of the U.S. The vision coupled with military development propelled the U.S. into global leadership.

Types of Sources

Potter used detailed footnotes to support his argument. Potter used both primary and secondary sources, giving credence to his scholarship. Although the secondary sources were not a little old, the primary sources were up to date. Peer-reviewed articles from journals like the American Quarterly, Kansas Historical Quarterly, and Louisiana History among others were used to describe the perspectives of the citizens during this period. For instance, Potter used an article about the determinants of the South’s political strength by Broussard James published in the Louisiana History to describe how the slavery policies became increasingly unpopular even in the Southern states (p. 372). The secessionist movements that were widespread in Southern states like Florida aimed at protecting the Southern ideology of republicanism were analyzed based on specific primary studies (p. 419). In examining the pre-war and post-war periods, Potter used articles from the journals such as Harvard Law Review to analyze the doctrines and laws adopted by the South. Potter also used information from journal articles to analyze the treaties and diplomatic rows as well as trace the origin of the secessionist movements.

Besides journal articles, Potter also used popular magazine articles such as the Lincoln Herald to analyze lives and roles played by influential people during the antebellum period. Published letters and documents authored by influential figures like Francis Lieber as well as lectures and speeches are other primary sources used in this book (p. 456). Over-reliance on primary sources to describe the distinctive characteristics of the South, the impending war, and the post-war recovery enhanced the credibility of Potter’s argument. For instance, Potter relied on an article by Allen Johnson in the Yale Law Journal to characterize the South as a traditional society that emphasized on the rural-based class system and the North as a modern and industrial society (p. 382). Secondary sources like books were undoubtedly the major sources that Potter used. Potter relied on books in many ways to describe the different dimensions of the conflict. For example, Potter relied on information from books to describe the South’s pro-slavery movement (p. 416). Potter used these sources effectively to construct the arguments presented in the book and analyze the repercussions of each action during the antebellum period.

Conclusion

In chapter 11-20, Potter gave a concise yet detailed account of the political ideologies, slavery, secession, and abolitionism in the South, which occurred between 1848 and 1861. Despite the differences in ideologies between the North and the South, economic interdependence prevented the Union from splitting into two separate regions, and thus contributed to the economic and political prosperity of the U.S.

Introduction

The Great Depression was a landmark event in the history of the United States that also influenced the flow of the global history. Starting with Black Thursday (October 24, 1929) and the Stock Market Crash, the Great Depression unravelled with such events as the increase of unemployment rates, farmers losing their farms, droughts (both financial and environmental), and acute currency deflation. Despite the fact that the Great Depression is considered an event of the ‘dark’ past, it is essential to learn from mistakes and understand what measures can be taken to prevent similar incidents from occurring today.

Causes of the Great Depression

Fundamental causes of the Great Depression included the Stock Market Crash, bank failures, reduction of purchasing, drought conditions, as well as policies existing between Europe and the United States (Shi & Tindall 2016). While Black Thursday was neither the first market crash nor was it the largest, it is considered the cause because it led to a massive public panic due to the market’s plunge at its opening on October 24, 1929.

As citizens’ investments became worthless and their savings came to an end, the purchasing power significantly dropped and thus made the economy weaker and more susceptible to crises. Such measures as the Smoot-Hawley Tariff, which imposed sky-high taxes on imported goods, inhibited the world trade and worsened the economy (Beaudreau 2005). Lastly, environmental conditions also contributed to the poor economic climate; the drought led to the exhaustion of farming, which killed livestock and crops, leaving farmers jobless. Therefore, the Great Depression was a complex event that had many causes.

Effects of the Great Depression

As the American government learned from its mistakes, it began acting to overcome the Depression and improve the economy. Results of the Great Depression include such improvements as the stock market and banking regulations, Roosevelt’s initiative to support the Congress and the FDR with subsidies and services to recover the economy, the increase of government’s role in citizens’ lives, the mass migration to urban areas, as well as the societal change (people being frugal, not believing banks and the stock market) (Barber 1997).

How to Prevent the Great Depression from Occurring Today

Among the critical problems that the 1930’s government had to overcome was the high vulnerability of the society and the bank system. This means that the prevention of financial panic, mass unemployment, and the fall of the economy can be prevented through the strengthening of the financial sector’s position and the encouragement of the society to stay away from personal debt (Kraft 2013). Similarly to the mass consumerism of the Roaring Twenties, modern customers are used to spending a lot of money on products they do not need (Page 1992). Consumerism is a phenomenon that explains chronic purchasing of new goods advertised by large corporations; however, such purchasing usually inhibits the society’s view on what products are necessities and are healthy choices for them (Healey 2007).

Concluding Remarks

It can be concluded that unhealthy consumerism is among key problems that weaken the economy and make the society vulnerable to crises and instabilities. To avoid the Great Depression today, the global society should reconsider its views on purchasing unnecessary goods that strengthen large corporations but limit abilities of people to withstand the financial pressure at times of an economic downfall.

Reference List

Barber, W 1997, ‘FDR’s big government legacy’, Regional Review, vol. 7, pp. 1-5.

Beaudreau, B 2005, Making sense of Smoot-Hawley: technology and tariffs, iUniverse, Lincoln.

Healey, J 2007, Consumerism, Spinney Press, Thirroul.

Kraft, M 2013, The Great Depression of 1929: overview of causes and effects on America, CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, North Charleston, SA.

Page, C 1992, ‘A history of conspicuous consumption’, in FW Rudmin & M Richins (eds), SV – meaning, measure, and mortality of materialism, Association for Consumer Research, Provo, UT, pp. 82-87.

Shi, E & Tindall, G 2016, America: a narrative history, W.W. Norton & Company, New York, NY.

Introduction

American history is rich and fascinating. The American civil war is one of the most significant historical events. The reform movement and the industrial revolution are also very important aspects of American history. This paper will look at the early reform movements and the causes of the American civil war.

Analysis

The early reform movements were efforts by the marginalized groups in the society, who were left out in the political process, to ensure that they were able to influence social and political policy (Brinkley 2012). Women and African Americans were often neglected by politicians. The industrial revolution, on the other hand, was the period during which rural societies in Europe stopped using handmade tools to manufacture goods and services and moved to use sophisticated machinery. This improved the production process (Brinkley 2012).

Industrialization was a gradual process that took years for the dream to be finally realized. The reform movement helped give African Americans and women a political lifeline. The industrial revolution helped improve the livelihood of people and the production process. On the other hand, the reform movement helped abolish slavery and championed women’s rights (Brinkley 2012).

The American civil war lasted for about 4 years and led to around 600,000 casualties (Brinkley 2012). In my opinion, the main causes of the American civil war were slavery, a struggle between the federal government and individual states, and the election of Abraham Lincoln to the presidency.

The future of slavery had been a thorny issue. The northern and southern states greatly differed on this issue. The southern states mainly relied on agriculture. They, therefore, needed slaves to provide cheap labor in their large cotton plantations. The northern states, on the other hand, had gradually abolished slavery (Brinkley 2012). This led to the migration of slaves from the south to the northern states where they would be employed and given a decent income.

Besides, there was a struggle between the individual states and the federal government, which centered on whether the latter had the right to regulate and abolish slavery. This struggle for political power widened the rift between the northern and the southern states (Brinkley 2012). The northern states argued that the individual states had no right to abolish and regulate slavery. The southern states, on the other hand, argued that the right to abolish slavery laid only in the hands of the individual states.

Abraham Lincoln was elected in the year 1860. The Republican Party was mainly composed of people who opposed slavery. Therefore, the southern states feared that Abraham Lincoln would abolish slavery. However, Abraham Lincoln had vowed not to interfere with the issue of slavery.

Under the union act, the state precedes the union. This means that, before any state adopts federal law, it should first consider the plight of its citizens. If the law is likely to affect the state negatively, then the federal law should be nullified. The American constitution acknowledges that no government is sovereign. It is the people of the states that are sovereign. The American people, therefore, have the right to reject federal laws. They have the power to reject any federal law that they believe is unconstitutional.

Conclusion

The early reform movements helped women and African Americans to be recognized by political leaders. The industrial revolution helped improve the production process and the livelihood of the American people. The American civil war was mainly caused by the rifts between the southern and the northern states on the issue of slavery.

Reference

Brinkley, A. (2012). American history: connecting with the past. Boston: McGraw-Hill Higher Education.

The history of any country is a chain of events that aftersound in people’s hearts for quite a long time. The Civil War hit the United States in the middle of the nineteenth century. Although it finished more than one hundred and fifty years ago, it remains quite an interesting object of the research for many historians. The world of the Civil War is particularly frightening as it is hard to understand how can people living in the same territory have a battle with each other. Having access to many important documents, modern researchers can take a close look at the events of those days, and express their views on the role and consequences of this war. As it is one of the most murderous wars in the history of the United States, the Civil War and its impact on modern society often becomes a reason for discussions among historians.

Even though the American Civil War is often regarded as a constant terror, it is also believed to have certain positive consequences. One of the reasons for the war between the Southerners and the Northerners was growing discontent about slavery that was a strict violation of human rights in itself (Oakes et al. 429). In modern society, civil wars are generally believed to disconnect people, but such a conclusion should be made after a thorough study of the results of certain wars. In the case of the American Civil War, in the final reckoning it is regarded as a power that helped to unite parts of the United States. Anyway, the methods of such a joining were not appropriate from the point of view of morality, but history of any country cannot be changed, and its aim is to help us to avoid such events in the future.

In his essay devoted to the American Civil War, James McPherson tries to analyze its reasons and consequences. As he believes, the human cost of the war shows that it was “by far the most devastating in American history” (McPherson par. 2). To him, the romanticization of the Civil War that takes place today, seems to be absolutely inappropriate as the main task of history is to depict significant events as realistically as possible. Besides, he highlights that people’s interest in tragedies is the reason why the Civil War remains a popular topic of books and films that tend to show it in the way that the audience would like it to look. At the same time, he is positive about the fact that many young people would like to know more about this period of their ancestors’ life. From his point of view, such a consciousness of these events is more typical for modern Americans living in the South.

McPherson believes that the continuous “fascination with the Civil War” demonstrated by both historians and common people is likely to be rooted in its participants’ self-sacrificing attitude (par. 6). To me, the author’s statements sound quite convincing, and I agree with him on many points. He believes the war to have produced a very negative impact on the United States as “brother against brother” is the worst option ever (par. 3). To him, the destructiveness of the war cannot be overstated as it claimed the lives of almost a million people. To continue, the impact of the war on modern society is quite significant as it was a critical factor in abolition of slavery. To some extent, it has changed the course of history. As for the immediate consequences of the Civil War, the economy of the Confederate states was destroyed, and the country was experiencing a period of decline as it usually happens after such great human losses.

As for the general consequences of the Civil War, it is regarded as a factor that contributed to the establishment of the human rights for former slaves. To some extent, the Civil War was a step for America to meet the industrialization and gain more influence in the field of economy. To become one of the most powerful countries in the world, the United States needed to have a strong government that would protect numerous industries. The war resulted in the victory of the Union; due to that, its economical decline was not as severe as the one that the Confederate States experienced right after the war. In general, McPherson regards the Civil War as a total war as it urged both parties of conflict to mobilize all the resources that they had. What is more, the economy and the frame of a society of the Confederate States were ruined whereas the winner gained more influence.

To conclude, American Civil war is still of interest for scholars in the field of history and common citizens of the United States. It is considered to have produced a great impact on the life of people of the nineteenth century but some historians believe this impact to be even more significant.

Works Cited

McPherson, James. A War That Never Goes Away. Citrus College, Web.

Oakes, James, et al. Of the People: A History of the United States, Volume 1: To 1877. Oxford University Press, 2015.

Nowadays, Canada belongs to the number of countries having a relatively high quality of life, and it is possible to suppose that this fact clearly relates to the rich history of the Canadian labor market. The given sphere of social life in Canada presents an interesting research subject because the physical appearance of cities in Canada is historically significant in itself. When it comes to the history of labor in the country, attention must be paid to the fact that some sites remain underestimated if the information concerning their historical significance is not extensively presented or only a set of disconnected facts is reflected in the mass consciousness. The report is devoted to one of the historical places in Canada, the Athenaeum Club, and is aimed at integrating facts and details to make a conclusion on the significance of the site to the history of the Canadian working class. Despite its great role in the past, the given historical site can hardly be called an autonomous tourist attraction.

Site Description

There is one thing about the exterior of the chosen building that highlights its unique role in the past. In fact, unusual architectural decisions and the use of uncommon or unpopular styles are features that attract more attention to buildings of social significance and, therefore, make them popular among tourists. The specific location of the chosen building is 167 Church St.

The façade of the chosen building is unique due to a range of non-typical and unrepeatable design decisions. Unlike many buildings in the area, the Athenaeum Club demonstrates the features of Neo-Moorish style (see Fig. 1). The latter is known as the style in which essential elements of oriental and European buildings of the Middle Ages are imitated and reinterpreted. When speaking about the architectural properties of the site, it is important to note that this style is often used in religious architecture. The Athenaeum Club, as is clear from the picture, presents a façade that is attached to an apartment house. The Athenaeum Club does not look like an ordinary building in Toronto due to the unique combination of elements related to various architectural traditions. On the one hand, its window-niche arches and the head-piece of column remind of the Neo-Moorish style and its key features. On the other hand, the building looks modern due to the use of brickwork.

Apart from its unique design and monumental appearance, the Athenaeum Club possesses other significant features that make it well-known. Many people living in the area know the given building under the name of “Labor Temple” because it was a place where numerous questions concerning the position of the working class were discussed.

The History of the Site

The history of the Athenaeum Club is inherent in political trends of the twentieth century that were changing due to the growing influence of the working class in the country. There are a few important periods in the history of this building, and they are connected with at least three roles that the Athenaeum Club played for the population of Toronto. The building was constructed at the end of the nineteenth century. The last decade of the nineteenth century was a period when the working class was less protected than it is now due to the lack of high-quality equipment and financing (Boswell, 2015). Despite the seeming vulnerability of working population, some positive shifts towards strengthening the protection of workers’ rights could be observed during that period. Among the significant events related to the period was the introduction of Labor Day as an official holiday.

Initially, it was planned to use the building as a sports facility where visitors could train and polish their skills. The building became one of the first bowling clubs in the area. Nevertheless, the Athenaeum Club became really well-known only thirteen years after its construction. At the beginning of the twentieth century, the local authorities decided to buy the building to use it for their own purposes (“Mapping our work: Toronto labour history walking tours,” 2018). The club gradually became the place that was known as the center of the Toronto labor movement. The Athenaeum Club was used as the place where members of urban trade unions could organize their meetings and hold discussions. The building was used for this purpose up to 1968 when the Trade and Labor Congress moved into another building in Ontario (“Mapping our work,” 2018). It is known that the club was the center of labor movement for more than sixty years, and this fact proves the significance of the chosen site to the labor history of Canada. The Trades and Labor Congress that used the building was dominated by Toronto trade unions.

Considering that there was a wide range of debatable issues related to the life circumstances of working population, the work was humming in the so-called Labor Temple in Toronto. Among the key issues discussed by trade union members within the four walls of the building and in other locations were the ways to impact wage growth in different economic sectors. More than that, increasing workplace safety and compensations and securing equal voting rights for both sexes were agenda questions.

Historical Significance of the Site

The chosen place is located in Toronto which is known as the major economic and commercial center of the country. The peak of the popularity of the Athenaeum Club was in the middle of the past century, the period of labor history that was rich in events. In particular, that period of time was especially important due to the implementation of positive changes to the system of jobless benefits. With the course of time, the discussed house lost its main function and role. Nowadays, it can be described as an architectural monument that reminds people in Toronto of labor movement of the previous centuries.

It is clear from the history of the chosen location that the Athenaeum Club in Toronto presents an interesting topic of research for those interested in Canadian labor history. The period of sixty-four years when the building was known as the Labor Temple was marked with events related to the rights of working men and women. The reason why this particular building was chosen for the report is rooted both in its eye-catching design and historical significance.

To begin with, the site under consideration is significant to the history of the Canadian working class because it served as a place for workers’ and elites’ gathering. Toronto authorities did not only organize meetings to discuss issues that were obviously connected with working practices such as labor hours, wage levels, and workplace safety. Over and above, the building was used in order to discuss the most important urban problems that could have an impact on the entire population of Toronto. Also, some decisions regarding the first and the second world wars were made here (“Mapping our work,” 2018). In reference to the decisions related to military actions, it is known that issues caused by the Conscription Crisis at the end of the Second World War were the center of attention in many conversations held in the building. There is a range of factors that made the chosen site not only an important location for labor activists but also a place helping to strengthen the cultural sector and raise knowledge. There was a large library in the building, and it is another reason why the club was significant to many people living in the area.

The topic of the building’s historical significance also deserves the attention of modern researchers and common people in Toronto because the Athenaeum Club had a hand in the history of labor organizations headed by working women. Unfortunately, there are a small number of documented facts related to the building as modern researchers are likely to pay more attention to decisions and outcomes related to the position of the Canadian working class. Nevertheless, the chosen building is mentioned in some modern history books. For instance, the book by Peter Campbell that is devoted to the life of Rose Henderson, a famous female political activist who lived in Canada, mentions the building (Anderson, 2014). In the middle of the 1930s, female Communist activists in Canada chose the Athenaeum Club in Toronto as the place of their regular meetings. During that period, it was necessary for them to draw people together in order to make a stand against the superiority of capitalistic principles on behalf of working women in Canada (Campbell, 2013). The historical significance of the club for Toronto is essential, and it proves its popularity even after the loss of the labor center status.

Connection with the Present

The building’s connection with the present becomes obvious when attention is paid to the attitude of people of art and common citizens to it. Nowadays, it is used as a part of the Jazz apartments (“Mapping our work,” 2018). It is particularly important that many musicians regard an opportunity to perform their musical programs in such places as a great pleasure and honor (Hracs & Leslie, 2014). In the twenty-first century, the building is still popular as it presents an important part of the cultural heritage of Toronto. The building is not dilapidated; it is maintained in an appropriate condition. The crisis of the present century did not affect the aesthetic preferences of people in Toronto, and the unique role of such buildings is still respected (Thomas & Tufts, 2016). The Athenaeum Club is still used to hold meetings, and its appearance is purposefully maintained to preserve the unique ambiance of the past.

Outcomes and Consequences

Both tourists and residents regard the building as an important part of the city’s culture, and it makes a significant contribution to the preservation of the site. In modern times, trade union committees have separate institutions, and libraries are becoming less popular due to the fact that access to online books is growing worldwide. In spite of that, regular excursions to the club are held. The knowledge on the particular events that took place here is scarce, but the building’s history can inspire enthusiastic researchers to expand it.

References

Anderson, K. (2014). Canadian political history and ideas: Intersections and influences. History Compass, 12(5), 444-454.

Boswell, R. (2015). New light on the origins of the Ottawa Field-Naturalists’ Club. The Canadian Field-Naturalist, 129(2), 207-213.

Campbell, P. (2013). Rose Henderson. Women Suffrage and Beyond. Web.

Club house for the Athenaeum Club, Toronto [Digital image]. (n.d.). Web.

Hracs, B. J., & Leslie, D. (2014). Aesthetic labour in creative industries: The case of independent musicians in Toronto, Canada. Area, 46(1), 66-73.

Mapping our work: Toronto labour history walking tours. (2018). Web.

Thomas, M. P., & Tufts, S. (2016). Austerity, right populism, and the crisis of labour in Canada. Antipode, 48(1), 212-230.

Introduction

Today, the progress of the Middle East turns out to be an example for many nations. The region of the Arabian Gulf, including such basin countries as the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Saudi Arabia, Qatar, Bahrain, Oman, Kuwait, and Iraq, represents the world’s biggest offshore oil and gas field.¹ The gulf is a crucial economic point in the development of the countries because much oil is exported through its ports and shores.

Oil production and distribution also provoke social and political changes in the chosen region. For example, access to oil results in beneficial investments and wealth for many citizens of the Middle East. Being direct contributors to economic and social improvements, women perform an important role in the Arabian Gulf and its perception by other countries. This paper aims at investigating the changes in the status of Arabian women before and after the discovery of oil and discussing current economic, political, social, and cultural situations.

The Arabian Gulf is one of the biggest and the most influential water bodies in the Middle East. It is about 800 km long and 200 km wide with the connection to the Indian Ocean through the Strait of Hormuz.² This territory is huge, and it is not a surprise that each country establishes its own rules and laws on how to treat women. However, the peculiar feature of this region is that the majority of Arabian women have to live under the same conditions regardless of the country.

The attitudes towards women’s roles have changed during the last century, and the discovery of oil may be defined as one of the possible reasons for the creation of new statuses and relationships. In this paper, the discussion will be divided into two main parts: the 19^th century (as the pre-oil period) and the 20^th and 21^st century (as the post-oil period).

Historical Perspective Before Oil Discovery

The 19^th century in the Arabian Gulf was characterized by the presence of their British and their domination in economic and political decisions. Britain’s interest in the Gulf was first observed in the 17^th century as a possibility to establish independent, working trade and commercial relationships with India. Having such a great geographical location and yet undiscovered natural resources, the Gulf stayed under the protection of the British Empire for centuries.³

The events during the first and second world wars changed the situation in the region, and Britain decided to withdraw from the Gulf at the beginning of the 1970s, thus giving America a chance to become the only land’s protector. Regardless of their past and current rulers, the Arabs are the people who stay devoted to their traditions, religion, Islamic beliefs, and the power of Allah. Some nations find the relationships between Arab men and women complex and strict, underlying the worth of democracy and social equality.

In the Arabian Gulf, people lived according to the rules of Bedouin societies for a long period. Gulf women had to be “placed under the full custody of male relatives, their movements constrained, and their presence in the public sphere conceptualized as non-existent.”⁴ It was expected to observe female citizens in their homes, completing their family and household duties along with other women. If there was a need for a woman to go outside, a mahram (a woman’s relative who can arrange a marriage for her) had to accompany her.

Brothers and husbands had special responsibilities and obligations at home, and women did not interfere with their decisions, behaviors, and orders. Men worked and developed their activities to provide a family with enough financial support and physical protection. Women, in their turn, were responsible for all other family-related tasks like cleaning, family members’ care, cooking, or husband’s entertaining. In other words, a woman could be compared to a slave with no option to choose from and no hope for another but the future built by her male relatives.

There is fiqh, an Islamic understanding of the law, that is based on the interpretation of such important sources as the Qur’an and the Sunnah (Hadith is its type of oral communication). This term means “jurisprudence” with a wide scope of

“laws regulating ritual and religious observances, containing orders and prohibitions, it includes the whole field of family law, the law of inheritance, of property and contracts and obligations.”⁵ In terms of this law, a family remains the main social institution that can regulate the relationships between people. However, many pre-Islamic Arab practices were focused on the restriction of female rights, especially those which include the relationships before marriage, after divorce, and during a wedding feast. Many historians find it necessary to investigate those times with care and attention because one misunderstanding can lead to unpredictable results.

The situation began changing after Islam came to Arab traditions and provoked new social differences and styles of life. The main goal of Islam was to strengthen the bonds that existed between people and religion to promote social equality. According to the Prophet Mohammed, women were defined as “the sisters of men” in Islam who had to follow the same religious rules, including obedience to Allah, chastity guarding, patience keeping, and belief in Islamic Monotheism.⁶

Many Arab tribes did not want to accept all these new rules and changes because it was unusual to reduce the power of men and treat women as sisters. Still, the impact of Islamic justice was strong, and if Arabs wanted to be united under the same flag and traditions, it was necessary to take a step and support the idea of deterioration of women’s lives. Islam improved living conditions for women and underlined their dignity and humanity regarding Allah’s orders.

There are eight different countries in the Arabian Gulf, and each of them has its understanding of the quality of male-female relationships and the role of women in society. For example, in Saudi Arabia, before the discovery of oil, women should not work but spend all their time to perform domestic work. In comparison to ordinary work, domestic work for Saudi Arabian women was without the right to change an employee or increase wages (as it was unpaid work).

In addition to homework, Kuwait women were responsible for finances in their families (if there was such an opportunity in a family). The status of women in Bahrain was always defined as one of the most democratic and publicly active compared to other Gulf countries. Some women could obtain education and choose professions regarding their skills and interests even before the discovery of oil.

In Qatar, the situation varied because many men left their families to earn a living with pearl hunting, and women became the only guardians at home. Such independence provided them with several rights and opportunities. In the pre-oil period, Qatar girls had access to education that was synonymous with religious beliefs, meaning that their rudimentary instructions were given to a group of females in private homes only.⁷ Order, regulations, and explanations were respected in Qatar, thus giving women power only under certain conditions and with male permission.

In the UAE, women played an important economic role in addition to their domestic responsibilities even in the pre-oil era. For example, Sheikha Hussa Al-Murr, the wife of one of Dubai’s rulers, used her powers to rally armed forces and protect Dubai’s tower during attacks.⁸ Many women were involved in their businesses like shops, pearling rent, and shipping. Oman women could have little authority within their families and almost no privileges in public.

They could work as teachers in pre-schools, but their economic role remained minimal with no social or political powers. In Iraq, the rights of women were less restricted compared to the representatives of other countries. In some cases, women could participate in military affairs and apply for education. In general, women in the Arabian Gulf before oil discovery did not have the right to vote or demonstrate their political and economic ambitions openly. They had to listen to their husbands and behave by Islamic law and the Qur’an. Women play a crucial role in the progress of future generations, and Islam promotes equal and fair treatment to them as such.

Oil Discovery and Gulf Culture

The beginning of the 1930s was related to the discovery of one of the most profitable natural resources in the Gulf region. Several British-own and American-owned companies began their drilling activities in several Arabian countries. Their primary goals were to identify if there are any natural richness and opportunities for society. Within a short period, positive results were achieved in several regions.

After oil deposits were discovered in South West Persia (that is not the part of the Arabian Gulf), the decision to check the Gulf land was made. Iraq, at that period, it was known as Turkish Mesopotamia, was searched for oil for seven years with a positive discovery made in May 1908.⁹ However, Iraq was the country where oil reserves were not enough to solve current political and social concerns. Also, economic problems continued growing, provoking new challenges for citizens and their leaders.

Then, Bahrain was the region in the group to be researched for hidden natural resources at the beginning of 1932. Thereafter, huge attention of the globe was paid to the Arabian Gulf and its actual resources. Qatar is a peninsula between Saudi Arabia and the UAE where oil was first extracted in 1937. This region was characterized by complex discussions and frequent decisions because of its geographical location and close economic and political relationships with its neighbors.¹⁰

In Kuwait, the discovery of oil was dated 1938, although it was first extracted only in 1947 because of the current political events, governmental changes, and wars.¹¹ The oil industry created new opportunities for Arab society that could not be ignored. It was high time to change something in the region, and people began to reevaluate their living conditions and the future.

In the same year, the investigation of the Gulf land continued in Saudi Arabia. The largest source of petroleum was discovered in one of its deserts on March 3, 1938.¹² It helped the nationals to find new jobs and improve the country’s employment rates. The government of the UAE withdrew the relationships with the British Empire in 1968 and joined the struggle for independence with other nations of the Arabian Gulf, using a new source of oil that was discovered in 1958 as the main revenue. Finally, Oman, as one of the most isolated Gulf areas, demonstrated good results in oil production in 1967 and founded a new era of modernization.

It was interesting and beneficial to work on the Gulf land and make discoveries that brought money and wealth. The establishment of the oil industry made the Gulf region attractive to many migrant workers and business people who wanted to manage the process and set their own rules. Oil was an evident cause of how poor and isolated tribes located around the Arabian Gulf turned into one of the richest states around the whole globe.

Citizens got unpredictable opportunities to reduce the level of poverty and live in comfort and order. The oil industry contributed to the shifts in all spheres of life, including the status of women and their rights in society. Still, it is necessary to admit that the discovery of oil has its positive, as well as negative, outcomes on women and their role in the Arabian Gulf society.

Women in the Era of After-Oil Discovery

The post-oil era can be dated from the 1930s until today in the Arabian Gulf. Its distinctive features are wealth, comfort, order, and prosperity of different isolated tribes. The identification of oil reserves promoted the creation of new living conditions and the discovery of opportunities that changed millions of lives. According to Sonbol who investigated the past and current status of Gulf women, oil brought “a serious structural impact on the Gulf family, which is still experiencing its transformation from a clan-based institution to the type of nuclear family.”¹³

Individuals and families experience legal and social changes day by day along with economic transformations and improvements. It is not enough to accept one change and neglect its possible effects in different fields. Therefore, Arab society has to be prepared for new types of housing, business relationships, and services.

Globalization and industrialization are also factors that play an important role in understanding the place of women in the Arabian Gulf culture. Al-Malki and a group of researchers admitted such concepts as modernity and globalization are usually defined as “women-friendly progressive forces” whilst traditions always make people look back.¹⁴ Women got a chance to participate in political movements without being punished but being heard, strengthen their social rights, and claiming equality. However, all these changes and manipulations have their order and reason, and the goal of this paper is to identify the stages of female development in the Arabian world.

The 20^th century became a real moving point for many Arab women. After the oil was discovered, society was able to change their lives and think about changes that were unreachable several years ago. The first evident contribution occurred between the 1950s and the 1960s when many Arab countries supported the idea of female voting and standing for parliamentary elections.¹⁵ Still, this decision was not fully supported by the Gulf region, and the question of female rights to vote remained open for several decades.

Certain attempts were made to legalize women’s responsibilities and political roles in modern society, and the oil industry was one of the main stimuli. To prove that Arab women are not second-class citizens, the fight for gender equality began in the middle of the 20^th century after the discovery of oil. The results were as follows:¹⁶

• Iraq (in 1980, women began to vote and stand for elections, proving the equality of rights for men and women);
• Oman (in 1994, it was the first Gulf region where women got the right to vote and take government positions);
• Qatar (in 1999, women could vote and participate in elections in the Central Municipal Council, but the constitution made this right officially legal in 2003 only);
• Bahrain (in 2002, a new constitution granted women the right to vote, participate in elections, and further be present in the chamber);
• Kuwait (in 2005, women became able to vote and offer their candidates for elections);
• UAE (in 2006, about 6,500 people got their first opportunity to vote in the Federal National Council, and today, women take about 60% of government jobs);
• Saudi Arabia (in 2015, women were able to vote for their first time and offer their candidates in elections).

At this moment, political changes touch the lives of Arab women in their respective countries in different ways. For example, Bahrain is a country with a constitutional democracy, and some women who work at the Ministerial level. The Supreme Council for Women was created to support female movements and provide them with meaningful roles in society. Abdalla stated that women as leaders were as competent as men in the majority of cases and more compassionate to people’s needs in comparison to men.¹⁷ Besides, women demonstrated their qualities in different fields and proved their readiness to deal with multiple tasks, control career ambitions, and manage finances.

In the UAE, the progress of women depends on education and their abilities to reveal interests and skills. The General Women’s Union was established in the 1970s and provoked the creation of similar organizations and societies to raise women’s spiritual, social, and cultural attitudes. It was discovered that as soon as girls’ education was over, no or little social encouragement was available to women in their attempts to display intelligence.¹⁸

Societies aim at analyzing women’s needs and offering the best career options and recommendations. The period of oil wealth helps to discover the potential of women and their role in business development. The only requirement that should not be ignored is family support and appreciation. Husbands and fathers must approve the intentions of their women to participate in social life and contribute to their professional and personal development.

Saudi Arabia is a country where the monarchy is the main form of the government. Despite evident progress in understanding women’s rights, empowerment causes several concerns. On the one hand, the government controls the behavior of people, the conditions under which decisions are made, and the opportunities that can be used. For example, Saudi Arabian women make only 19% of the workforce along with the UAE (14%) and Bahrain (19%).¹⁹

It proves that even the discovery of oil cannot help women find good jobs and earn a living without men’s participation. On the other hand, personal observations and experiences show that the population of Saudi Arabia continues to remove some restrictions. For example, in several cities of the country, women and men can behave freely without an obligation to wear the Abaya (a traditional black robe for all women who go outside) or the necessity to support gender segregation in public places.²⁰ However, it is still hard to comprehend if such freedoms and changes are caused by the development of the oil industry in the country or the progress of the entire world with such achievements as globalization and modernization.

Kuwait is one of the countries where the role of women was dramatically increased after the discovery of oil in terms of education and employment. The population continues facing tangible (education and certification) and intangible (personal attitudes) barriers the solution of which depends on how well policymakers can develop new rules and regulations.²¹ In comparison to the ratings of other countries, in Kuwait, about 23% of women introduce the workforce with more than 70% of women having the right to tertiary education.²²

Besides, Kuwait is the country where women gained political rights earlier then the citizens of other Gulf countries did. The question is if women want to use such freedoms and work instead of staying dependent on and being protected by their men. In other words, regardless of the opportunities given, little attention is paid to true women’s desires and goals.

Qatar is also the country with a high rating of female education and employment. The progress in this region is regularly observed by different researchers. For example, a decade ago, women were not allowed to engineering schools.²³ Today, they have access to different forms of education and skills development. Still, there are no guarantees for them to get good positions without additional support and advocates.

The progress of the role of Arab women in the Gulf cannot be neglected, but several obstacles and concerns do exist. The government tries to develop effective solutions by promoting new laws. Many people find Qatar as the best place for women to live and build their careers as they can benefit from available favorable legislation.²⁴ In 2001, the Civil Service Act promoted the creation of equal working conditions for both men and women; Law No. 24 (2002) introduced retirement benefits for working women; finally, Law No. 14 (2004) established equal training opportunities.²⁵ Modern Qatar women can take care of children and use additional help, work and achieve various professional goals, and complete functions as mothers and wives in their families.

In the period between the 1970s and 1980s, women in Iraq benefited from the progress of military regimes. Certain civil and economic rights were given with an opportunity to possess leadership positions.²⁶ However, in this country, the production of oil should not be defined as the only reason for women’s empowerment. Wars and political dictatorships changed the living conditions of Arab women and controlled the interference of international agencies with regional laws and legislation.

During the last several decades, Iraq women got an opportunity to change the legal code and use Gulf women as effective sources for understanding human needs and political improvements.²⁷ Women have many strong ideas to share, and the government of Iraq was one of the first legal bodies that were ready to listen to them and make the necessary adjustments.

Oil-Driven Changes and Gulf Women

In the 1990s, the world experienced considerable changes in the common understanding of human rights, violations, and democracy. People want to live freely and use their skills to achieve goals and improve their living. The discovery of oil provided the countries of the Middle East to take the same steps and be developed in different fields. For example, economic progress was observed in oil-rich countries because of the presence of a constant source of revenue. Kuwait, the UAE (Dubai and Abu Dhabi, in particular), Qatar, and Saudi Arabia transformed from solely agricultural countries where pearl hunting was the main activity available to men to the regions where people earn from their property. The Gross Domestic Product has considerably increased, making public investments possible in different fields.

Both men and women could obtain high-level healthcare services, education, and social support. More people could find work close to their homes and avoid the necessity to leave families for a long period. Oil production strengthened family relationships and provided the Middle East with a safe future and prosperity. High rates of employment, the need for new specialties, and international relationships contributed to the economic development and direct participation of women in this success.

It was important to create strong business relationships with the countries where women have already been recognized as valuable workers and leaders. Therefore, Arab women were invited to modern oil business and had to demonstrate a high level of professionalism. As a result, education, political rights, and social freedoms should be offered as well.

Many fathers and husbands want to support the development of their women. A general attitude towards Arab women was changed, and many men try to offer the best options and follow female desires and demands. In many Arabian countries, women can choose any profession, if it is a doctor, an artist, or an engineer.²⁸ At the same time, even though many modern Arab families want to follow the examples of their Western partners, certain regions continue keeping the already established order, following traditions, and controlling women’s behavior in public.

The Middle East and the representatives of the Arabian Gulf should also remember that their oil production requires constant improvements and analysis at the international level. There are many threats to the existed oil-rich kingdom, and it is important to “look beyond oil.”²⁹ The nation that does not treat women equally may be poorly understood by the nations where equal opportunities are promoted. Therefore, it is not enough to reduce restrictions for women, but offer better working conditions, social respect, and public rights. Compared to the pre-oil period, the post-oil period is characterized by the presence of female leaders and managers.

However, the ratings are still low. It is expected to continue improving treatment, open private academic facilities, and create new working places. Women in the Arabian Gulf should not suffer from domestic violence and limitations. Oil-related changes have already helped achieve certain shifts, and women must continue their fight against inequality. The 21^st century offers several technologies, social media sources, and communication in terms of which concerns may be discussed, and personal experiences can be shared.

Along with new ideas, men should also remember their primary goal to be protectors for their women. Allah gave them physical strength and centuries-long experience to understand the demands in the world of business, international relationships, and political affairs. It is high time to share their knowledge with women and improve social and economic structures in countries. Fathers’ authority and husbands’ support can become strong stimuli for women to discover their abilities and participate in multiple activities. Laws in Arab countries should not discriminate against women but protect their rights. Recent constitutional changes, vote conditions, and business success have already identified possible scopes that can be expended with time.

Conclusion

In general, the role of women in the Arabian Gulf before and after the discovery of oil has undergone some positive changes. First, the rights of women were considerably reevaluated and improved, including the possibility to vote and participate in elections. Second, education for women was expanded because of the necessity to hire professional female and male employees. Finally, women’s roles as a house-keeper and child carer have been expanded.

Although oil discovery does not influence women directly, multiple indirect factors and improvements cannot be ignored. It is possible to say that oil help women discover the doors to the world of modern business, and such factors as globalization, modernization, and industrialization keep these doors open during the last several decades. Men and women have to live under the same rules with similar obligations, and equal rights and the Arabian Gulf is close to achieving the best outcomes in its development.

Bibliography

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Footnotes

1. James Walker et al., “On the Reliance on Modelled Wave Data in the Arabian Gulf for Coastal and Port Engineering Design,” in 34th International Conference on Coastal Engineering (Los Angeles: Current Associates, 2014), 298.
2. Ibid., 299.
3. “How Oil Transformed the Gulf,” The Economist. 2018. Web.
4. Amira El-Azhary Sonbol, Gulf Women (New York: Bloomsbury Academic, 2012), 7.
5. Anver M. Emon, “On Reading Fiqh,” in The Oxford Handbook of Islamic Law, ed. Anver M. Emon and Rumee Ahmed (New York: Oxford University Press, 2018), 45.
6. Sh. Yusuf Al-Qaradawi, “The Status of Women in Islam,” Islamic Articles. Web.
7. Krystyna Urbisz Golkowska, “Arab Women in the Gulf and the Narrative of Change: The Case of Qatar,” Interdisciplinary Political and Cultural Journal 16, no. 1 (2014): 54.
8. Rana AlMutawa, “Awareness of Emirati Women’s Economic Roles Before the Oil Boom: Changing Perceptions of Gender Roles?” Inquiries Journal 8, no. 10 (2016). Web.
9. Mark Hobbs, “Oil Maps of the Middle East,” British Library, 2017. Web.
10. Ibid.
11. Ibid.
12. Steven Mufson, “Saudi Arabia, a Kingdom Built on Oil, Plans a Future Beyond It,” The Washington Post. 2017. Web.
13. Sonbol, Gulf Women, 21.
14. Amal Al-Malki, David Kaufer, Suguru Ishizaki, and Kira Dreher. Arab Women in Arab News. Old Stereotypes and New Media (Doha: Bloomsbury Qatar Foundation Publishing, 2012), quoted in Golkowska, “Arab Women in the Gulf and the Narrative of Change”, 63.
15. Ikhlas A. Abdalla, “Being and Becoming a Leader: Arabian Gulf Women Managers’ Perspective,” International Journal of Business and Management 10, no. 1 (2015): 29.
16. Leyal Khalife, “The Year Arab Women Became Eligible to Vote in Their Respective Countries,” Step Feed. 2018. Web.
17. Abdalla, “Being and Becoming a Leader”, 33.
18. Ibid., 36.
19. Belinda Parmar, “Oil Crisis Lifts the Veil on Women’s Role in Saudi Arabia,” World Economic Forum. 2016. Web.
20. Ibid.
21. Abdalla, “Being and Becoming a Leader”, 33.
22. Ibid., 25.
23. Abdalla, “Being and Becoming a Leader”, 31.
24. Golkowska, “Arab Women in the Gulf and the Narrative of Change”, 55.
25. Ibid.
26. Abdalla, “Being and Becoming a Leader”, 29.
27. Sonbol, Gulf Women, 22.
28. Parmar, “Oil Crisis Lifts the Veil.”
29. Mufson, “Saudi Arabia, a Kingdom Built on Oil”.