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Human Resources Manager in retaining its talents. T Company is a public utility firm which obtain 2,300 employees. The overall turnover rate In T Company is 5%; however, it is found that most of the leavers are from Customer Service Hotlist Department (“CASH”) which Its own turnover rate is 30% and 20% In 2010 and in 2009 respectively. Among the total number of leave within the hotlist department (33 employees out of 110 employees) 80% of the leavers were Generation Y.

Since customer service is crucial for the success of T Company in terms of its profit and brand image, especially among the hotlist department which has a rack record in delivering trustworthy and outstanding services to the customers and distinguishing itself from its competitors, high turnover rate will definitely threatening the competitive edge of T Company. The Job responsibilities of a customer service officer is diverse and requiring lots of skills set, e. G. DOD communication and interpersonal skills, customer service skills, computer skills and product knowledge, thus it is reflected that the Job nature is generally stressful. Not only handling customer’s enquiries on telephone, they have to handle complaints, help customer to register new user account and even selling reduces through phone call. More remarkably, they have to possess sufficient product knowledge and knowledge in handling of emergency cases e. G. Suspect of gas leakage, due to damage of the products. Heavy workload and stressful job nature may be one of the underlying cause of high turnover 2.

Purpose of the Study The mall purpose of the study Is to examine the reason for high turnover rate In Generation Y group In the hotlist department In T Company. And base on the research findings, to advise possible solutions for the human resources manager to retain its employees, so as to uphold the service pledge in T Company for improving TTS organizational performance. 3. Importance of Problem I remover study Is regard as gallants In Don camel Ana managerial perspective. High turnover rate was detrimental in several aspects to the company e. G. Economic, staff morale, loss of intellectual asset, etc.

Economically, it will increase the training and recruitment cost, while inadequate manpower brought about failure in meeting service standard, potential loss of business opportunities, which as a result decrease gross profit of the company. Besides, turnover may also bring about intangible negative impact, like, staff morale, customer service corruption, burnout/absenteeism among remaining employees, and the loss of institutional knowledge among experienced employees. (Mathis 2006) However, turnover could be beneficial to a company, which we regard it as functional turnover.

For instance, when a weak performer is substituted by a more productive employee and when a senior retirement allows the promotion or acquisition of welcome ‘fresh blood’ who may bring about synergies and new insights to the company. Yet, for the case of T Company, as supported by the figure of declining service standard and inadequate manpower bought by turnover, it is significant to advise Seibel retention method to the manager to tackle the problem of dysfunction turnover. Meanwhile, it is academically important, since lots of scholars had been doing research in finding out underlying causes of turnover.

We may take this chance to understand and apply what we have read and learn from existing turnover model to real case. 4. Scope of the Review This research study enables the researchers to understand and analyze various reasons for turnover in the organization. This report provides enough scope to know about the characteristics of Generation Y people. It also facilitates to understand the activities and performances of the Generation Y employees in the organization. Various theories and models related to the turnover have been explained which will enhance the researcher’s knowledge about the subject.

The research method has been properly designed to analyze the overall cause, outcome and steps of the organization to control it. This research study enables the researchers to gain knowledge about the research methods which may be beneficial in future research work. 5. Literature Review Researches done be scholars related to of turnover are reviewed in this part. For instance, the study of Generation Y turnover, Organizational Commitment and Job satisfaction which relate with employee turnover. I remover Introduction Turnover occurs due to the decisions of both company and the employer.

The reallocation of Job is due to devastation and creation of Jobs across industries. The creation and devastation of Job rates as a directory of labor market have been used by “Organization for Economic Corporation and Development”. In a well-organized economy Job reallocation is highly important because it is related to the career of the individuals. An employee, who has been displaced after long term, suffers a lot from getting a Job or a permanent earning (Lane, 2000). Organization make different management decisions in setting an employment contract because there are different costs associated with hiring and firing employees.

Various costs are associated with hiring process. These costs generally differ depending on the type of employee and the nature of the production processes. Turnover rate has been raised widely with the economy as the turnover is high in service sector than manufacturing sector. The attachment level of the Job is pended on various types of employees. Thus, the ‘quit level’ also varies considerably. Turnover is also termed as the combined decision taken by the employee and the employer or the firm. Consequently, less educated employees who are engaged in Job have high turnover with comparatively less working experiences (Lane, 2000).

The extent of turnover is determined in two ways. First is the employee based survey and the second is the employer based survey. Employee based survey denotes the number of Jobs a employee have had within a definite time period. Employer based revere is the records of administration to examine the number of employees who has left or need to be hired. According to “Survey of Income and Program Participation” data, it has been estimated that average monthly turnover rate in 1991, in US was 7. 1%. Turnover rate varies depending on the age, sex, industry and skill.

Manufacturing organization faces lower turnover rate than the service industry. A new firm may also experience high turnover due to low wages to the employees (Aerospace, 1997). According to Burblers, until 2006 over 1. 2 million cashier Jobs was available, but out of only 1 Job was available and others were turnover. On the other hand, out of 6. 5 million Jobs opening as low skilled work, only 1 million were new Jobs (Lane, 2000). Turnover varies according to the level of industry. The rate of turnover is highest in retail and construction industry whereas lowest in manufacturing, administration, real estate along with finance.

In retail and professional services out of 5 Jobs, 1 Job is available and the rest is employee based turnover. For new and small organization turnover rate is high. On the other hand, rate is low for large and older employers. Thus, differences of employers results in significant proposition for the employment of low income employees. High turnover firms have numbers of Job openings than low turnover firms (Lane, 2000). I en rate AT turnover Is comparatively enlarger In young employees tan ten 010 ones. Adult men with education only from high school changes Job frequently at a level of 40% higher than the college educated one.

In 1997, Henry S. Barber stated that former mobility is a good forecaster of leaving the new Job. In 1996, one out of four employees with high school education lasted in a Job for less than a year after having Ewing compared with six numbers of college educated employees. The forecasted term period of Job is a vital determinant of decisions in training (Faber, 1997). Turnover Rate and Vacancy Rate of Hong Kong According to the First Quarter 2010 Survey of Manpower Statistics from Hong Kong Institute of Human Resource Management (“HOKIER), the turnover rate for the first quarter of 2010 was 2. 54%, 0. 5 percentage point higher than the fourth quarter of 2009 which was 2. 29%. Compared with the same period in 2009, it can be analyzed that the turnover rate is 0. 98 percentage point higher. Consequences of Turnover The highest turnover of Job in firm has no direct influence on the survival of the firm. When the turnover rate is high the employers are more likely feel the consequence of such a scenario. It can be examined that as the turnover rate of firm is high, there are less expectation to invest in training and human capital. There is less employees to transfer the specific knowledge of firm and offer fewer fringe benefits.

The change in Job leads to the suffering of the unskilled employees for a longer time. The less earning also makes them to suffer unemployment. The loss of work time embodied with lost skills result in unemployment. For skilled employees it leads to a reduction of skills pushing previously high-wage employees into the low-wage unskilled group. As the cause of the turnover is Job loss, employees have less chance of employment, advanced prospects of part-time work and lower earnings. These costs are higher for the least-educated employees. The earning which is lost from the dislocation is rather large and determined.

After the several years of dislocation the estimation ranges from 10 to 25 percent. The results on the growth of wage along with the wage levels are of vital significance. Another outcome of higher turnover probability is reduced training, which may bring in flatter earnings. Thus, it has been observed that new Jobs have less benefit such as fringe benefits and other health insurances (Lane, 2000). The rate of high turnover is found where there is less unemployment and also in the place where people can be secured from the alternative employment.

It has been found that the turnover rate is highest among service industry. The rates of turnover have lessened in the previous couple of years in demanding economic situation (CHIP, 2010). Theories and Concepts What is Motivation? Motivation is a reason for doing something and motivation is concerned with the factors that influence people to behave in certain ways (Armstrong 2007). Arnold et al (III cleat In Armstrong ) suggested tense components motivation . Nines are Direction – What a person is trying to do; Effort – how hard a person is trying; and Persistence – how long a person keeps on trying.

With vast amounts of research and theories on motivation, it is often difficult to define a universally accepted definition. However, what is widely established is that motivational theories are concerned with he way people behave in a certain way, with a basic underlying question of “why do people do what they do? ” In general terms, motivation can be described as ” the direction and persistence of action” (Mulling, 2005). Intrinsic Vs. Extrinsic Herbert suggested that there are two different sets of factors affecting motivation and work, which he identified as ‘hygiene’ and ‘motivator’ factors.

Hygiene factors included status, salary, environment, Job security and policy, and related to Job context. They are mainly concerned with Job environment and are extrinsic to the Job itself (Mullions 2005). These factors do not necessary give positive satisfaction but dissatisfaction would be predominant if they were absent. On the other hand, motivator factors – which are separate from hygiene factors – are related to the content of the work itself and these include being challenged, receiving recognition, gaining responsibility, achievements and many other intrinsic aspects of the Job role.

Mullions (2005) comments: ” The strength of these factors will affect feelings of satisfaction or no satisfaction, but not dissatisfaction. ” Herrings theory is more directed and applicable to the workplace and provides a better understanding of titivation factors when compared to Mascots Hierarchy of Needs Theory. However, Herrings theory has also been criticized for its application. Its critics claim that this model applies to people with largely unskilled Jobs or those with a less challenging and repetitive role, and lack of context.

Also, different situations will affect one’s motivational and hygiene factors. Broom 1964 Expectancy Model Expectancy theory aims to explain and predict individual behaviors in motivation. The theory explains how individuals assess the probable outcomes of behaviors and place values on these outcomes. Broom’s model is based on three key variables: valence (the attractiveness of, or preference for, a particular outcome), instrumentality (the perceived probability that behavior will lead to a reward) and expectancy (the perceived probability that effort will result in obtaining the reward) (Mullions, 2005).

It is also about expectations and the possible dangers of misconception and misjudgment in anticipation for a reward that does not get delivered for the performance and effort made, which can cause dissatisfaction. Mullions (2005) also suggests that this theory goes beyond feelings of satisfaction individual gains when the task is completed buy the feeling of anticipation in gaining satisfaction. Expectancy theory further assumes that behavior is rational, and that we are conscious of our motives.

This model offers to explain why people leave; if individuals feel that their effort is not awarded or reflected in some reward as they expected to receive then they will feel dissatisfied and denominated and therefore consider leaving. Subsequently, it is important for organizations to manage Analgesia’s expectation Ana Tanat positive Demeanor Is acknowledge w ten n re It Is non- financial or financial. Managing expectations – Psychological Contract The psychological contract goes beyond any motivation theory and suggests a possible explanation of a more long term theory of why employee may choose to stay or leave an organization.

Professor David Guest defined the psychological contract as “the perceptions of the two parties – employee and employer – of what their mutual obligations are towards each other” (CHIP, 2008) Arnold et al (2005) further identify that the psychological contract is “an individual employee’s beliefs about the right and obligations of both sides in the employment relationship. ” These obligations mess as promises or expectations can be vague. However, Mullions (2005) offers possible expectations that employees may have of the organization.

These include providing a safe and hygienic working environment, Job security, respect, provisions of challenging and satisfying Jobs, training and development, and rewarding all employee fairly according to their contributions and performance. These expectations are somewhat similar to Herrings two factor theory. As the psychological contract is a reciprocal “agreement”, employers will expect employees to work hard, sustain company reputation, show loyalty to the organization, be legible and be honest (CHIP 2008).

Mullions (2005) further proposes that employer will expect employees to adhere to the rules, policies and procedure of the organization and maintain amicable relationship with colleagues. When the psychological contract is positive, employee commitment and satisfaction will increase thus having a positive impact on individual performance (Armstrong 2007). Similar to motivation, the psychological contract may also reveal denominating factors. When the psychological contract is breached I. E. Here employees believe that the organization have broken promises or failed to deliver on their expectations, employees will show clear signs of dissatisfaction, thus have a negative effect on Job satisfaction and commitment. It is unlikely that all expectation of the employee or of the employer will be met fully by employer must at least attempt to fulfill some expectations, otherwise employees may seek an alternative psychological contract with another organization. Organizational Commitment Theory Organizational commitment is playing a vital role in the study of organizational behavior.

There is a great relationship between the organizational commitment along with behavior and attitude in the workplace of the organization. According to Bateman and Stresses, “organizational commitment is multidimensional in nature involving an employee’s loyalty to the organization, willingness to exert effort on behalf of the organization, degree of goal and value congruency with the organization, and desire to maintain membership” (San Francisco State University, n. D. ). The empirical research study has shown that organizational commitment is an Important Interpreter AT turnover.

According to Dalton, lord Ana Crankiest In 1 there were two types of turnover, which are dysfunctional turnover and functional turnover. From the viewpoint of organization, dysfunctional turnover takes place when an employee willing to quit the Job and there is positive evaluation to organization. Functional turnover occurs when an employee leaves Job on their own discretion but there is negative organization’s evaluation of the employee (Blab & Bola, 1987). Price-Mueller Model, the model of voluntary and involuntary turnover has been described.

Involuntary turnover generally takes place where the employee has no choice in their termination, such as long term sickness, death, or employer-initiated termination. Voluntary turnover occurs by the willingness of the employees. According to the opinion of Price, economic model also can explain the reason of turnover. The economists have proposed that the maximum sum of monetary income as a determinant has led to less turnover. Increase money may decrease turnover by increasing the Job satisfaction of the employees (Griffith & Homo, 2010). This model is illustrated along with a diagram provided below.

The four exogenous variables in this model are: primary group, pay, communication and centralization. Pay is considered as a monetary income of the employees. It cannot be an important determinant unless it is valuable to the employees. The second is the participation in a primary group. Communication means transfer of information within organization. Centralization is the distribution of power within an organization (Griffith & Horn, 2010). Pay is generally important for the employees and is highly prioritize. High centralization leads to high turnover.

The two variables of this model are Job satisfaction and opportunity. Both of these variables have a different impact on turnover. Job satisfaction has positive impact towards organization. Opportunity refers to number of Jobs in the organization (Griffith & Homo, 2010). The exogenous variable can affect the Job satisfaction and dissatisfaction of employee. When the number of Jobs are increase in the market, there is an positive impact of turnover. The factor of opportunity also possess an effect on turnover. When there is plenty of Job in the market, it has positive impact in turnover intention (Griffith & Homo, 2010).

High Turnover Rate of Generation Y People in workplace Generation Y is a group of individuals who have been born between the year 1982- 2000 (Cringle, n. D. ). Generation Y are different from other groups of people. Generation Y people are usually influenced by pragmatism and peers (Cringle, n. . ). This group of people desire for the relations beyond friendship and want understanding along with respectful community. This generation group also wants guidance in the form of a navigator (Cringle, n. D. ). This generation people work for living but they do not survive for work.

Their communication style is also different from other generations of people. Generation Y people are advanced technology and are access to all the sophisticated technology (Cringle, n. D. ). I en companies nave Take tremendous generalness In order to attract Ana retain Generation Y people. This group of people has a shorter time period in the organization which lasts from 2-5 years (Sandusky & Freer-Reed, 2009). As a result companies bear losses from the huge turnover of this generation. Generation Y are fast and they enjoy challenging and they desire to have innovative style in their Job. They need quick promotion.

Thus, if they get bored of the Job, they will quit the Job (Sandusky & Freer-Reed, 2009). They are not loyal to their employers, but they are loyal to their peers and managers (Sandusky & Freer-Reed, 2009). They may leave the over burden Job in order to maintain their personal and professional life. Generation Y people want freedom in the workplace. The latest technological equipments in the workplace can fulfill their desires. Apart from advanced technology, they are interested in the companies where can inspire them to grow and provide them with technological resources for self development (Sandusky & Freer-Reed, 2009).

Before they get hired by the company they want to know their Job responsibilities and career path. According to KEY Group research team in 2008, 1020 respondents of Gene Y have provided prior preference to the health benefits provided in the organization. This benefit is followed by salary, work-life balance and rumination prospects (Sandusky & Freer-Reed, 2009). They prefer performance appraisal frequently because they want to know their work feedback and want to make correction if required. This will help them to make improvement rapidly (Sandusky & Freer-Reed, 2009).

Generation Y people are friendly in nature and provide preference to maintain relationship within the organization. They build both social and professional relationship with peers (Robert Half International, 2008). 6. Qualitative Methodology: Reasons of Choosing Qualitative Research and Data Source Qualitative research methodology is a descriptive research process. This type of research method produces in depth interview and collects broad information regarding the subject. The information includes broad understanding of the whole situation. This kind of research method helps the investigator to collect the total picture of the research.

The detailed information related to the research are collected which enables the researchers to analyze the problem in detail related to the findings (Key, 1997). Qualitative research helps to build new theories and search for new research areas. This method enables the researchers to deal with valuable questions that are squired in the research process (Oklahoma State University, 2011). Qualitative research work also prefers open-ended questions than close-ended questions as it describes the details of the questions to be asked to the respondents.

The broad concept of information can be collected from the respondents. In this research work qualitative research process has catered importance as it will enable the researchers to recognize and examine the details of the problems and issues related to ten project work. I en qualitative research work provokes Drama concept and knowledge about the research topics. The sources selected for the research work are the former employees, current employees, supervisors and the Human Resources Manager of T Company. The demography details have also been collected but these are kept confidential.

Besides questionnaires and interviews, data is also be collected from the organizational chart of T Company which turnover figure and number of vacancy are highlighted. From this point, turnover of employees in the Hotlist Department can be analyzed. 7. Rationale Used For Selecting the Sources to Analyze For analyzing the overall causes and outcomes of high turnover rate among Generation Y employees in T Company, rationale has been selected by the company. The former employees have been chosen to analyze their reasons for leaving.

The contact details of former employees are provided by the Human Resources Department. The opinions of current Generation Y employees have been taken into consideration in order to understand their expectation and the turnover intention of the employees. The main reason for turnover in this period was due to uncompetitive benefits and lack of career development opportunities. Therefore, the company is failed to meet the requirement of their employees. Supervisors are selected to understand the reason of high turnover rate among the Generation Y employees in their point of views.

They are analyzed to examine the causes and outcomes of high turnover. Human Resource Manager has been interviewed to understand the retention strategies of T Company. 8. Data Collection Procedures Qualitative data collection procedure plays a significant role in providing information for understanding the process behind observed result. It also assesses changes in the perception of people. However, the data collection process used in the qualitative search method is time consuming and act as a constraint to the research paper (University of Wisconsin-AAU Claire, 2005).

In order to collect data for high turnover rate in T Company, four rationales had been chosen from the company. Five numbers of former employees had been chosen, thirty current employees, three supervisors and one Human Resources Manager were selected as respondents. Separate questionnaire consisting of five questions had been provided to current employees. In the questionnaire, demographic information consisting of age, gender, marital status; education level and tenure were collected from each of them through e-mail. Data collected from former employees by phone interview.

While for supervisors and Human Resources Manager, the data is collected by face-to-face interview. The questionnaires are nana over to can Dormer Ana present employee, supervisors Ana Human Resources Department through e-mail. The response of the employees, supervisors and Human Resources Manager are observed properly through which various information of the company. 9. Data Analysis Qualitative data analysis is a simple process. The analysis was commenced after collecting all the data from former employees, current employees, supervisors and

Human Resources Manager. Observation The information can be collected through observing members of the company and from the organizational chart in which the annual turnover rate has been mentioned. It has been observed that the company is facing a problem of high turnover rate of Generation Y employees from the last few years. Human Resources Department is implementing various strategies in order to retain employees. For example, training programs are conducted in order to upgrade their communication skills as well as providing growth opportunities to them.

Although they describe the same incident, these two texts differ not only in points of style and detail but also in terms of their respective authors’ intentions. Charles Darwin, the eminent Victorian naturalist, describes his killing of the fox in his journal, which was probably aimed at a well educated audience including fellow scientists. Gitings’s poem contains much more evocative language and imagery because the poet writes from a different perspective.

Charles Darwin’s “Voyage of the Beagle” is written as a prose text and is factual, formal, and written like a journal. In his passage he uses words like “theodolite” and “species” which suggests that the passage was aimed at a well educated audience partially his fellow scientists, as other people back then were less intelligent and wouldn’t have known what those words meant. Another clue to suggest that it is meant for scientists is the use of the in parenthesis of “Canis fulvipes” which is the Latin term for a fox.

Darwin’s work was very important to him so in his journal he uses litotes like “knock” to make the killing of the fox sound less brutal, which helps keep the scientists on his side by not portraying him as a savage silent murderer, it also hides his embarrassment about killing the fox. His passage contains some irony as his work is based on the survival of the fittest and evolution, but when he kills the fox with his geological hammer it shows that he is only the fittest because he is armed with a weapon. But in the whole passage about the fox it contains a lot of ambivalence, as he wants to boast about how he was able to sneak up on the fox and kill it without it knowing, and about his new scientific find but he then uses words like “knock” to make it seem like he is not boasting.

However Gitings’s poem differs in many ways. Firstly it is a poem written in rhyming couplets with a lyrical flowing feel to it. He first begins off describing how the colour of the magnificent fox stands out from the craggy rocks of the island and then does out to personalise that fox by using “his”. For example “Round his haunches the brush curled”. This makes the audience feel for the animal like a human being rather than an animal. Throughout the beginning of the poem Gitings uses soft sounds like “se” sound in “ease” and “geese” to make the fox sound more innocent but when the humans arrive on the island he begins to use harsher sounds like “out” in “shout” to make the humans seem out of place and savage. At the beginning he also uses ” The spear flight of a wedge of geese” symbolically, as to warn the reader of what is going to happen to the fox.

Again later Gitings personalises the fox by describing the theodolite as “three-legged to their two”, this makes you see the humans and their equipment through the fox’s point of view and make it simple like the fox would see it. Then when he gets to the point where Darwin kills the fox he uses “hiss” as a connotation which adds to the danger effect because hiss is generally associated with snakes. He describes the fox’s eyes as “glazed to eternity because later when the real eyes have rotted away, it would be replaced with artificial eyes and then the fox would be stuffed and left in a museum, this makes you feel for the fox and makes you hate Darwin even more. Then to make us hate Darwin more he adds the line “And Mr Darwin, with a cough/ Scoops up the body and makes off” which shows us that Darwin doesn’t care and that the fox is just another specimen for his theory ,and to show this he then uses the line “the fine mesh of his theory” which is a metaphor of “the animal trapped in the mesh”

Just like the other poem this one contains irony as well :-

Somehow will prove this nature’s plan

Selected by his larger skull

To crack the other pitiful

And far away the whole affair

These four lines are meant to ridicule Darwin’s theory of evolution as humans are only more dominant that other animals because of out technology which was fuelled by our thirst for knowledge.

Yet Breeding all dilemma there.

The animals of science have

Invaded life. The wise and brave

Are nothing or corrupted. Now

The mushroom cloud begins to grow

In these lines and the whole poem Gitings sees the killing of the fox as a poignant symbol for the future, because in the five lines above he explains how the human thirst for knowledge will lead us to destruction. He uses the A-bomb as an example; “the mushroom cloud begins to grow” because that is one of the dreadful things that humans have created because of knowledge.

Both texts are different in many ways even though that talk about the same incident that happened. Darwin saw the incident as a triumph for mankind but Gitings saw it as the undoing of mankind so he uses everything he could to criticise Darwin and the killing of the fox. Connotation, metaphor, litotes, genre, prose text or poem text and even personification were many of the things that differed between the two poems.

Mosquitoes are known to have been on Earth for more than a hundred years and in that long period of covering with different species they cease to be recognized as pests and disease spreading organisms that kills nearly one million people each year. This disadvantage to our community has led to the consideration of wiping them off the surface of the Earth. Primarily, this Idea would be beneficial to humans since not only the nuisance but also the spread of a number of pathogenic diseases would stop.

However, while the study attempts to accentuate the benefit of eradicating hem it fails to elaborate its main problem and that is on how to actually get rid of the organism. This has become the study prior limiting factor for the reason that existing methods for killing mosquitoes have not yet been fully developed by scientists. All the more now since this organism manages to still exist and become resistant to the less toxic materials being used on them. Unfortunately the supposedly more effective yet at the same time more toxic chemical would be dangerous to man’s health which should not be taken lightly by all means. The Idea of eradicating mosquitoes becomes concerned with the concept of sustainability with regard to Its economic and social sector. This involves the economy since funding Is given to health organizations most especially to countries with high malaria burden.

While In the concept of social, since the welfare of the human beings is primary given importance the obvious benefit is that more lives will be saved and will no longer be infected by the diseases. However, the downside to this issue is that it would add to the increase in human population. Admittedly, the death and infection of humans for many years may be tragic but in the obvious sense t is nature’s way of regulating its population. The research paper wants to point out that eradicating mosquitoes would not have serious consequences for ecosystems.

Some scientists think that the removal of the organism would “heal quickly’ as the niche would be filled with other species. A raised concern could be that if the study has stated that only a few hundred species bother or bite humans, the Idea of totally eradicating the organism Is put Into question. Different studies have already proven that some species are useful as well as beneficial to other organisms. Despite all that, it is still becomes evident that unmans do not benefit from the mosquitoes.

The benefit being presented is somewhat overshadowed by giving importance to “human comfort” based on what becomes the prevailing theme of the study. It was observed that the assumptions made in the study had similar notions. It all had the point of directly stating that the loss of the mosquitoes would be somewhat insignificant and they have not been much of a benefit to humans at all. However it is a good thing the study had shown objectivity by also presenting studies that come to show the organism’s benefit to other organisms as well.

The deferent ideas that have been Injected are supported by evidence. However, It Is good to take note of the study degree of uncertainty. It was also observed that some conclusions were not yet backed up by other studies and most of these were Just concluded through other people’s research. And although there is that sense of objectivity, there is the would not be needed in this world. An improvement to this study could have been showing more certainty through different supporting evidences and that being more objective to the issue could have made readers think more critically.

Asia but the crucial area for its development was the fertile crescent. China and America soon followed with the development of agriculture. Agriculture is the first sign that shows humans beginning to control nature. When enough food was available, people started settling down resulting into more complex developments belonging to civilization. Soon after settling down the domestication of animals began, Only 14 of the animals urine that time were suitable for domestication. Mom requirements for the animals (not all animals had all these attributes) were: Power used in travel and agriculture (e. G. Horse), relatively short maturing time, the ability to produce food such as milk or honey. After these Important developments the wheel, writing, pottery, metaphorically and highly complex houses and monuments were built. This was mostly due to the time people now had (thanks to agriculture and the domestication of animals) to think rather than hunt and gather. Along with highly developed physical objects/items also employ social methods thrived.

A sophisticated legal system was formed to solve issues and labor was devised between people (instead of everyone doing the same work). Writing was invented and along with this the study of nature and education became recognized. Philosophical ideas grew and became morals for people. A large piece of our civilization Is due to luck In where our ancestors decided to settle down. We can still see some affects of it today, such as the difference between America (America had very protein rich food) and New Guiana (New Guiana 1 OFF ere ideal the population of a civilization started to grow.

Mortality went down but then again disease spread more eagerly. When population grew, a certain hierarchy grew along it. Hierarchy was also present during the Paleolithic age, but now there were more factors and professions that could be classed. People who had some special skill or profession were respected (e. G. Priest or a person who could write). Religion and politics were more separate than before as well. Civilization can never be simply defined, as people have very different views on it. Different subcultures and tribes may have their own concept of it.

The standard western definition in my opinion is this: A collection of many factors that enable us to be in control of our surroundings (nature, animals our social lives) and where technology, systems and living conditions are highly advanced. A large population is needed to sustain all these systems. My view and differences between sources In the PDF file about ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt most facts are told without much further explanation or criticism. During our classes Vive noticed, that we must question things to find the best definition for ourselves.

Overall there aren’t many differences between the “facts” told to us from both sources. I enjoy both methods thoroughly and they give a very clear explanation together. One main impact of civilization is that it makes our lives easier via all the inventions. Many people don’t take care of their physical health even though, ! 2 Homo Sapiens were built to hunt and gather. One aspect of civilization, domestication, is useful if not necessary, but it’s MIS-used and we’re killing the planet that we live in (high ICC emissions, cutting down rain forests).

We should take example from uncivilized people who mostly respect nature and live mainly on it’s demands. These people could teach us a lot about communication, and how life could be better in general (by being more simple without advanced technology). In my view humans should create more echo-friendly technology and should consume less (e. G. Food and clothes). Civilization shouldn’t go back in time to when it was “better” ,but instead be offered to all those who want it, and develop more ideas and inventions that compromise between us and nature.

The Damned Human Race Mark Twain stated that he has been studying the traits and dispositions of animals and contrasting them with that of man. Be he ashamed to report that his findings are humiliating and that the Darwinian theory of the Ascent of Man from the lower animals should be called the Descent of Man from the higher animal. Twain did many “experiments” and spent much time observing his subjects. Twain first talks about how man is ravenous. An English Earl organized a buffalo slaughter.

He and his party killed 72 buffalo and only ate the meat off of part of one. He tried the same hype of experiment with an anaconda where he put seven calves into a cage with an anaconda. The anaconda only ate one and then left the rest alone. Twain thinks that this shows that the Earl is descended from the anaconda rather than the other way around and that the Earl had lost something in the transition. He also points out that people will keep accumulating money, even if they have more than they can spend in a lifetime.

Squirrels, birds, and bees also collect things, but even when given an opportunity by twain to collect more than their winter’s supply, they would not do it. This led Twain to the conclusion that people are also materialistic and miserly. His other experiments also recognized many bad human traits such as revenge, offensiveness, vulgarity, obscenity, war, slavery, Patriotism, and religion. Twain believes that the defect In humans Is the moral sense which both distinguishes and creates evil at the same time.

Twain essay can be Interpreted In many ways because of its symbolism and Irony. Personally I feel that Twain’s essay Is entirely truthful. Even If Twain was meaning to be Ironic I think that he made a lot of good points on the negative aspect of human emotion and life. He provides many situations that are both possible and likely to happen I think this essay Is very affective at portraying Twain’s view of the world because It Includes both realistic and relevant experiments, and historical evidence. This realism adds a certain truth to the piece that Is hard to Ignore.

Because of this I feel that this piece Is a very strong eye opener to any people living In the dark. It provides useful knowledge about what Is going on Inside many human heads to some degree. It may even tell you about yourself, but then again If you are suffering from these traits then you will most likely not know because you are already so used to doing these things that they are ingrained Into your mind. By reading this I got a very good Interpretation of humans, which I have never thought about before. He dam human race By staff believes that the defect in humans is the moral sense which both distinguishes and creates evil at the same time. Twain essay can be interpreted in many ways because of its symbolism and irony. Personally I feel that Twain’s essay is entirely truthful. Even if Twain was meaning to be ironic I think that he made a lot of good points on both possible and likely to happen I think this essay is very affective at portraying Twain’s view of the world because it includes both realistic and relevant experiments, and historical evidence.

This realism adds a certain truth to the piece that is hard to ignore. Because of this I feel that this piece is a very strong eye opener to any people living in the dark. It provides useful knowledge about what is going on inside many human heads to some degree. It may even tell you about yourself, but then again if already so used to doing these things that they are ingrained into your mind. By reading this I got a very good interpretation of humans, which I have never thought

‘After having considered the right arrangement of the human body, the ancients proportioned all their work, particularly the temples, in accordance with it’. To what extent does the human body influence architectural forms and writing from antiquity to 1600? The study of the human body has pned centuries, from the mathematicians of antiquity to the humanist scholars of the High Renaissance, and parallels between the bodily proportions and architecture have played their part in some of the most celebrated architectural feats.

Writers and architects throughout this period never eased in exploring the various ways in which the ‘arrangement of the human body could be applied to architecture, from associations with the Golden Section, to the Roman perfect numbers, and the creation of the square and the circle as ‘ideal’ forms derived from the Vitamins man. Yet, whilst all these issues were significant to the architects and writers of this period, many other factors were Just as important in determining the architecture produced.

It is important to take into account not only alternative systems of proportion other than those derived from the human body, but also the historical and social context in which buildings were being designed. Furthermore, whilst writers and architects were influenced by the use of the human body in previous works, they were often equally influenced by the mere ‘authorities’ of the past, and whilst human proportions may have been passed on through the centuries, the meaning behind its involvement was frequently lost, so that it was not a conscious reference to the human body, but a keeping with tradition.

The theory which exists as the basis of this discussion is notion established by Aristotle, who scribed the relationship between the human body and the rest of reality: “the body carries in it a representation of all the most glorious and perfect works of God as being an epitome or compendium of the whole creation”l . This idea of man as a microcosm in the grand macrocosm of the Universe is one which led to the belief that in creating architecture for the worship of God, it was only those proportions created by God himself, namely those of man, which could ever be worthy.

Yet, over the course of the next millennium, a whole host of different interpretations of the human DOD were made, so that it was not a single set of ideas which became applied to architecture. To begin in antiquity, the most basic way in which the human body influenced architecture was in the creation of the classical orders. Most simply, it is understood that the form of the first Doric order derives from the warriors of King Doors in Greece, and thus displays “the proportions strength and beauty of the body of a man”.

Though the intricacies of the Doric order, namely the triptychs and mottoes, are believed to originate from timber construction of the primitive hut which was then copied in stone, the masculine, war-like associations of the order were very influential throughout antiquity, during the Middle Ages and into the Renaissance. Examples of the Doric order include the Temple of Hyphenates, Athens, mid 5th century BC, built in dedication for the blacksmith of the Gods and forger of armor, as well as Brakeman’s Temperate 1502-19, for SST. Peter, 1 by G.

Odds and R. Tavern, y and Building : Essays on the Changing Relation of Body and Architecture, (Cambridge, London : MIT, 2002). P. 35 the hero and martyr. The Corinthian and Ionic orders display as much human influence in their architectural forms and associations, respectively having derived from the Ionian and Corinthian peoples. Based on the more civilized Ionian women, the Ionic order expressed feminine values of a matronly figure, with the curls of hair, folds of drapery and sandals represented in the volutes, fluting and base of the column.

Similarly, the Corinthian order is thought to have derived from the basketwork of a Corinthian maiden, and so portrays the slender, refined qualities of a young girl, surrounded by acanthus leaves for the capital. In his architectural reties of 1537-43, Sebastian Series states that “temples to male saints whose lives were less robust than delicate, or to females saints who led matronly lives should be Ionic.

Temples to the Virgin Mary, virgins, nuns, should be Corinthian”. Thus, it is apparent how the various forms of the human body can be influence not only the physical forms of the building, but also their values and associations. Historically, it is important to note that architecture based in mathematics, meaning that to the ancients, the practice of architecture was not differentiated from that of thematic theory.

This is therefore a strong argument in favor of how bodily proportions influenced classical architecture, reiterated by Vitreous who claimed that “without symmetry and proportion there can be no principles in design, that is, if there is no precise relation between the members, as in the case of the well-shaped man”2. Furthermore, it was the mathematician, Pythagoras (582-507 SC), who suggested that the Golden Section was based on human proportions, and therefore proving its importance in the dimensions of classical buildings.

The most celebrated example of this system of proportion is the Parthenon, built on the Athenian Acropolis, Greece in the 5th century BC. Although several elements, including the dimensions of the fade, the spacing of the columns and the interior rectangular space can be seen to agree with the Golden ratio, very few scholars still believe that the Parthenon was originally intended to comply with the theory discovered by Euclid sometime after it was built. Therefore, in terms of their utilization of the Golden Section, it does not appear that the architecture of the ancient Greeks was strongly influenced by the human body.

Yet, when returning to Vitreous, another example of the human body influencing architectural forms and writing is introduced. In Book Ill of his Ten Books of Architecture he confronts us with the fact that man, when “placed flat on his back, with his hands and feet extended, and a pair of compasses centered at his navel, the fingers and toes of his two hands and feet will touch the circumference of a circle and described therefore. And Just as the human body yields a circular outline, so too a square figure may be found from it. 3 The importance of this discovery to the scholars of antiquity, that man could fit into the two most perfect geometric units, was immense, as it was thought to reveal a fundamental truth about man and the world. In light of the earlier notion of the microcosm-macrocosm, it becomes clear why 2 Vitreous, Book Ill of his Ten Books of Architecture, quoted in R. Witter, Architectural Principles in the Age of Humanism, (London : Academy Editions, 1973) 3 Vitreous, The Ten Books on Architecture, Book Ill. Architects and theorists were keen to emulate the square and circular forms, as derived from the human body, within their work. Within ancient Rome there are few centralized buildings, but any such examples prove how ideas of centralization were not only discussed in architectural writings, but were actually put into practice. The Pantheon, Rome, rebuilt during the reign of Hadrian c. 125 AD, is a primary example of the celebration of the two purest geometric and anthropomorphic forms, with the plan consisting of a circle attached to a square.

The square entrance-hall, which opens onto the vast coffer dome of the interior, is one of the most technically brilliant feats of its day, as well as a huge influence to architects and writers of the true. One further example of central-planned buildings of antiquity is the Temple of Minerva Medical, of 4th century Rome between the via Albanian and the Aurelian Wall. Though it exists today as a mere ruin, its original decagon’s structure and dome adhere to the geometrical recommendations of Vitreous and the ancient mathematicians, illustrating the influence of the body on architecture.

The issue of centralized structures was one that preoccupied the minds of architects and theorists through the centuries, but it was not until the Renaissance, and Liberties De Re Edification off when centrally planned churches became fully established. In his stipulations for the ‘ideal church’, Alberta declares that the circle is the shape most celebrated in nature, but he also advocates 8 other geometric shapes derived from the circle including the square, hexagon and decagon, and rejects the form of the basilica because of its inadequacy in comparison to the temple. Michelangelo choir for AS Annunciate, Rome 1444, is considered to be the first centralized building of the Renaissance, based on a circle with attached semi-circular chapels. Liberties San Sebastian, Mantra of 1460, however, makes use of the Greek cross plan, with 3 arms protruding from a central cross-vaulted interior space. Yet, perhaps the figure to show the greatest interest in the physical manifestation of the central plan was Brucellosis.

His Old Sacristy for San Lorenz, commissioned by Giovanni did Basic De Medici, and completed in 1428, is considered “the first Renaissance space that could actually be entered”5 . The plan consists of one exact square with 3 surrounding squares a third of the size, with the overall cube being surmounted by a hemispherical dome. Similarly, Brutishness’s Santa Maria dogleg Angel, 1434, has a central plan based on an octagon surrounded by 8 chapels each with rounded ends like an apse.

AY these buildings, of which there are many more, make use of the central plan and thus illustrate the influence of the human body from which they were derived. Yet, it may not be the case that the architects adopted these shapes for that same reason, and it is therefore necessary to identify other factors which may have led to their adopting of centralization. To begin with, it is possible that characters like Brucellosis and Alberta, at the time f a thriving classical revival in Florence, were simply being influenced by the 4 R.

Witter, Architectural Principles in the Age of Humanism, (London : Academy Editions, 1973) p. 6 5 F. Hart, History of Italian Renaissance Art: Painting: Sculpture: Architecture. (London, 1987) prestige of centralized buildings and wanted their buildings to carry the same associations of a powerful Roman Republic. Aside from the obvious example of the Pantheon, as mentioned earlier, a further direct influence from Rome may have been the Santos Stefan Rotund which, in the sass, underwent major restoration work by

Reselling under Pope Nicolas V, bringing it to the attention to the likes of Alberta, Brucellosis and Michelson. Another massive influence is the Church of the Holy Sepulcher in Jerusalem, where a circular wall encloses a ring of columns and is surmounted by a dome. Moreover, Just as pilgrimage buildings on the main routes to or within the Holy Land imitated elements of the sacred buildings of Jerusalem, small rotunda churches were built in Europe as satellites of more important churches being approached by pilgrims. It has therefore been suggested that Liberties San

Sebastian may have been built as a “sacred station en route to Sans Andrea”6, and thus emulates the centralized plan as a reference to the affiliations to the Holy Sepulcher, and does not relate to the Vitamins man. Other issues suggest that the use of centralization does not directly bare reference the human body, particularly when acknowledging the religious focus that many churches of the Renaissance still fostered, despite being built during the flourishing of humanism. Giuliani dad Sandals S. Maria dell Career, Pratt 1485, has the plan of a Greek cross, with 4 arms Joined to the crossing and a dome suspended over the Rossini.

Here, however, architectural intentions other than those of centralization appear to prevail, when considering the manner in which the dome doesn’t touch the incommoding of the arches, the pure white walls and geometrical simplicity of the building. Overall, Giuliani dad Seasonal has created a church that is able to “evoke in the congregation a consciousness of the presence of God”7, Just as Alberta stipulated that an ideal church should have a “purifying effect and produce the state of innocence which is pleasing to God”8.

In addition to the issue of centralization, the human body is represented in architecture through the proportions and mathematical ratios applied to the building. Just as Plato thought that proportion was “the bond that holds things together”9, Alberta commented in his treatise of 1450 that: “Just as the head, foot and indeed any member must correspond to teach other and to all the rest of the body in an animal, so in a building, and especially in a temple, the parts of the whole body must be composed so 6 R.

Tavern, On Alberta and the Art of Building (New Haven, London : Yale University Press, cache), p. 144 7 Editions, 1973) p. 19 8 9 Ibid. P. 6 R. Paddock, Proportion : Science, Philosophy, Architecture (London : E & FAN Spoon, Bibb p. 182 that they correspond to one another”10. This idea manifests itself in the way that buildings incorporate an overall system of proportion, but more specifically, the inclusion of the “perfect’ numbers, as defined by the ancients, resulting from the tradition in which architectural measurements were made using parts of the body (foot, digit, cubit and inch).

It was a combination of the discovery that a man’s foot is one sixth of his height, with the knowledge of the 10 digits of the human body, which deed to the numbers 6, 10, and 16 being hailed as superior to all others, and those which would allow the perfection of the human body to be mirrored in architectural expressions. Liberties fade for Santa Maria Novella, completed in 1470, displays not only the unified proportions outlined by his treatise, but the ratios of perfect numbers.

The whole fade is based on the unit of a square, but crucially, the central rose window stands at a height of 36 units above the entry platform, within a fade 60 units high. This ratio of 36:60 is significant because it relates directly to the emissions of the ‘ideal man’ who is 60 inches tall, with a navel 36 inches off the ground. Other references to this particular ratio based on ‘perfect’ numbers as determined by the ancients include Brutishness’s oratory of Santa Maria dogleg Angel, and San Sebastian, with a ratio of 6:10 for the main elements of the building such as the door, apses, portico vault and dome.

It is therefore apparent that there was a strong influence of the “perfect” numbers (relating to the human body) in the Renaissance, but, as witnessed with regards to centralization, this issue does not appear significant in the Middle Ages. Only a few examples exist, one of which is Milan Cathedral in Lombardy, Northern Italy, which was begun in 1386 under the archbishop Antonio dad Assault, and displays proportions based on the ‘perfect’ numbers in the width of its nave which is divided into 6 units of 16 brachia.

The use of the perfect numbers as ratios for elements of buildings appeared extensive in the Renaissance, and widespread throughout architectural theories. It is also possible, however, to identify several other systems of proportion which were equally as influential on the architecture of these years. Whilst Pythagoras identified the Golden Section and the “perfect numbers”, he also discovered how musical harmonies could be determined by measured lengths of string, and therefore how the corresponding mathematical ratios could be applied to architectural proportions.

In De Re Edification, Alberta appears to be strongly influenced by these discoveries, asserting the notion of beauty in music being paralleled in architecture, and recommending ratios based on intervals greater than an octave. Francesco did Giorgio, in his Attractor did architecture,1482, does not write explicitly on the theory of proportion in architecture, but still comments on music ratios when making recommendations for the S. Francesco Della Vagina, Venice, completed in 1534.

Here he explains how the ratio of width to height of the nave should be based on the musical harmony of a 4th (ratio 3:4), and makes suggestions for the width of the chapels and transepts on similar terms. He gives no explanation for his choice of particular ratios, only stressing the view stated by Alberta that a system of proportion should be related 10 press, CACHE), p. 202 to the whole building, and that churches should reveal the “perfection of the divine Ewing itself”1 1.

In addition to musical ratios, another system of proportion that stands in competition with that based on the human body (namely ‘perfect’ numbers) is the notion of sacred geometry. This system particularly arises during the Renaissance, and is identifiable again with the example of Brutishness’s Old Sacristy for San Lorenz, where the 3 arched windows are said to allude to the trinity, the four walls of the cube denote the evangelists, and the 12 ribs of the dome stand as a symbol for the apostles.

One final and major way in which the human body influenced architecture is that of the orders. Having established counter-arguments regarding the physical properties of buildings, it is necessary to incorporate social issues into the debate. Although the ancient texts explained the importance of using human proportion in buildings, and the various ways in which they manifest themselves, this does not mean that subsequent theorists and architects were equally as influenced by these theories.

Instead, when identifying the similarities between treatises on architecture, it may be that writers were influenced by the authority of previous writers, and not specifically the content of their writing. Furthermore, when comparing, for example, Alberta and Francesco did Giorgio, writing respectively in 1450 and 1482, it is crucial to note differences in their personalities, activities and educational background which will have influenced their work.

This point of social and historical context is clarified by Alberta himself who said that: “the greatest Joy in the art of building is to have a good sense of what is appropriate”12, whilst Filtrate’s work of 1465, “can be seen as an explicit historical document, albeit of arduous interpretation”13. The varied and extensive influence of the human body on architectural forms and rating have been discussed with reference to the classical orders, geometric shapes, proportions, ratios and measuring systems.

However, whilst all these influences are apparent, it is necessary to question the extent to which these ideas, originally founded in the human body, were used deliberately, or whether the architectural forms in which they manifested themselves were imitated for their own sake. Likewise, it is also possible to identify other influences and issues concerning the context and individuality of the artist which suggest the human body was rarely of he greatest influence.

To what extend do you agree with the statement ‘Population growth has brought social and environmental problems, and human societies through time have been forced to adapt, to find new ways of doing things, or perish’ (Scarre, 2009, p. 40? The World has witnessed a dramatic growth in human population since the last ice age. The warmer climate has reduced the number of hostile habitats and allowed for vast numbers of both wild animals and plants to flourish. However, at some point both the availability of resources and the steady growth of population have become unsustainable (Scarre, 2009. p187).

This essay will look at what happens when production is unable to meet the needs of a growing population and when population growth begins to outstrip the available resources. It will investigate the critical consequences for the environment and on complex societies as a whole. I will illustrate and explain how population growth has contributed to a series of social, health and environmental problems which in some extreme examples has led to the total collapse of human societies. I will also identify those societies that were forced to find ways to adapt themselves to these problems and that consequently flourished.

My analysis will be supported with examples from both the Old World and the New World. Environmental Degradation One common strand found in several ancient societies that experienced a progressive decline or a total wipe out due to population numbers spiralling out of control is that of ecological sustainability. The demise of the Classic Maya, the Polynesia of Easter Island or the Harappans of the Indus Valley to name a few, offer one of the best examples of how population growth can contribute to the collapse of the environment and eventually to an entire civilization.

The demise of the ancient Maya society offers one of the best examples of how population growth has contributed to the collapse of an entire civilization. First and foremost, the Maya World is found in the Yucatan peninsula, a hot and humid area that offers a series of challenges to would be farmers. There is a total absence of large rivers or stream and it has a predominantly dry climate. The Yucatan peninsula consists mostly of karst[1] shaped landscape. Consequently, most of the rain fall is lost, leaving little or no surface water.

Despite the building of artificial reservoirs like those found in the site of Tikal (Webster and Evans pp 626-627), the inhabitants of the Maya lowlands were critically exposed to any major climate adversities such as a prolonged drought. Maya staple diet consisted mainly of corn and a few other small domestic animals such as turkeys and ducks, with an absence of larger animals such as those found in the Old World, horses, oxen or camel or even those found in the Inca empire such as llamas or alpacas, which, not only could be of assistance for food production and transportation but they could also be consumed during times of bad crop seasons.

Furthermore, due to the region’s humid climate, the Mayans were unable to store corn for more than a few months as this would either rot or become infested with parasites. This would prevent them from eating any surpluses accumulated in previous years during periods of severe drought (Diamond, 2003). As more people begun to concentrate in the Copan valley more land had to be cleared to build houses and plant crops in order to feed and house the growing number of people. This brings a series of irreversible environmental issues such as deforestation, soil erosion and man-made drought.

Archaeological evidence in the Copan valley region has shown traits of sediment belonging to that of the hill slopes as a result of clearing the forest to build new settlements and to be used as burning fuel (Diamond, 2003). So here we find perhaps the most damaging consequence for humans of environmental degradation in the long run: Soil erosion. If the soil of arable land becomes either too acidic or like in some cases, toxic, the crop yield will dramatically drop to a point where that land can not be used.

For a society that was made up mostly of farmers (commoners), soil erosion and lost of arable land is going to have some dire consequences from a social point of view which I will discuss later on. The Roman Empire suffered similar fate as the number of people living in and around the cities grew larger. As the empire expanded in the second and first centuries BC,the Romans built many new towns and cities. So food production had to be increased and as a result of this large amounts of forests were cleared for farming.

Just like we saw earlier of with the lowland Maya, the roots of the trees in these forests had previously bound the soil together; once they were gone, every time it rained the loose topsoil was washed away into nearby streams and rivers. This soil was carried downstream and deposited as silt in harbours, river estuaries and deltas, and other coastal areas. Over the centuries this silt built up until many harbours and river mouths became impossible to navigate for large cargo ships.

Transport of food reduced dramatically, transforming previously booming coastal ports poor, prevented transport of food by large ships inland along the river systems, reduced imperial tax revenues and caused food shortages. The accumulation of silt deposits also destroyed the coastal fishing industry, previously a major food source. Lagoons, harbours and estuaries that had once teemed with fish became swamps and marshes where there wasn’t enough oxygen in the water for fish to live. This further impoverished coastal communities and reduced food supplies to a point where shortages became famine.

But whereas the areas or region where the Roman Empire or Mayan laid its foundation did eventually recover from an ecological point of view, other geographical places suffered irreversible environmental changes that last today. The Indus Valley homeland of the Harappan society and Mesopotamia represent some examples regions that to this date the ecological balance is to be restored. Thus, just like we saw earlier with the Roman Empire, the accumulation of silt deposits in coastlines and river mouths also had the same devastating consequences for the Harappans.

Deforestation, fuelled mainly by the use of wood for burning to bake bricks to build settlements and also a burgeoning metalworking and pottery industry was the main factor (McIntosh, 2008) aided by a region that was subject to flash floods during the monsoon season as well as long periods of drought. A common pattern found in all fallen societies was the inability to respond to these problems. Both the Maya Kings and nobles and the Emperor and bureaucrats in Rome, focussed their attention enriching themselves, waging wars, erecting monuments and, ultimately taxing the peasants to support all those activities.

However, no other place suffered more the consequences of environmental degradation than those seen in Easter Island. With an area of only 64 square miles, it is one of the World’s most isolated places, excluding the island from attacks from other people, potential epidemics or natural disasters. The combination of a mild climate together with its volcanic origins providing excellent soil for cultivation made it an ideal place to live. So, you can only guess that at some point population levels would begin to grow at unsustainable levels.

Just like we saw with the Classic Maya, the Polynesian settlers of Easter Island increased their building activity as they were approaching their stage of decline. One of the main characteristics of Easter Island is its monumental statues or Moas, some of them weighed up to 82 tons (Diamond, 1995). The forests of the island would have to be used to transport these massive structures. Social Degradation The advent of agriculture led to the establishment of new farming economies that could support much larger communities.

Larger settlements will not only drive a increase in crop productivity, but they would also become focal points for the exchange of new ideas, practices and ways of improving farming techniques, herding and crafting. Larger settlements would set the bases for craft specialisation and thus the development of increasingly complex societies. With, them, issues of inequalities of wealth and status would lead to the rise of hierarchical societies or “civilizations” of the ancient world (Scarre, 2009).

Social inequalities and social unrest will be the focus of this part of my work, using the demise of the Western Roman Empire, the Classic Maya and the Polynesian society of Ester Island as examples. The Roman Empire can be considered one of the great successes and at the same time failures in human history. I think it offers a prime example of the collapse of a complex society fuelled by a growing population spiralling out of control. Social inequalities became a main feature of an empire that depended heavily on the windfalls of their conquests.

However, with the end of geographical expansion around the second century A. D. there was a correspondent drop in the revenue coming from conquest campaigns. It was during Diocletian’s rule (284 to 305 A. D. ), that the lack of extra revenues filling the Empire’s reserves begun to aggravate the tax burden placed on Roman citizens, especially on small farmers. This was also a period where [2] begun to replace small farms; at the same time, arable land was converted wholesale to pasture land, while much of it was abandoned entirely since its soil had become totally exhausted (Cowell,1980).

Again, we are witnessing the recurring issue of environmental degradation and sustainability, which a few hundred years later will be the downfall of the Classic Mayan societies. So, basically, we get to a point where a large number of peasants were not able to meet the tax requirements imposed by the bureaucrats of the State and at the same time these peasants would be unable to feed themselves, as they had to sell any crop surpluses.

If we assume that at any given time these farmers would have a bad crop yield due to a prolonged drought, plague, etc, we find a situation were farmers would be under conditions of famine. As a result of this we are going to see an exodus from the country side into the cities where most of the grain was stored. We can only assume that, as the Roman Empire begins to enter into their final stages of its decline more taxes would need to be raised to pay for an increasingly disloyal army made of mercenaries and also to support the extravagant lifestyle of an elite minority.

Here we are facing a situation where a large numbers of farmers are going to move to Rome, as well as a significant number of ex soldiers and free slaves. With the vast majority of these people scraping for a living, most of them unemployed and depending exclusively on handouts to feed themselves (Pearson, 2008) we are going to have the development of a social underclass where crime was rife and social revolts were common. Health Deagradation Significantly, it was around 200 BC that malaria seems to have developed in Italy.

The marshes which bred the Anopheles mosquito were man-made. They were created by soil erosion from badly-cultivated sloping lands, which, being deprived of their topsoil, were, by the same token, made largely unproductive. The Pontine marshes supported 16 Volscian towns in the 7th century BC. Five hundred years later, they only supported mosquitoes Scarre, C. (2009). Chapter 5 – The World Transformed: From Foragers And Farmers To States And Empires. In: Scarre, C The Human Past. 2nd ed. London: Thames & Hudson Ltd, London. p187. Webster, D & Evans, S. 2009). Chapter 16-Mesoamerican Civilization. In: Scarre, C The Human Past. 2nd ed. London: Thames & Hudson Ltd. 626-627. Diamond, J. (2003). The Last Americans. Available: http://www. astepback. com/GEP/Diamond,%20The%20Last%20Americans. pdf. Last accessed 14th March 2011. McIntosh, J. (2008). The Indus Valley Today. In: Moore, A and Springer, S The ancient Indus Valley: new perspectives. Santa Barbara, California: ABC-CLIO, Inc. p395-398. Scarre, C. (2009). The Human Past; Retrospect and Prospect. In: In: Scarre, C The Human Past. nd ed. London: Thames & Hudson Ltd, London. P718. Cowell, F. R. (1988). Earning a living. In: Life in Ancient Rome. 3rd ed. New York: The Berkely Publishing Group. p136. Pearson, M.. (2008). The Price of the Empire – The Growth of an Underclass. In: Pearson, M. Perils of Empire and The American Republic. New York: Algora Publishing. p164. Tainter, J. (1988). The Study of Collapse – Resource Depletion. In: Tainter, J The Collapse of Complex Societies (New Studies in Archaeology). 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p49. ———————- [1] Karst is a distinctive topography in which the landscape is largely shaped by the dissolving action of water on carbonate bedrock (usually limestone, dolomite, or marble). This geological process, occurring over many thousands of years, results in unusual surface and subsurface features ranging from sinkholes, vertical shafts, disappearing streams, and springs, to complex underground drainage systems and caves. [2] A great landed estate, specially of the ancient Romans. (Source: Oxford English Dictionary)