Individualism

As Egger Hefted (2001) explained, culture Is comprised of power distance, Individualism, masculinity, uncertainty avoidance, pragmatism, and indulgence. If we use these components to analyze the two countries from the example, we find various similarities and differences that would greatly affect a business transaction between the two. Both Colombia and China share similarities in the areas of power distance, individualism, and masculinity.

Both countries scored high in power distance, or extent to which power Is unequally distributed, and masculinity, the desire to excel at a skill versus liking the actual skill (Hefted, 2001). This means that In both isosceles individuals with power are far removed from their lesser powerful counterparts. It also means individuals from these countries are motivated by success and achievement as opposed to equal status.

China and Colombia also similarly scored low in individualism meaning that both cultures are collectivist or centered on members that form an interdependent network (Hefted, 2001). As other analysts have noted, “Chinese society [In particular] Is collectivist in that Individuals identify with an “In-group” consisting of family, clan, and friends. Within this, cooperation Is he norm. Outside it, zero-sum competition is common” (Harris, 2014, Para. 5). Thus, it is paramount to foster a loyal relationship when conducting business in these countries. Avoidance, pragmatism, and indulgence. Chinese culture scored high in pragmatism, or the need to explain as much as possible, whereas Colombia scored high in uncertainty avoidance and indulgence, or the extent to which people indulge their impulses and desires (Hefted, 2001). As some academics have noted, uncertainty is largely reduced in relationships which is why “Latin Americans place great value on establishing long-term, close relationships with interactions on a personal, as well as professional, level” (Wardrobe, 2005, p. 3).

However, in Chinese culture, indulgence and uncertainty avoidance scored low since individuals place less importance on knowing everything and monitor ambiguity with their use of an adaptable and entrepreneurial spirit. Understanding these differences, as well as similarities, helps us set up a successful business encounter between individuals from these two If a Colombian and Chinese person were to conduct a business transaction, it loud be important to understand the application of Hypotheses cultural dimensions to ensure a successful outcome.

First, the high collectivism and power distance in their respective societies would promote a good foundation for them to establish a relationship since both individuals would most likely have high standing and authority within their companies, and strive to develop a fruitful relationship. This would begin by ensuring a correct and respectful greeting between them, which would generally involve a bow from the Chinese businessperson and a warm and stern handshake from the Colombian businessperson (Aback, 2012).

Second, cause of the discrepancy in the uncertainty avoidance category, the Colombian businessperson might need better clarification on the transaction and question the Chinese individual more thoroughly; which would promote trust if the Chinese individual views the 4 transaction from the masculinity-oriented category of achievement instead of the feminine category associated with caring and equality. As Donald Aback (2012) elaborated, in Asia “language that avoids directly challenging a person or making that individual look bad, or seem disrespected is common” (p. 19). This means that the

Chinese businessperson would most likely not hold this against his Colombian counterpart but rather tolerate it in the interest of developing trust and a longer- lasting relationship. Lastly, the Colombian may want to indulge more time in the relationship, which would work well, since Chinese culture is characterized by a strategy to “not trust until there is enough evidence of trustworthiness” (Harris, 2014, Para. 6). If both businessperson take the time to nurture their relationship and understand each other’s cultural differences and similarities, they will set themselves up for a successful and fruitful business relationship.

Restrictions on the wearing of the Islamic head scarf and body covering gown – A legal-moral issue

In his article – Justice, Dignity, Torture, Headscarves: Can Durkheim’s Socioligy Clarify Legal Values? Roger Cotterrell attempts to find out what Emile Durkheim would say regarding two issues that stand out in present days – the acceptability of torture in defense of national security; and restrictions on the wearing of the Islamic headscarf. Cotterrell takes Derkheim’s approach regarding the sociology of morality in order to examine moral and legal evaluation of contemporary legal studies – Cotterrell examines Durkheim’s ‘Moral individualism’ idea (‘the cult of the individual’ or ‘cult of the human person’) concerning those two issues.

I would focus on the second issue and would try to summarize Cotterrell’s arguments on what the Durkheimian approach would say regarding the famous problem of whether Muslim women should be allowed to dress in all-covering veil. Firstly, I will explain what “Moral individualism” is and Durkheim’s justifications for it. Then, I will display Cotterrell’s justifications to why this approach is relevant nowadays. Thirdly, I will examine the dilemma in hand in a sociological way and try and understand what Cotterrell and Durkheim would say on the matter. Moral Individualism’: According to Cotterrell, the essential idea that stands on the basis of the ‘Moral Individualism’ principle is “universal respect for the equal human dignity and autonomy of every member of society, whatever differences there may be in the outlook, position, life conditions or roles of society’s members”. Durkheim feels strongly about ensuring that societies will integrate, or rather – will be able to integrate, and will be able to be cohesive. I. e. if individuals in a certain society grant equal and ultimate respect to other individuals and their autonomy – that society will be able to better integrate and be cohesive and will ultimately work better as a group/society. Current relevancy: Cotterrell argues that the ‘Moral individualism’ idea provides an alternative to familiar current ideas about the subject of human dignity. Durkheim’s ideas “on solidarity and the body suggests that prohibiting certain forms of this, but not others, contravenes values of human dignity”.

For example, if society does not respect the choice of Muslim women to dress in a certain way – society, de facto, does not respect these women’s right for human dignity. Durkheim does not claim that following an investigation according to the ‘Moral Individualism’ principle will result in a global time-less conclusion, but a specific conclusion of practices needed in order to ensure stable, cohesive society. Another justification Cotterrell finds is in the demand law makes from citizens nowadays.

Today, more than ever – law should be examined as an expression of morality as appose to an expression of power, not philosophically but in a way of finding the compatible terms and “conditions of co-existence of individuals and groups in a certain time and place”. Regulation of female Islamic dress: Cotterrell depicts what Durkheim sees as the problematic character of sexuality viewed in the light of the sociological necessity of ‘Moral Individualism’: sexual relations, in Durkheim’s view, causes a sacrifice of the dignity and autonomy of both sexes in this action, and women in particular.

This sacrifice leads to an exception in a society where the values of dignity and autonomy are fundamental and necessary. This exception, which is part of “islands of exceptions” that can be found in Durkheim’s idea, leads to an ambiguity in practicing rights protecting dignity and autonomy especially for women. Following this line of thought, Cotterrel argues that the practice of Muslim women wearing the headscarves or the body-covering gown is fitting to Durkheim’s ‘Moral Individualism’ principle.

This argues that in order to protect this idea, which is fundamental, “we conceal our body as well as our inner life from prying eyes”. This concealment is possibly in order to desexualize public social space, to terminate that ‘island of exception’. Meaning, the women that are wearing these covering garments actually makes it easier to help the society be more cohesive and to be more of the same. In my opinion, this method of achieving ‘Moral Individualism’ is not appropriate, because it takes away from the individual the ability to reveal her face, her facial expressions and it is probably very uncomfortable at certain times.

I should add that ‘Moral Individualism’ is supposed to celebrate diversity and individualism, but it does not in this example of the headscarf issue. Cotterrell argues the same notion but in a cultural integration way. He claims that these women are taken away from the public space because of the cultural differences these garments impose on non-Muslim society. To summarize, Durkheim offers a different approach to the discussion about “Islamic headscarves” and even bypasses much pre-existing debate on the matter as Cotterrell argues. Moral Individualism’ justifies the wearing of all-covering garments since it helps avoiding sexual connotations when integrating within a multi-cultural society. However, this approach also suggests that women’s choices of clothes should be connected to ‘Moral Individualism’.

Hierarchy and power within East and Western enterprises. Introduction Culture is the way we live. It is the clothes we wear, the foods we eat, the languages we speak, the stories we tell, and the ways we celebrate. Culture is also about our roots. Where did our ancestors come from? What do we believe? What makes our lives different from the lives of others? Kalmia, B. (2009). Nations may share civilizations, but they will always be distinct in their culture, since culture defines what they are. Scranton, R. (2007).

The globalization of markets and production continues to bring together people room different cultures and countries in culturally diverse organizations. In the field of international management, it is important not only to recognize these diversities, but it is also vital to understand the cultural differences for the purpose of connecting with and motivating knowledge workers. Traditionally, these cultural distinctions have been classified into ‘eastern’ and ‘western’ views that widely vary with respect to workplace activities and, more specifically, with respect to knowledge management.

With the ‘western’ view being more focused on explicit knowledge and tangible individualistic motivational factors, and the ‘eastern’ view on tacit knowledge and abstract workplace principles; it becomes evident that management of these different cultural perspectives is becoming increasingly complex yet critical in the global workplace. An understanding of these differing views is therefore necessary for effective management in the international sphere, specifically for providing a means for better cross- cultural understanding and successful knowledge transfer.

Management Tasks planning- The goals and objectives Of a company or department are established, as well s determining what actions are needed to achieve. Organizing- organizing actions needed to achieve the goals. Staffing- The task of allocating employees to particular positions within the company. Directing- This has to do with leading the organization and its employees towards its goals. Controlling- Monitoring the performance of the company or department is a task for which different cultures may use different systems and approaches.

Effect of cultural values on management The way tasks and responsibilities are performed in management can be examined in the light of key number of cultural values. Eight cultural value orientations have a considerable influence on the way managers perform their activities. The eight cultural values which can be called as model of culture is, Time focus (Monochromatic and polymorphic) Different cultures have different perceptions of time according to their environment, history, traditions and general practices. In eastern culture where monochromatic perception of time prevails, time is experienced and used in a linear way. People tend to do one activity at a time. For example in eastern culture, people have the diner and then do the home work or read a book. In western culture where polymorphic time is preferred ,people tend to focus on several tasks and and are less dependent on detailed information when performing these tasks. For example in western culture, people have diner while doing the home work or reading a book. Time focus and management tasks Monochromatic Culture (Eastern perspective) Planning- The focus of activity is more on the task itself and Making schedules.

Organizing- The approach used is structured,Linear and task- focused. Staffing- Concerns focused on shorter term. Directing- Managing the inflow and Distribution of detailed information. Controlling- Tendency to Use control systems and strict deadlines. Polymorphic Culture (Western perspective) planning- The focus Of activity is more on relationships when planning. Organizing- The approach is less structured one, More holistic and people- focused. Staffing- Focus on longer term. Directing- Sharing of implicit knowledge/information. Controlling- Tendency to use more flexible control systems involving people.

Time orientation (past, present and future) Culture focused on the past value the upholding tradition in line with the history of the company and the way it usually does things. Those cultures concerned with the present are out quick results and short-term gain. Those with the view towards the future, plans are assessed in the light of expected future benefit. Power (Hierarchy and Equality) The Power value orientation is to do with the extent to which the less powerful members of a society expect or accept that power is distributed unequally.

At work,the level of power and authority are strictly marked out by some eastern cultures oriented to hierarchy. There ,the employees do their work according to the directives of their boss. Len eastern cultures the manager as a separate room from other employees indeed to show up the power distance between the employees and the manager. Companies in west,oriented towards equality there will be more informal structures based on expertise focused on certain projects. Len western cultures the manager works at the same table where the other staffs work.

This shows the equality between the manager and the staffs. Power and management tasks Hierarchy (Eastern perspective) Planning- More autocratic or paternalistic planning is displayed. Organizing- The Organizational structure is tightly controlled. Staffing- Us borderlines expect bosses to take the initiative to train,developing promote them. Directing- Employees like being closely supervised and feel comfortable with a directive supervisor. Controlling- Employees prefer the personal control Of superiors. Equality (Western perspective) Planning- Employees may implement the plan.

More participative planning. Organizing- Organizational structure encourages individual autonomy Staffing- Work relationships should not be strictly prescribed. Directing- Managers exhibit participative or consultative styles. Controlling- Subordinates develop performance objectives with their bosses. Space (private and public) One aspect of space orientation is related to private or public space. Another aspect related to invisible boundary around every person. The concept of space can be seen in terms Of personality.

There can be cultural differences in the relative size of people’s public and private spaces and also in the degree to which they feel comfortable sharing those parts of their personality with other people. In Eastern workplace managers and employees do not share the same office ,but in western workplace the location or size of the place here an employee works does not necessarily reflect that persons rank in the company. The influence of personal space at work Private Planning- Forms of planning: individualistic or systematic. Organizing- More task-centered. Staffing- Explicit information about how staff are to be employed.

Directing-. Managers and employees do not share the same office Controlling- Explicit measures of performance public Planning- Group-oriented or authoritative forms Organizing- Relationship-centered approaches Staffing- Implicit information Directing-. Size of the place where an employee works does not reflect the arson’s rank Controlling- Managers can use more informal checks on performance Structure (Individualism and Collectivism) Individualism Individualism, can be defined as a preference for a loosely-knit social framework in which individuals are expected to take care of themselves and their immediate families only.

Individualism shows the extent to which cultures elevate the role of the individual over the role of the group. When individualism is valued the “I” predominates over the “we” Individual goals, initiative and achievement are most important and people are encouraged to be independent and self-reliant. Collectivism Collectivism represents a preference for a tightly-knit framework in society in which individuals can expect their relatives or members of a particular in- group to look after them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty.

Most of the Eastern cultures place more importance on personal relationships rather than the task to be performed or the deal to be completed. Example Along with the collectivist nature Of the individuals a team based behavior can be seen in the work place environments in Sir Lankan. Similarly there is a new concept which is identical within the emirates airlines which is known as the Family concept. The boss is the ‘father’ and the employees are the ‘children’. The father tells the children what to do but also looks after them and cares for them. The ‘children’ do as they are told and show their father ‘respect’.

It is a two-way relationship in which all parties benefit. This can be comparable to the team based relationship oriented work place conditions in Sir Lankan. Highly individualist cultures (Western) believe individual is most important unit People taking care of themselves (including immediately family only) Self- orientation Identity based on individual Guilt culture Making decisions based on individual needs “l” mentality Emphasis on individual initiative and achievement Highly collectivist cultures (Eastern) believe group is most important unit.

Expect absolute loyalty to group (nuclear family, extended family, caste, organization) Group orientation Decisions based on what is best for the group. Identity based on social system Shame culture Dependence on organization and institutions (Expects organization / institution / group to take care of individual) “We” mentality Emphasis on belonging Structure and management task Individualism (western perspective) leaning- It is expected that those involved in planning will take initiative to present their views. Organizing-Tasks assignment and resources allocation.

Staffing- Organizations are not expected to look after their employees career development. Directing-Leaders expect employees to meet or exceed their responsibilities. Controlling- Control tends to be exerted by individual standards of excellence. Collectivism (Eastern perspective) Planning- plans are developed within the shared values used for measuring activities in the organizations. Organizing- organizational structures emphasize he group; the team is assigned tasks and resources. Staffing- promotions are are based primarily on seniority.

Directing- Leaders expect loyalty in exchange for protection. Controlling- Deviations from standards and expectations is discouraged through group oriented pressure. Conclusion General management and knowledge management theories and practices have to be viewed and reviewed in the context of local cultures. In an organization, the managers bring values, experiences and beliefs that are profoundly rooted in their national cultures. Even the perspective of hat management actually entails varies widely across different national cultures.

The model of culture has been applied to the world of international business and the daily tasks of a manager examined in terms of cultural values. Individual’s frame work of cultural preferences influences the way in which their tasks are executed. Management tasks in the firms varies according to the culture Management tasks in western enterprises varies from the management tasks that are carried out by eastern enterprises. Additional studies must be undertaken to have a thorough understanding of the cultural rabbles.

Without Andean different perspectives from the traditional and AC opted frameworks, such as Hypotheses dimensions, organizations cannot leverage the strengths of the global economy, which can make the difference between survival and success for today’s firms.

According to Brown et al. (1998: i) “procedural individualisation” is “the removal of collective mechanisms for determining terms and conditions of employment”. This matched with the description of individualism by Storey & Bacon in the region of “industrial relations”. The two authors quote three significant guides of collectivism in industrial relations and these are: “central management orientations towards unions, employee orientations towards unions, and collective bargaining”, that is, “the extent to which managers recognise the collective basis for industrial relations”

The areas wherein they happen to be less then there is procedural individualism: the formation of individual agreements can be the paradigm for procedural individualism. The usage of individual agreements happens to be the main aspect of procedural individualism. As stated above, the exact opposite of individual agreeing is collective negotiating. Collective negotiation is very closely related to unionism. Individualisation and Trade Unions Individualisation originated due to the separation of work and traditional modernisation.

Due to individualisation there has been a new type of communal decency and Zeitgeist and it is featured through a prominence on personal accountability instead of the conventional unity and commitment that emerged from a person. The difference that is present between the mentioned distinct origins is possibly perceived, for instance, in the styles between individualism and collectivism (Suhonen 1989: 48–54). Certain studies (Sihvo & Uusitalo 1993: 33, 34–38, 95–96; Puohiniemi 1993: 36–37) indicate that Finland also has gone through a move from collectivism toward individualism.

It is especially the younger generation who are perceived to be as a category in which such type of direction is common (Tuohinen 1990: 123; Zoll 1993: 27–28; Ilmonen 1995a: 26). Among other factors of the results of individualisation, one happens to be that the people’s association may weaken with respect to, for instance, their relations, birthplaces, customs and communal societies like labour unions. Such a condition is given the term “post-traditional” by Giddens who says that this is featured by the disbanding or alteration in the communal associations and customs.

Giddens argues that although customs are still there, that is to say that they haven’t been absolutely ended, they have to have legitimate origins for the person and he should know how to convince himself as well as the others regarding the customs. That means that the customs are not accepted blindly. For instance, customs cannot describe the membership of a trade union. There are arguments for the fact that customary individualisation provides with the most impact on the relations between members and unions (Zoll 1993; Lash & Urry 1994).

On the contrary, persons more and more gauge and benefits and the shortcomings of membership. The contemporary era requires for judgement to be made use of continuously due to the fact that the development and possibility of labour markets has led to personal judgement becoming an essential items. Individuals have to be keeping on inquiring from themselves regarding the most suitable options for them in various circumstances. The answer can reinforce or even weaken the relation that exists between members and the trade union movement, and this depends on the circumstance.

Another feature that is linked to individualisation happens to be a modification in framework aspects and the main unite of economy which are the firms. The new moral standard and the breakup of the labour market can be illustrated through the case of Denmark. In 1991-91 there was a thorough research conducted among the members of the LO (this is the central institution of Danish trade unions) and the results showed that the membership is very much distinguished (Ilmonen & Jokivuori, 2000). The conventional harmony of the employees was continually represented by some members.

The main principle behind this happens to be that “every worker must belong to a trade union and vote for left-wing parties”, back up for the safety state, and display harmony for the other employees (Bild et al. 1993: 84–109). Such members totalled to a 44% of LO total members. More or less the same ratio (45% to be exact) of members did not relate to the queries, while the rest 11% happened to be in between the two categories. From that Danish research it was found that major disparities exist in the communal arrangement of collective relative to individualistic members.

The set elements like gender and age, plus also those elements that are of professional rank and branch rank, that are associated with labour market situation, are linked to collective-individualistic direction. As was found through the Danish research, the members having the utmost individualistic direction are the managerial employees in the production, in building and development, whilst the lesser status employees are commonly (particularly with respect to health and welfare sections) the ones most collectively directed (Madsen 1997: 197-217).

Homogeneity is important in working in a Japanese business environment. Japan has been isolated by both geography and choice for centuries, which explains their strong sense of nationalism and pride in their culture (Bucknall, 2005, p.14).  Hence, in conducting business in Japan, one must be aware of the Japanese culture, traditions and manners of conducting business to avoid violating any of them and jeopardizing the business relationship.

One must keep in mind that the Japanese put a premium in cooperation in all aspects of life, including business. History reveals that the Japanese have long valued cooperation, since the time when rice farming was the most important economic activity in the country. Rice farming required the cooperation of families and friends in the community, not like the “individualistic hunting and gathering culture of the West” (Nishiyama, 2000,  p.84).

People shy away from individualism and favor group-centeredness and mutual assistance. In negotiating with the Japanese, one should be careful in debating with them because “quiet listening and obedience are rewarded rather than independence and debating skills” (p.85).

The Japanese society is characterized by tradition and verticality, even up to this age.  An individual’s status is determined by age, sex, education, occupation and relationship (p.85).  The Japanese will feel uncomfortable if the social status is ignored during negotiations. This is dissimilar to the Westerner’s way of attempting to establish interpersonal equality regardless of the status.  In doing business with the Japanese, one has to take into consideration the age, sex, education and occupation of the Japanese delegates; one has to be very careful and polite especially when the delegates are comprised of older people.

Utmost respect should be given to these people.  These things should be kept in mind because the Japanese would rather enter a negotiation based on a warm and interpersonal relationship than a rigid contract (p.84). This warm and interpersonal relationship with them is possible if they are shown respect and sincerity.

Hard work is not an extraordinary virtue in Japan; it is regarded as normal. From the low grade workers to the CEO of the big Japanese corporations, the Japanese strive for professionalism in everything they do. Zen Buddhism encourages the attitude of doing things properly and not to be “wishy-washy” about things (Bucknall, 2005, p.19).  The excellent quality of Japanese-manufactured products is that they give importance to excellence and hard work.

Also, since hard work is important, it is not uncommon for the Japanese to “give up their evenings or part of the weekend to work or engage in work-related social activities” (p.19).  The Japanese have longer working hours than most industrialized nations. Lunch times are limited to half an hour and hardly anyone will drink alcohol in the middle of the day as it may disrupt work performance (p.19).

Canada has the greatest portion of immigrants of any country in the world (Walker et al., 2003, p.163). Given that fact, it is easy to explain the low degree of discrimination and racism in Canada. Canada has been permeated by various cultures, particularly British, French and Eastern European (Whittle, 1997, p.153).  Canadians are accepting to cultural differences and their own culture has been molded by a fusion of various cultures.

Therefore, no such thing as a “Canadian work ethic” (p.152). Unlike the Japanese, they do not put too much value in homogeneity. In fact,  a Geert Hofstede study reveals that Canadians rank individualism the highest in attitudes (International Business Center, 2008).  Canada is more collectivist when compared to the United States, but it is definitely more individualistic than Japan (Guffey and Almonte, 2009, p.14). Visitors who expect to do business with a Canadian company should expect a “very flat, open system” (Global Business Media Ltd).

During negotiations with Canadians, it should be noted that an attitude of condescension is looked down upon by Canadians. Their individualistic nature dictates that all people, regardless of race, age, gender, or income category, should be treated fairly. They are interested in results, profits and fairness (Whittle, p.153). Just as long as the person can deliver results and achieve the goal, they will be willing to enter into a negotiation with that person.

Canadians are different from the Japanese in this sense because the Japanese still take into consideration various factors. For instance, the Japanese still consider women inferior and still think that women should be limited to the home (Bucknall, 2005, p.21). Canadians are also more informal in the sense that managers are seen as “one of the guys” and not someone who stands apart from everyone else (Global Business Media Ltd., n.d.).

Canadians observe the regular 8-hour workday and enjoy an ample amount of vacaticon. Canadians work” 6.4 billion hours of paid overtime” (Whittle, 1997, p.201). Time is very important to Canadians; the adage “Time is money” holds true to them.  Making people wait for business appointments is considered rude. This importance for time determines how they deal with people during meetings. Because time is valuable, Canadians tend to be direct and straightforward in meetings. Unlike the very traditional Japanese, the Canadians place less emphasis on tradition, ceremony, and social rules because this can be a source of indirectness in meetings (Guffey & Almonte, 2009,  p.14).

Indirectness is a waste of time for Canadians. However, Canadians do take time during a major decision making. One should expect negative feedback if a Canadian is forced into making a rushed decision. They usually take time to decide and consult the people concerned, even creating a committee to make decisions on a certain matter (Whittle, 1997, p.155). The Japanese also take time in making decisions but the difference lies in the factors they consider. As said earlier, the Japanese are very interested in forming a warm and interpersonal relationship with the other party. The Canadians, on the other hand, look at the detailed information and the empirical facts concerning the decision (p.155).

References

Bucknall, K. (2005). Japan: Doing Business in a Unique Culture. North Carolina: Boson Books.

Guffey, M.E. & Almonte, R. (2009). Essentials of Business Communication (6^th ed). Toronto: Nelson Education.

Global Business Media Ltd. (n.d.). Canadian Business Structures [WWW Page]. URL http://www.worldbusinessculture.com/Canadian-Business-Structures.html. Accessed June 3, 2010.

International Business Center. (2008). Canada [WWW Page]. URL http://www.cyborlink.com/besite/canada.htm. Accessed June 3, 2010.

Nishiyama, K. (2000). Doing Business with Japan:Vol. Successful Strategies for Intercultural Communication. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.

Walker, D.M. et al. (2003). Doing Business Internationally: The Guide to Cross-Cultural Success (2^nd ed.). McGraw-Hill.

Whittle, J. (1997). Canada Business: The Portable Encyclopedia with Canada. San Rafael: World Trade Press.

Rousseau was born in Geneva, the son of a watchmaker. His mother died shortly after his birth, and his aunt and uncle raised him. At 16 he set out on into the world which brought him into contact with Louise de Warens, who became his patron and later his lover. She arranged for his trip to Turin, where he became a Roman Catholic convert. After serving as a footman in a powerful family, he left Turin and spent most of the next dozen years at Chambery, In 1742 he went to Paris to make his fortune with a new system of musical notation, but he failed. Once in Paris, however, he became friends with Denis Diderot.

Diderot later commissioned Rousseau to write articles on music for Diderot”s Encyclopedia. In 1749, Rousseau won first prize in a contest, held by the Academy of Dijon, on the question: “Has the progress of the sciences and arts contributed to the corruption or to the improvement of human conduct? ” In 1765 he was expelled from Bern and accepted the invitation of David Hume to live at his house in England; there he began to write the first part of his Confessions, but after a year he quarreled violently with Hume, whom he believed to be in league with Diderot and Grimm, and returned to France in 1767.

After wandering through the provinces, he finally settled in Paris, where he lived in a garret and copied music. The French authorities left him undisturbed, while curious foreigners flocked to see the famous man and be insulted by him. At the same time he went from salon to salon, reading his Confessions aloud. In his last years he began Reveries du promeneur solitaire, descriptions of nature and his thoughts about it, which was unfinished at the time of his death. Shortly before his death Rousseau moved to the house of a protector at Ermenonville, near Paris, where he died.

In 1794 his remains were transferred to the Pantheon in Paris. Few people in the Enlightenment Period equaled Rousseau”s influence on politics, literature and education. Rousseau”s thoughts begin with the fact the he believed we are good by nature but when put in society we begin become more disorganized. According to Rousseau, humanity”s only flaw was social behavior as he stated in his book “The Social Contract. ” “But human nature does not go backward, and we never return to the times of innocence and equality, when we have once departed from them. ” (The Social Contract, Book I, Ch. )

Going along with his idea of social order was Rousseau”s aim at freedom. He believed that the purpose of law and government was to expose the people”s wishes for the ideal government. Rousseau”s theory was, since the people decided if a ruler is fair or not, it was up to the society if the government was able to grant the people their liberty and well being. Basically, the government was only as strong as the people worked for it to be. If society didn”t like the tactics used by the ruler, the government would not gain control. Rousseau”s ideas on education are still used today.

Rousseau outlined in his book, Emile, that education shouldn”t be viewed as trying to get a child to understand everything, but to draw out what was already in the child. Education was to be monitored and controlled very carefully and in the end, the process should result in the natural development of a child”s potential. Rousseau”s writings were always personal, describing his deeply keep secrets and thoughts. During the Enlightenment Period, Rousseau”s writings were incredibly popular. His book, Heloise, was one of the most popular and his book Confessions is still widely read today.

His knowledge of musical theory was amazing because it was self-taught. Although his work did not have an effect on Enlightenment music, his compositions live on today. Rousseau”s influence on the Enlightenment was just as great as many of the more well know philosophs. Rousseau expanded on John Locke”s theory that a society has the right to question the authority of an unjust ruler. Rousseau highly influenced German and English romanticism, a movement in the 18th century that was marked by an emphasis on emotion and imagination. His thoughts about the rule of the government had a profound impact on French revolutionary thought.

During the Enlightenment, people were beginning to become more independent and question authority. Society was starting to move away from conventional thinking and Rousseau social contract was the beginning to this revolution. Rousseau”s social contract was an addition to Thomas Hobbes”s social contract. Rousseau”s version stated that the contract was an agreement between free individuals to create a society and a government while Hobbes believed the ideal relationship was between a society and its government. Rousseau contributed greatly to the movement in Western Europe for individual freedom and against the absolutism of church and state.

Rousseau”s ideas were a stepping-stone onto which the American colonists followed. Using Rousseau”s ideas on individual freedom, the colonists declared their independence from Great Britain and formed their own colonies. Rousseau”s ideas on education not only reflected the movements of his time, his ideas started a new movement. His thinking has not only influenced our ideas on education, they have formed the basis for what we believe in. Rousseau believed every child had the potential to become great, but it just a matter of releasing their knowledge.

Teachers today use Rousseau”s thinking of allowing the free development of human potential to guide students through life. His ideas on education were new and different at the time. With these ideas, Rousseau added to the spirit of his time by creating new standards on education and learning. Rousseau”s thoughts can be summed up in a quote from his book, “The Social Contract,” (Book 2, Ch. 2) “Man is born free and everywhere he is in chains. Let us then admit that force does not create right, and that we are obliged to obey only legitimate powers. In that case, my original thought recurs, live free as equal individuals in a state of nature. “

The main idea behind the collectivist model happens to be that of collective bargaining. Collective negotiation “is the method of fixing the terms of employment and settling grievances arising from those terms by negotiation between union(s) and employer(s)” (Isaac 1958: 348). Usually, for a definition of collective bargaining Flanders (1970:41) is referred to and his description of the subject is a “rule making process”.

By means of collective negotiation, unions are “interested in regulating wages as well as raising them; and, of course, in regulating a wide range of other issues pertaining to their members’ jobs and working lives. In turn, a trade union is a continuous association of wage-earners1 for the purpose of maintaining or improving the conditions of their working lives” (Webb & Webb 1920). There is an occurrence of collective negotiation due to the inequity between the authority of the bosses and particular workers (Fox 1974: 28).

It was in the 19th century that Australia saw the face of collective bargaining and this was following the creation of trade unions plus the unplanned employee groups. The trade unions were, many a times, disbanded. There were several significant industrial disputes in the time of the 1980s while the workers attempted at replacing collective bargaining and hiring at union rates with “freedom to contract” and thus diminish the authority and membership of the unions.

In those conflicts the workers turned out to be victorious and they did not bargain with the unions. However, there was a formation of negotiation and it existed together with collective bargaining till many many years. The legislature had actually reacted in this way to the requirement to prevent more harmful disputes and for the restoration of the inequity in negotiation authority which had risen due to personal contracting (Hagan 1977; Macintyre 1983; Deery et al 1997).

The direct opposite of collective bargaining happens to be the direct opposite of personal employment agreements. Nevertheless, individual agreements are not equal to “individual employment contract”. Regrettably, an inaccuracy exists to some extent in the usage of the term “individualism” at the time when employment contracts are being referred to, and it arises due to the various explanations which the different people assume, the variety of ideas to which the word can be referred to and the conflation of sense in certain language.