Language

English as a global language English is spoken in most parts of the world, for instance in Great Britain, the USA, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and in many more countries. Moreover in African states English serves as main form of communication. English is, after the Chinese one, the language most people speak and it is the most popular second language and foreign language pupils learn in school. The English language is often named as a “killer language” that wipes out smaller languages and their cultures by exclusive use (f. e. media, economy).

English is not popular because of its linguistic properties but there are conscious, co-ordinated promotion programmes. But if there are so many speaking the same language there remains the question of human’s diversity – concerning biological, cultural and political matters. We also have to take into consideration, that English as a global language is also linked to social costs, because the teaching and accommodation of the languages for immigrant minorities is rather irrational. Language policy in the post-colonial situation:

There are a lot of colonial states with multilingual character because of the imperialist powers in the 19th and 20th century. In Africa, for example, there are no attempts to use any African language in high-status functions, they are not even taught in schools. The period during colonialism changed a lot in the world’s history and following development, and colonialism make us think about cheap rawmaterials and workers the imperialist powers wanted to gain, but we often forget about something else, which an African statesman expresses in his speech: The real aim of colonialism was to control the people’s _wealth… but) economic and political control can never be complete or effective without mental control.

To control a people’s culture is to control their tools of self-definition in relationship to others. For colonialism, this involved two aspects of the same process: the destruction or the deliberate undervaluing of a people’s culture, their art, dances, religions, history, geography, education, orature and literature, and the conscious elevation of the language of the coloniser. The domination of a people’s language by the languages of the colonising nations was crucial to the domination of the mental universe of the colonised.

Ngugi wa Thiong’o (extract from his famous essay on “The language of African literature”) But there are several arguments for the demand of the adoption of the ex-colonial languages as official ones. First, regarded politically, the choice of any indigenous language would destabilise African states which are multilingual. A second argument would be, that the continue use of the ex-colonial language is rather “practical” because in the end it was accepted by the majority.

From having been the language of the oppressor, English, for instance, became the language of national unity and national liberation. There was a sense (economically and technically) in ex-colonial languages, because then they are linked to their “mother country” and the language-infrastructure delivers a pool of skills, like as prorate books, dictionaries, registers, etc. It would be useless to imitate and duplicate in any of African languages. But these arguments were not often used in cultural discussions, because the European languages often affect as superior to the indigenous “vernaculars”.

The development seems to be inevitable because with the problem of unemployment, the ability to speak English is very important, but English can’t be blamed for the developments demanding an international lingua franca to facilitate a world wide exchange of knowledge everyone can understand. Killer languages were always introduced by those who were in control of power. The USA with the strongest currency the Dollar, shows that it is not coincidental that English is the leading candidate as a global language.

Because of the English predominance in the industrial world, more and more peoples will have to join in and the question remains if they are able to keep their own identities. There is no danger if regional groups manage to keep their own language for internal communication, but in less developed countries the members of small linguistic groups have to change to a language of a higher rank in the language hierarchy. Because that way they are more flexible and the chances in world-wide competition are bigger.

In Australia parents even force their children to speak English instead of their own indigenous mother tongue, because they want to provide them better chances for their future. Shortly, you can say that by surviving in a capitalistic system of competition many peoples are forced to support a process which destroys their own culture. In Countries of GB’s old colonial empire (e. g. : Australia, USA, Canada, New Zealand) the native populations were either killed or enslaved, and the Anglo- Saxon culture and language were adopted. This seemed to be a natural process. In Africa the new system of additive bilingualism shall be introduced now.

That means that the 1st language maintains and a second one is added. This system developed out of the Bantu Education, which inforced black schoolchildren to learn English with the help of a racist curriculum (Stundenplan). But African children rebelled which is called the_ Soweto Uprising of 1976, by now. This truly baneful legacy of Apartheid and a lack of will amongst most of the political leadership are the main reasons why there is no successful policy of multilingualism and multilingualistic education in Africa yet. On contrary, there’s really a language problem like in India and other former colonies.

The leaders followed the French or English only (or mainly) language policies after formal independence from the colonial rule. Most of these countries returned to their mother – tongue within. Prof. Alexander Neville thinks, that if additive bilingualism is carried out systematically but flexibly, there should be a high level of literacy in Africa in the course of the next century (1 African language and at least some fluency in English for all Africans). African schools could normalise (competent language teachers like most countries of the world). We think this is a rather optimistic view. But what is the right way to learn a language?

In the Internet Research there are some conditions quoted as important to learn a 2nd language: Teachers‘ language proficiency Teachers‘ competence as teachers (understand and overcome pupils‘ problems) Exposure to the language outside the classroom Adequate textbooks and material There’s a need for one or two world languages in the fields of trade, technology and diplomacy. But there’s a global tension between this need on one hand, and the national and regional need for a language in which the history and treasures of the cultures of the world‘s diverse peoples, are captured, on the other hand.

Nowadays, as English is the lingua franca of the EU, massive efforts of translation and interpretation have to be taken. A lingua franca and Multilingualism should stand side by side, forming a common language policy. Changes in the Teaching of English David Crystal (Author of „English as a Global Language“) thinks that English became the world language, not because of any intrinsic linguistic qualities, but because at significant moments in history it happened to be ‘in the right place at the right time’.

“The Future of English? by Graddol, suggests that English is at a turning point in its development as an international language: it has become a global language at a time when the world itself is undergoing rapid change. Indeed, English is very much a part of the process of transformation, which is creating a more closely interconnected world in which people and machines talk easily to each other from one country to another in the world. It is clear that more and more people learning English as a foreign language do so in order to communicate with other non-native speakers of English.

This marks a significant change in the nature and purpose of teaching and learning English around the world, which has hitherto been built on the idea of teaching a native speaker model of English (usually British or American) to allow communication between the learner and native speakers. If you consider, that the number of people speaking English as a second language will soon outnumber the one of those speaking it as a first tongue, you will understand, that also the way of teaching English has to change.

Therefor new methods of English Language teaching (ELT) have been developed to be able to teach also the diverse and changing contexts in which English will be used in the future. There are courses on the Internet and special groups, where English teachers from all over the world discuss about the new challenge of their profession. Diana and Julia Brugger Opinions: What makes a global language? Why is English a leading candidate? Will it hold this position? A few years ago I traveled around Europe with a friend. Although we knew only a little French, we were able to travel with no problem.

Everyone we encountered, with a few exceptions, spoke English. It was comforting to be able to communicate with others when we were lost, needed help or just wanted to talk. Personally, I think a universal language would benefit most people. I agree, however, that one should not replace native languages. Native languages are symbols of culture, the past and its people. From what we have learned so far I think a universal language would have maybe eliminated some of the oppression and subordination some peoples faced at the hands of colonizers.

Cheryl Fonda Undoubtedly, the English language is a powerful tool and has been a dominant force in suppressing the colonies during Imperialism. Fortunately, Pakistan ( my native country) which was under British rule did not let go of it’s native language despite British influence. English remains the official language, but we have our own national language called Urdu, which is quite dominant. Shandana *Khanzada* (Pakistan) I guess from the heading of this posting that we would assume that English would be a great candidate for this universal language.

I do feel that it might eliminate some tension if everyone had access to a certain universal language and couldn’t be exploited as easily. However, most diplomats and such already speak English. It is the poor of every nation that don’t have access to English education, so the hierarchy still continues. The universal language would cause the exploitation of the poor by the rich. The only difference is that it would not be a nation exploiting another but people of a nation exploiting there own countrymen.

We as English speakers take a lot for granted… when it comes to languages we are very self-centered. True a universal language would make business and politics much easier, but each language carries much of a culture. If you have ever tried translating poetry from one language to another you know how words don’t have exact translations and almost all subtleties are lost. Think about even within the English language… each dialect ( southern, Midwest, New England) has its own character.

A universal language sounds great in theory but the work that implementing it would entail is overwhelming to say the least. I too have travelled to other countries and have felt very lucky when others know English and were able to help me. —Americans should really know other languages well considering the resources we have here, but the truth of the matter is that we do not. I think a universal language would be more convenient but it would eventually wipe out certain differences among us that serve as positive vehicles for learning and experience.

Depending on the number and type of clauses they contain, sentences are classified as simple, compound, complex, compound-complex.

1. Simple Sentences. A simple sentence contains only one independent clause. Without dancing, life would not be fun. A simple sentence can also contain compound elements (subject, verb, object). Evil enters like a needle and spreads like an oak. (compound verb)
2. Compound sentences. A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses with no subordinate clauses. They are joined with a comma and a coordinating conjunction (and, but, or, nor, so, for, yet) or with a semicolon. He wanted to join the group, but the other members wouldn’t let him. Most singers gain fame through hard work and dedication; Evita, however, found another means.
3. Complex sentences. A complex sentence is composed of one independent clause with one or more subordinate clauses. The fur that warms a monarch once warmed a bear. Home is the place where you slip in the tub and break your neck. Talent is what you possess. Dig a well before you are thirsty.

Whoever gossips to you will gossip about you. Juan can run faster than I can bicycle. When he adopts a creed, a scientist commits suicide. The receptionist knows that you are here. Subordinating Adverbs after before rather than though where although even though since unless whether as if how so that until while than when why because in order  that because although Relative Pronouns that how . Other words introducing subordinate clauses who ever whom ever what ever which ever whenever. The above is true in both Spanish and English.

Run-on sentences are a serious problem because they indicate that the writer does not understand basic sentence structure either in Spanish or English. Run-ons are independent clauses (a word group that can stand alone as a complete sentence) that have not been joined correctly. There are two types of run-on sentences. When a writer puts no punctuation and no coordinating conjunction between independent clauses, the sentence is said to be fused. EX: Gestures are a means of communication for everyone they are essential for the hearing paired.

A more common run-on sentence is the comma splice two independent clauses joined with a comma without a coordinating conjunction (and, so, but, for, yet, or, nor). EX: Gestures are a means of communication for everyone, they are essential for the hearing impaired. In other comma splices, the comma is accompanied by a joining word that is not a coordinating conjunction. EX: Gestures are a means of communication for everyone, however they are essential for the hearing impaired. There are four methods of fixing a run-on sentence:

1. Use a comma and coordinating conjunction: EX: Gestures are a means of communication for everyone, but they are essential for the hearing impaired.
2. Use a semi-colon (if the clauses are related) or a colon or a dash to separate the independent clauses. EX: Gestures are a means of communication for everyone; they are essential for the hearing impaired.

Sometimes the semi-colon is accompanied by a transitional expression. EX: Gestures are a means of communication for everyone; however, they are essential for the hearing impaired. Other common transitions: moreover, nevertheless, for example, in fact, etc. ). If appropriate you may also use a colon or a dash (less formal than the colon): EX: Nuclear waste is hazardous: This is an indisputable fact. 3 Make the clauses into separate sentences. EX: Gestures are a means of communication for everyone. They are essential for the hearing impaired. Restructure the sentence so that one of the clauses becomes subordinate. EX: While gestures are a means of communication for everyone, they are essential for the hearing impaired (Hacker, 2009, 296-308).

Revise any run-on sentences using a technique that you find effective. If a sentence is correct write correct after it.  Carlos never drove the vintage cars his father left him, however, he wouldn’t sell them. The volunteers worked hard to clean up after the hurricane, in fact, many of them did not sleep for days. The center of Monterrey is the Macroplaza, this plaza is one of the largest in the world. I ran the three blocks as fast as I could I missed the bus.  We didn’t trust her, she had lied before.

If you want to get good grades, consider this advice, don’t wait until the end of the semester to start studying.  Juan is a top competitor he has been running for years.  The floor around the refreshment stand was sticky, I was lucky to make it away with both shoes on my feet.  The streets of Mexico City are dangerous, it is not safe to drive. Are you able endure boredom, then this might be the right career for you.  We planned to spend our vacation at Padre Island, however, the hurricane made us come home earlier than we had planned. There was one major reason for his wealth, his grandfather had been a multi-millionaire. President Fox was standing next to the podium, he was waiting for President Bush to introduce him to the press. Mr. Romero is an excellent linguist, he speaks six languages.  Somedays I only have money for the bus, lunch is a luxury I cannot afford.  The building is being renovated we have no heat or water. The next time an event is canceled because of rain, don’t blame the weatherman, blame nature.

It is frequently said that the western can talk many linguistic communications and frequently there is a phrase that states the myth of monolinguals in the West. The world is non needfully true as the category I am in is able to talk over 30 three linguistic communications. The Salverda article refersuser2010-10-21T21:55:00

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that London itself can talk over 300 different linguistic communications, which renders the position of monolinguals.

A bilingual individual is a individual who can talk less than two or more linguistic communications and a individual who can talk more than two are called monolingual. I can talk English, Gujarati, Hindi and French. For this instance analyze English and Guajarati will be L1 and L2.

Bing a individual who has the chance to larn more than two linguistic communications has taught me how I have learnt my linguistic communication and how good I look after them. For this instance survey I will explicate societal and political content bon linguistic communication acquisition and the instruction experiences that I had turning up. I will besides speak about theories and codification commixture and shift.

Peoples get linguistic communications throughout different ways, some learn from schools, some from get marrieding into a different civilization or some through migrations. I was taught from my parents who migrated from India. The manner that I can remember is, L1 was taught at school and L2 was taught at place and Saturday school.

Learning L1 was rather difficult compared to L2, as I believe that with L2 there was more focal point on me larning that much more rapidly as my Dendranthema grandifloruom could non talk L1 rather good. Using this I will be able to concentrate on certain theories that may be able to assist how the linguistic communication.

During the period of 1960 ‘s there was a cardinal development on how kids get linguistic communication. It was done by Peal and Lambert. There survey showed that the survey clearly demonstrated the advantages that accrue to bilinguals in certain countries of cognitive ability.

If it was non for Peal and Lambert 1960, as a discovery, theoreticians were able to understand that kids needed to be balanced in linguistic communications to assist them with their cognitive development. With this, people were able to understand how kids learnt linguistic communications and assist teacher to learn the kids. Because of the methods founded, I believe that it has assist me to understand that when I was larning at that place were different paths that instructors taught us to assist me understand linguistic communications and without cognizing some of this methods were taught at place every bit good.

But what defined a balanced bilingual? This was a individual with equal proficiency, high or low in two linguistic communications. ‘Native like control of both linguistic communications ‘ ( Baker 2001 ) given the nature of linguistic communications it is non possible to be balanced for a period of clip. However, usage of two or more linguistic communications may be in balanced give the fortunes.

The CUP ( Common Underlying Proficiency theoretical account ) which was developed by Cummins in 1980 was a great development for the apprehension for linguistic communication development. To summarize this method is that the both linguistic communications operate at the same clip, intending that when I was larning my linguistic communications, the development of L1 was weaker compared to L2. ( Baker 2001 p170 ) explains that one ground could be that if one or more linguistic communications are non working to the full knowledge and academic public presentation could be affected. In my instance, this was true, as I seem to hold more hard in larning English even though it was meant to be my first linguistic communication compared to my place linguistic communication which was L2.

Another method that I remember larning was through sounds and ocular cues which really goes into the BICS. This is Basic Interpersonal Communication Skills ; ( Baker 2001 pp,174 ) defines this as the insouciant criterion for communicating, where its context is embed on the rudimentss of utilizing ocular cues and non- verbal agencies of communicating significance. To me this meant that, when larning L1 instructor were utilizing sounds, images or other methods of communicating, this was besides the same when larning L2, nevertheless, although both methods of acquisition was same. I had jobs larning L1 compared to L2. The deceptive nature of BICS can take to instructors doing errors where the instructors would overrate kids ‘s ability in literacy development. Where as in some instance it can be accurate and instructors would happen that they do non hold clip to assist or non adequate resources as there are 30 kids in a schoolroom and can non assist the all.

In development to BICS, there was the content embedded and content reduced. Which was design by Cummins 1983, this method was design to assist kids with their cognitive thought. A context-embedded undertaking is one in which the pupil has entree to a scope of extra ocular and unwritten cues ; for illustration he can look at illustrations of what is being talked about or inquire inquiries to corroborate apprehension. A context-reduced undertaking is one such as listening to a talk or reading dense text, where there are no other beginnings of aid than the linguistic communication itself.

The threshold theory was developed by Cummins et al 1979 explains that this theory is predicated on the premiss that bilingualism confers cognitive benefits. It ‘s suggested that the bilingual proficiency must be reasonably high before cognitive benefits accrue to the persons. This is partially related to me because it explains that if my L1 is less developed the L2 is besides affect. In my instance this was true. In larning both linguistic communications at the same clip, it was confounding me that I did non cognize which manner to travel and sometimes when it came to larning I found that my authorship accomplishment were weaker compared to my reading accomplishments. Which gave a disadvantage as it made me experience less intelligent compared to other kids around me.

One ground why I could hold underachieved in developing could be that I may non hold could be the insufficiently developed in both of the linguistic communications, nevertheless, one ground could be that because I had to self Teach L1, as my parents L1 was their native linguistic communication and English was L2 to them so it was bit difficult for them to learn as they were larning themselves every bit good.

Code commixture and Code Switching, are a good known factor in footings of a bilingual individual. Code -switching is the commixture of words, phrases and sentences from two distinguishable grammatical ( sub ) systems across sentence boundaries within the same address event, code-mixing is the embedding of assorted lingual units such as affixes ( bound morphemes ) , words ( unbound morphemes ) , phrases and clauses from a co-operative activity where the participants, in order to deduce what is intended, must accommodate what they hear with what they understand.

It meant that when I was talking, I kept blending my linguistic communications together, for illustration I would get down to speak in L1 and complete in L2. At school if I knew person that could talk the same linguistic communication as me, it felt particular and felt like we were talking in codifications that me and my friends would cognize merely.

In decision, I have notice that larning linguistic communications is a complex thing, if you do non look after it you can lose that ability and can even bury about it. To understand linguistic communications and how they help we have to travel back to its beginnings like roll and Lambert who were a great influence on linguistic communications. Because of them other theoretician such as Cummins ‘s happening aid to understand how to assist kids. But what needs to be considered is that there could be negative impact every bit good as there were jobs with some of the determination such as societal category or societal political were non considered, and most of the determination were centre through in-between category kids. Besides in schools teacher now understand that kids larning L1 is non to be treated as particular demands as it is a different categorization besides teachers must understand that in add-on to being bilingual, kids must non merely go on to develop their first linguistic communication and non subtractive their L2 as it besides undermines their cognitive thought. At the start of the essay I have said that I can talk three or more linguistic communication, which it true but can merely talking Hindi, and understanding Urdu and Punjabi be classified as person being monolingual. What about my GCSE French, where I learnt how to read and compose and talk, but due to non utilizing that linguistic communication I have forgotten it, can I could that as a linguistic communication learnt. So being bilingual is non clearly defined as it could intend anything. Yet people have frequently said that if you can talk a linguistic communication means that you have learnt a linguistic communication. Peoples have frequently said that larning a linguistic communication is difficult and if you do non look after, you may lose that accomplishment, which in my instance was true, because I had non look after my linguistic communication I have forgotten most of the linguistic communication.

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hypertext transfer protocol: //esl.fis.edu/teachers/support/cummin.htm

hypertext transfer protocol: //www.njas.helsinki.fi/pdf-files/vol15num1/ayeomoni.pdf

Introduction

A foreign language is the language that people from another specific country/nation speak. Why should we learn foreign languages? As Frank Smith (Voxy, 2011) stated: “One language sets you in a corridor for life. Two languages open every door along the way”.

Learning a foreign language is a fundamental way to broaden one’s horizon, to find a job, to communicate with people from all over the world, to understand and respect other civilizations, to study or work abroad, to consume knowledge from the foreign media and others. The list of the gains of speaking a foreign language is endless. It is not only about having the skills to speak a language; it also serves personal potential to grow and to improve oneself.

In the era of globalization and massive migration, language learning is more needed than ever before. The last decades, millions of people have been moving from one place to another (for various reasons such as political, economical, cultural reasons) in order to ameliorate their lives and get more opportunities to develop themselves. This situation sets the language learning inevitable because without it people could simply not communicate.

As education has been always the most shaping mechanism, foreign language teaching is a main purpose in nowadays’ schooling. A key note of UNESCO’s proposes in the «Guidelines on Intercultural Education» is that «the role of language is a basic tool through education to arise understanding among people’s cultures» (Cowen, 2009, p. 1019).

The primary education level is considered one of the most important periods in a child’s life. It is a core-stage that comes after pre-schooling, where children get the basic knowledge in order to evolve themselves and to build later a personal cognitive system where they can add all the following knowledge they are going to face during education (either formal or informal).

School curriculums worldwide include teaching students at least one compulsory foreign language as they start primary school. Regularly, those school curricula in each country form the way of language teaching and they are continuously looking for the best methods and policies in order to achieve the greatest cognitive result. Education should prioritize and support the language teaching in favor of students to have access to a very broad information/knowledge area.

 English as a foreign language in Europe

Having a global language makes our lives much simpler and our communication attainable. The selection of English language benefits people from different national contexts to connect and interact in several levels (for example: educational, professional, political, social level). In fact, without having a common language as a means of communication, the struggle of it would be noticeable everywhere in our lives.

According to Collins Dictionary for the definition “English as a foreign language” is: “the practice and theory of learning and teaching English for use in countries where it is not an official medium” (English as a Foreign Language definition and meaning | Collins English Dictionary”).

The heads of European Union in 2002, focused on a two foreign language teaching from a very early age. This process would develop children’s tolerance to deal with the different cultures and/or languages. The positive outcomes of this action would also benefit children in cognitive and academic level as they would be more effective in all other areas (Dedrinou, 2013, p.46). Therefore, the urgent need of foreign language acquisition is a vital matter in recent years’ schooling and its position becomes stronger and stronger.

Reviewing the “Key data of teaching languages at schools in Europe” the most common foreign language that students learn in primary and secondary school, is English. English is a mandatory foreign language in nearly all education systems that stipulate a particular foreign language that all students must study, that is, in almost half of the European countries studied (Union, 2018, p.13).

The percentage of European students learning English during the whole process of education is 97.3%. In Primary schools it is lower (79.4%) due to the non-compulsory character of English teaching at the first years (grades) of Primary education in several countries. The last ten years 18.7% more primary school students were learning English compared to 2005. The reason is that the starting point of English teaching moved in lower grades of schooling (Union, 2018).

Aim and significance

The present exam paper points to reflect the importance of learning the first foreign language from the very early age of Primary school. Moreover, it aims to add knowledge to the existent information in language learning generally and particularly in these two countries, in order to promote international overview understanding of educational methods and policies.

The cases of Greece and Sweden are compared as a means to review the similarities and the differences of language teaching practices in each educational system. The Swedes are highly motivated to learn English and their rankings are on the top of the list of non-native English speakers (Number 2 among 80 countries/regions)(“EF EPI 2017 – Sweden,”). Greek people spent a fortune in additional English teaching outside school and they hardly achieve proficiency in English as they finish their education (Number 23 among 80 countries/regions) (“EF EPI 2017 – Greece,”).

These rankings above inspired the author of the present paper to examine the process of English language teaching in these two specific primary school systems. Featured information within this paper could help to point out and explain each system’s weaknesses and also, to highlight good quality methods or/and results.

The two –country selection is also, author’s high-interest topic. Specifically, Sweden is often used as a “great example” of educating students with innovative techniques and considerable results. Greece is the author’s country of origin. As a result of personal experience as a student and as an English language private teacher in six-year old children, this paper aims to examine the teaching process and efficiency in Greece. It is considerable to examine the whole process of English learning in Greece because it is not only about schooling but also, a matter of external factors. The analysis of Greece is a slightly more extended by the case of the explanation of these external factors mentioned above.

Of special concern is to pose some basic questions that are going to be investigated within this paper:

1. Which age is the most suitable to start learning a first foreign language?
2. Who supposes to teach the foreign language?
3. How children that are taught English perform in two different countries?
4. How the teaching process is accomplished in Greece and Sweden?
5. What the current data state about total student assessment in English?
6. Which country’s method seems to be more efficient?

 Method

Firstly, as far as the comparative part within this paper, it is based on the famous cube by Bray and Thomas. The chosen dimensions/ levels of comparison are the following: age groups (primary school children), countries (Sweden and Greece) and teaching methods (first foreign language teaching) (Bray, Adamson & Mason, 2014, p. 9). This multilevel analysis gives comparative approach to an international issue, the one of teaching the first foreign language. The aspects of comparison are three so this cube is a perfect model of comparative usage because it makes it more comprehensible and accessible.

The specific comparison constitutes an indisputable piece of International and Comparative Education and as Marshall reports: “Comparisons enable us to view education from alternative perspectives, potentially leading to a greater understanding of the world, the people who live in it, and the issues they may face.” (Marshall, 2014, p.61-62).

Furthermore, the main material information for the two comparing countries is collected from the Eurydice Report of EU Publications: “Key data on teaching languages at school in Europe”. This report contains information and statistics in language teaching from 42 countries/regions in Europe. Due to the broad character of the report, the chosen level is primary schools and English language teaching in both Greece and Sweden. However, the report includes data for second language teaching in each country or minority language teaching (Union, 2018).

Research in journal articles, academic papers and web pages contributed to indentify the process of learning English as the first foreign language and both the similarities and differences in the countries of question. International and Comparative education’s literature is also used to examine paper’s topic through the lens of the field.

Limitations

As already mentioned above, the main material within this paper comes from a European Report found on Eurydice, where the phenomenon of language teaching is examined in 42 European countries/regions. It was not possible to compare all these countries/regions, the levels of education or several languages provided during education and come to conclusions, so the selected areas are just two countries (Greece and Sweden), one foreign language (English) and one level ( Primary education). Therefore the language teaching in secondary education and the learning outcomes of both countries are not examined and well-explained in the present paper.

As it is expected in every national context, social, historical, economical and lingual reasons shape a different reality in each country. In this paper those reasons are not analyzed due to paper’s formation. For instance, Swedish language structure is closer (comparing to Greek) to the English one, so the Swedes are way more familiar with the English alphabet, grammar, vocabulary and sentence structure . Therefore it is expected that the Swedes are more likely able to conquer the target language rather than anyone else whose native language is quite different (Igawa & Yagi, 2011, p. 106). Probably, it is an interesting perspective for future academic research and analysis.

Moreover, the following analysis of Greece is going to reveal the situation of additional English classes that Greek students are encouraged to take in order to ameliorate their English status. These classes divide into two categories: Foreign Language Schools (Frontistiria) and private lessons at home (Idietera mathimata). As it comes to the second option (private lessons at home) data is limited owing to the informal character of these lessons.

The article ‘Chickens Range Free’ written by a freelance writer Jo Smith conveys the idea that the activists who’ve offered a truck-load of chickens, freedom from their cages were a very humane thing to do. Through his explanations, a reasonable tone has been applied effectively to convince the readers to agree with him. The author has also employed a very confident tone when mentioning how this action has been clearly justified due to human rights.

However, although there have been people who have opposed this action of freeing the chickens, the author tries to dominate his stand by employing the use of different persuasive devices such as the inclusive technique, directive language, and analogy, which in this article, have been applied very effectively and successfully. A photograph has also been provided to enhance the arguments of the author. Foremost, the author tries to engage the reader to feel that locking chickens up in their cages is inhumane, through the use of inclusive language.

This can be seen when the author mentions that “We believe, as humans, we are not only doing the animals an injustice when we mistreat them, but that we are also doing ourselves an injustice. ” This quote elicits fear to the reader by making them feel as though if he or she opposes to this statement, they are not considered as humans or they would feel left out as they believe that they would be the only one who opposes to the issue.

As a result of this effect on the reader, the reader will decide to agree with what the author said is correct, that is freeing chicken was a humane thing to do. Next, the author applies the use of directive language to suggest an idea on how humanity can be improved. The author demands that “We must reform this attitude to our fellow inhabitants of the earth” which implies the action of locking chicken up in cages should be stopped as it is a form of abuse to animals; an inhumane act.

This suggestion sends the reader a sense of great importance that this demand is essential for the world in order to become a better place; to improve humanity, and because that is what ultimately everyone wants, the reader is then encouraged to do something about stopping this abuse and also agree with the reader that freeing chickens was a correct thing to do. The analogy technique has also been applied by the author to arouse the reader’s sympathy for the chickens and also emphasise how cruel humans have been to chickens.

He makes the reader think “If only more people ould realise that animals, as sentient beings like us, have rights that should be respected”, humanity would have been better. This quote works effectively in convincing the reader to believe that when the reader tries to put oneself in to a situation of one of the chickens, and then discover how cruel human beings have been. It makes the reader feel that if they were the ones who have been treated this way, they wouldn’t have liked either. Thus due to this enlightenment, the reader will be most likely to agree with the reader that freeing chickens was a noble thing to do.

The imagery in the article, which captivates the reader immediately, emphasises the cruelty of mankind towards the chickens. This photograph of chickens locked up in a small case can emotionally manipulate the reader as it may cause one to feel sympathy for the chickens. Because a photograph is reliable and that it is evidence to show that humanity is indeed down to this level, the reader will believe what the author said is right and that something should indeed be done about the treatment of chickens.

As such, the overall impact brought upon the reader would be generally the fact that they feel that chickens have been mistreated and also the fact that humanity has decreased to a very low level, which was the main objective of this article. The use of analogy have mainly put forth these effects as it causes the reader to know how the chickens feel by making them ask themselves what it would be like if this has happened to them.

This issue has also been made to be perceived seriously and greatly important via the author’s employment of inclusive language because it has engaged the reader to feel part of the issue. And because they feel that this issue is serious, the adoption of directive language is most likely to be able to convince the reader to do something about it. As such, these techniques were the most appropriate to apply to do its job in achieving the goal of impacting the audience; making them feel that freeing the chickens out of their cage was a very humane thing to do.

The Language Features of Forrest Gump I has chosen Forrest Gump to read, as am big fan of the Oscar-winning movie adapted from the novel. Actually, when we finished reading 10 chapters of the novel, I found that it was a different story, but the book was still a page-turner. In order to make the story clear delivered, the author presents the story in chronological order. In the 10 chapters, Gump retells his adventures through American history, with everything from college football in early years to the Vietnam War and Ping-Pong games In China later in his life.

Despite his low IQ and being an Autistic Savant, Gump Is full of wisdom and humor. up to now, what has left us a deep Impression Is the language feature In the novel. Language Is the reflection of a person’s soul and thought. You can tell one’s personality from his speech, so in order to reveal Gump’s traits, the author uses self-mockery and vulgar language in the novel. The informal style properly shows the character’s optimistic attitude toward his mental affliction and his simple view towards life.

He never minds calling himself an idiot whenever he has done “shit” things and he would rather think himself as a “halfwit” instead of a “moron”. When the president shook hands with him and asked his feelings, he only said: live gone to Pee. As for Forrest Gump, the language is used to express his real feelings of the body, so it was impossible to say like other members whose answer was “very proud” or similar words, but he could only realistically spoke “to Pee. Some of the language and plots may seem shallow to you, but we think the simplicity is the best reflection of Gump’s merits. What’s more, in the narration, the author doesnt use literary language. He has done a lot of spelling and grammar mistakes on propose, wrltlng all the words In the way you would pronounce it. For xample, a sentence goes like,” When I got to try sayin or writin them, it kinda come out like Jello. This special way, though a little hard to read and understand, is more verbal and accordant with the way an idiot savant may acts, thus making the idiotic character more real. Besides the interesting way of writing, we can see a lot of slang, idioms and customary expressions which helps build a truer background. With the smart use of language, the author shapes the leading character vividly, Forrest Gump is far from a novel character, and In fact, he Is more Ilke a genuine man In our life, who is a man of virtues regardless of his low IQ.

Should English be the medium of instruction in Sri Lankan Universities Medium of instruction is a language used in teaching. It may or may not be the official language of the country or territory. Where the first language of students is different from the official language, it may be used as the medium of instruction for part or all of schooling and universities Bilingual or multilingual education may involve the use of more than one language of instruction. UNESCO considers that “providing education in a child’s mother tongue is indeed a critical issue”

Native-language instruction is the practice of teaching schoolchildren in their native language instead of in the official language of their country of residence. An English medium education system is one that uses English as the primary medium of instruction – in particular where English is not the mother tongue of the students. Because a working knowledge of English is perceived as being valuable, many states throughout the world where English is not the predominant language encourage or mandate the use of English as the normal medium of instruction.

Bilingual education involves teaching academic content in two languages, in a native and secondary language with varying amounts of each language used in accordance with the program model. There are two ways of Bilingual education. First one is Transitional Bilingual Education. This involves education in a child’s native language, typically for no more than three years, to ensure that students do not fall behind in content areas like mathematics, science, and social studies while they are learning English.

Research has shown that many of the skills learned in the native language can be transferred easily to the second language later. The goal is to help students transition to mainstream, English-only classrooms as quickly as possible, and the linguistic goal of such programs is English acquisition only. In a transitional bilingual program, the student’s primary language is used as a vehicle to develop literacy skills and acquire academic knowledge. It is used to develop literacy and academic skills in the primary language. Second one is “Two-Way” or Dual Language Immersion Bilingual Education.

These programs are designed to help native and non-native English speakers become bilingual and bi-literate. The two-way bilingual immersion program has 90% of the instructions in grade 1 in minority language which is less supported by the broader society and 10% in the majority language . This proportion gradually changes in the majority language until the curriculum is equally divided in both the language by 5th grade. The two-way bilingual immersion program is based on the principle of clear curriculum separation of the two languages of instruction.

Teachers do not repeat or translate the subject matter in second language but strengthen concepts taught in one language across the two languages in a spiral curriculum in order to provide cognitive challenge. The languages of instructions are alternated by theme or content area. This type of immersion is required to develop the dual language proficiency, as social language can be mastered in couple of years, but a higher level of competency is required to read social studies texts or solve mathematics word problems, roughly around 5 to 7 years.

This essay attempts to take into account of divergent views to deal with “Should English be the medium of instruction in Sri Lankan Universities”. . The debate on English as a medium of instruction in tertiary level education was always carried out among the Sri Lankan society. Majority claims that “who can never speak English with the degree of adequacy or fluency is not survived in the job arena of the white collar’s. ” Almost the private sector investors’ basic requirement is the employees should be able to communicate with the mediation language of the globe.

When we consider about trading with other countries, tourism, IT Sector and the other areas of high salary paying employment opportunities govern by the people with the command in English. Or at least they know how to deal with the language and the opportunity they involved with. And jobs in the private sector which require functioning knowledge of English have enabled migration across the globe. However, one can point out the flaw in the system which restricts the benefits of the migration to 8-10% English speaking elite and middle class of the total population in Sri Lanka.

Some view English as an elitist urban cultural value, derived from the west, which is imposed on the nation. This argument sees English as a language left behind by the whites and claims that cultural and linguistic authenticity is tied to thinking, speaking and writing only in vernacular languages. The argument also suggests that if the academia shifts to English it might sound the death knell for native languages as there will be fewer and fewer literary works in native languages.

The general obsession with English and with the notion of “sophistication” attached to the language has been a major cause of increasing divisions and psychological distress among the youth. University drop out rates can potentially increase among the students with weaker English skills. The above arguments tend to draw their inspiration from the fact that countries like Japan have done remarkably well in spite of a resolute emphasis on retaining their native languages even among children of the internet age.

However, most works of science and human studies have, unfortunately, not been documented in Sri Lankan national languages to place complete reliance on the local medium even if we were to agree with the above arguments to do away with English. Developing our languages to impart higher education is important but depriving people of the access to the knowledge systems in English is not correct. It is important to invest in education in our country to create resources to impart the language skills required to fully utilize the educational opportunities offered in English.

To take a pragmatic view, introduction of English at an early stage in children’s education is necessary without being overbearing on the native languages. Perhaps we should look to the European Union in this regard, to develop multilingual skills without compromising on the native character of individual nation. Some Sri lankans are firmly convinced that the only way to learn English properly is to learn everything else through English.

This is contrary to logic and evidenced both in Sri lanka and around the world. Children in every country today learn English, but they learn it as a foreign language, and learn it well, in all countries where English is not the native tongue. Consider countries like Korea, Japan, Germany, Sweden, Russia, Brazil and China. They have economies that are better than most. Their schools teach English, but employ their own mother tongues as the medium of instruction. Korea’s population is equal to Sri Lanka.

The Scandinavian countries are comparable, less in population size, to Sri Lanka Their languages remain vibrant, they create new knowledge and literature in their own languages and produce Nobel prize winners and world-beating companies. Of course, they also learn English, the de facto world language. Except in colonized Sri Lanka, nowhere do people believe that unless they abandon their mother tongue and embrace English as the sole language of instruction, their future is doomed.