Leadership

This paper examines foundations of leadership and the role behavior plays in leadership. Behavior defines a person’s ability to communicate and form active and powerful relationships within the organizational structure. Behavior influences how a leader will sustain communication to their team members and defines their strategy for leadership. This influences their ability to motivate, build powerful teams and adjust to organizational conflict and change. One role model of effective leadership would Bill Clinton.

This paper looks at not only organizational examples of leadership but also the political role model of president to aid in defining foundations for leadership. This paper examines how proactive leadership can be applied to the organizational structure and outcomes or implications result. In today’s business world, it is important to address how change agents influence the workplace and how leaders address such issues. In today’s marketplace, the pressure to succeed is intense. Never before has a company’s efficiency and profitability been so closely measured and studied.

Without powerful, active leadership and a well-tuned team in place to motivate and encourage teamwork, a company is doomed to fail. This paper will explore key elements that build a foundation for leadership. See, sometimes what is not completely understood is that leadership involves so many other attributes found in a person. Two main attributes discussed in this paper is the ability to effectively communicate and display emotional intelligence. This brings into focus other skills needed to manage the day to day conflict and corporate environment of today’s changing business world.

Not only is leadership a key to success and a reflection of the organization’s cultural values but it is group of skills needed. These skills include areas of expertise such as communication, motivation, and team building skills. In order for an organization to carry on success, it must turn to role models in the community for inspiration. Rather these role models be present within the culture is important but inherently, people will look around them to leadership already within the framework. This means looking to American culture for such leadership models.

It can be continuously debated rather or not the most important leader in the world is effective. This person falls under tremendous scrutiny and accountability. The President of the United States must lead by example and be active in their leadership but one aspect of leadership that must be understood is that people are human and they err in the human way, nor are they perfect. As a role model, this paper will not only look at organizational examples of effective leadership skills but also examine the leadership of Bill Clinton. A key to the foundation for leadership is effective communication and one’s ability to behave intelligently.

It can be easy to confuse the two concepts of management and leadership on an organizational level. George S. Odiorne (1987) writes, “one of the more popular definitions of management is that it consists of getting results through other people” (p. 13). In today’s company, the role of management also involves leadership within a team structure. Managers have the responsibility to set goals, maintain moral, aid in training and communicating corporate objectives. A good leader provides vision and clarity for the employee. Such a leader will be able to communicate and create a rapport with their team.

This connection begins at a fundamental level of human sociology where the use of story is central. Howard Gardner (1995) reflects, “the ultimate impact of the leader depends most significantly on the particular story that he or she relates or embodies, and the receptions to that story on the part of the audiences” (p. 14). By telling stories, allows for a certain level of openness or vulnerability on the part of the leader and makes them human. By opening the line of communication, gives the employee knowledge of their environment and develops trust.

The leader’s role is to sell the idea of commitment within a culture. Odiorne (1987) suggests, “if employees know what is expected, and what help and resources are available, they can then be relied upon to govern their actions to achieve the commitments they have made” (p. 138). This sets the stage for goals and achieving high performance. The culture in turn feeds off this energy and excitement. There are three reasons why leaders are important. First they are responsible for the effectiveness of organizations. Second, the change and upheaval of past years has left us with no place to hide.

We need anchors in our lives as a guiding purpose. Third, there is a national concern about integrity of our institutions. Being mindful of own context is difficult for us. (p. 15-16) Managers with a keen understanding of leading represent these three key attributes and create a foundation from which to act. A leader must also display curiosity and have the guts to be daring. They must be a dominant force within the team. Bennis (1989) reflects, there are two kinds of people “those who are paralyzed by fear, and those who are afraid but go ahead away. Life is not about limitation but options” (p. 185).

In the book Primal Leadership, authors David Goleman, Richard Boyatzis, and Annie McKee (2001) present their research on leadership styles within the organizational structure. The research discusses the relationship that these executives have with their emotional intelligence. Emotional intelligence is the study of emotions and their impact upon the work environment. The research investigates the different leadership styles evident in most organizations today. Mainly, leaders are categorized as either having the visionary, coaching, affiliative, democratic, pacesetting, or commanding leadership styles.

Emotional Intelligence relies upon the fact the leader will be able to have a competent level of interaction with the employee by changing leadership styles and adapting to each unique situation throughout the time at work. It reflects successful leadership by allowing for complex relationships for team members by recognizing relationship building, capacity of visions and personal development. Emotional Intelligence for a leader means being able to read people, be read and allow for open dialogue or communication.

Research stresses the importance of the leader’s flexibility and capability to adapt to his or her environment. An effective leader will understand not only their environment and people but also understand the potential for impact upon that environment. By understanding this key element, an effective leader will know how to define the environment. This is important because employees look to management for guidance. The leader defines the boundaries for the team and creates an atmosphere for building relationships and open communication. This in turn creates stronger teams.

Any time people are brought together, behavior both positive and negative can occur. According to the American Heritage College Dictionary (1997), behavior is: “the manner in which one behaves or the actions or reactions of persons or things in response to external or internal stimuli. ” Upon further investigating the verb form also in the American Heritage College Dictionary, the word ‘behave’ means “to conduct (oneself) in a specified way” or “to act” (p. 123). It is human nature to behave in a certain manner while existing in society. Over a period of time, we react differently to events that happen.

How we respond to those events is essentially our behavior. How we communicate with one another is how we express behavior. Organizational Behavior focuses on the study of behavior within the organizational construct. This field of study concentrates on how an individual, group and structure affects the behavior within the organization. Therefore, this has direct bearing on communication as information is vital to learning within the organization. It is important for an organization to learn from its mistakes as this information enhances the organizations’ performance.

This information when communicated can bring about change and growth within the organization’s functions and policies. Motivation can be a complex issue for a leader to communicate when managing a team of different personalities. One key to success is having an understanding of people and the many different things that motivate people, influencing their behaviors while performing a task therefore, influencing communication. A good leader will work to understand what motivates each individual on the team in an effort to improve communications. Still this brings up the issue of needs and how to get them met by the situation.

Maslow’s Theory of Needs, suggests that individuals have a range of needs and will be motivated to fulfill whichever is the greatest need at that moment in time. In this construct, there are lower-order and higher-order needs. The lower-order needs are dominant until they are at least partially satisfied. Maslow predicted a normal person will turn their attention to higher-order needs once the lower ones were taken care of (Motivation 2005, par. 3). Lower-order needs include items like making a living for food and shelter while higher-order needs are more in tune with personality such as esteem and worth.

A team leader will understand how his or her team members perceive themselves within the team and what needs are important to each member. This will aid the leader in knowing how to approach each individual and how to effectively discuss the every day team happenings. By understanding motivation, a leader can also understand which methods of communication work best for each employee. In this way, the leader can adapt his or her tone and body language to better convey the point. By knowing what motivates people, the leader can effectively communicate incentives to the team to boost their morale.

This will lead to them offering the team ways to make work interesting and challenging while encouraging members to take ownership of tasks. This encourages the pursuit of goals. Once an employee is acknowledged, a higher level of pride and respect is achieved. This inspires them to take advantage of new learning opportunities and lead within the team. It is also important for the leader to give regular praise and positive feedback when the standard of work is high. On the other hand, it is also important for the leader to offer support during times of struggle and conflict in order to decrease the influence of stress.

For managers who actively keep and open dialogue are putting their people first. They are more focused on nurturing and training. Research suggests leaders are more interested in mentoring and training their team rather than focusing on output of numbers or turn around time. This once again acts a mini-strategy to manage communication within the team. This development in team building allows for “providing people opportunities to learn from their work rather than taking them away from their work to learn” (Hughes, 2004, p. 4). A healthy culture inspires options and the innovations that grow out of creativity.

Another issue when creating an intimate team experience is building trust. In an example, the South African Breweries, plc or SAB found itself needing to create trust in a post Apartheid era where racism was still very much causing conflict and lack of communication among workers. As part of implementing an integrated management process, the organization carried out workshops to target its 6,000 employees. These workshops encouraged open discussion about South Africa’s past, Apartheid’s influence and how shared values increased a sense of workplace community (Supporting workplace learning for high performance working, p. ).

The President of the United States has a tremendous pressure on his shoulders as he represents our country to the world. The President can be considered the most powerful man in the world. Is he a good leader, effective in his communication, motivation, team orientation skills? Does he understand the needs of the people and actively lead on this premise of continually making the country a better place or is he a puppet acting out the agenda of his political party? From this standpoint, the United States government can be seen as the ultimate organization with the President as the CEO.

Within this structure, is the foundation of leadership present or is the term just used to clean up past mistakes and create new policies only to be changed by future leaders? In this respect, it can be difficult to separate the human from the leader while in public view. He will be analyzed from every angle. From an Organizational Behavior standpoint, it is only logical to believe how one conducts his personal life also reflects his business integrity. Many would argue because of President Clinton’s indiscretions that he was a poor leader.

He lied and therefore, that changes the public view of him and the level of trust that can be instilled in him. This indiscretion calls his accountability into question or does it? In order to examine Clinton’s leadership ability and skills, one must have a handle on their own Emotional Intelligence and be able to separate his business practices from his moral decision of his personal life. There is a reason the business world leaves the personal life at the door; there is a job to be done.

Leon Panetta (2001) reflects, “Clinton is a paradox. He can be described as brilliant, dedicated, slick and dishonest” (p. ). Liberals claim he was passionate about the issues and succeeded in changing many policies concerning civil rights, education, the environment, medical ethics and women’s rights. Conservatives liked him because he was able to balance the federal budget, fight for free trade like NAFTA and create tough crime programs. Still does addressing these issues make him an effective leader? Panetta (2001) explains, “to get a better measure of the man and his presidency, it helps to look at him, both accomplishments and failures. Only then can we understand Bill Clinton, the leader” (p. )

Discussion, Application and Implications The issue of ethics raises another concern for Organizational Behavior and how one conducts themselves within the construct. Communication can lead to misunderstanding but so does lack of action. Sometimes it is not evident that taking action could have changed the outcome. What is important to an organization is that they follow through with every possibility. This is where employees pick up on non-verbal communications from management. If a leader appears not to be concerned, then more than likely the team members will not be either.

Internal cues, both verbal and non-verbal are extremely important to not only success but just day-to-day functioning. First leadership must be put in place then a change of policy can be put into place. There must be consistent with the chain of command where both the product and the use of the product are concerned. Everyone must have the same perception of the organization’s objective. By having a trusting, open door policy with people creates an atmosphere of safety where communication can take place. Also another idea is to have a program of due diligence where people back each other up and support each other through periods of conflict.

This will enable teams to have not just one chain but multiple chains of communications where information is double-checked and triple checked before put into use. This will ensure that any new issues or mistakes are found and addressed before they are put into real-world situations. This can also lead to teams thinking outside the box to create new innovative ideas to fix the problems. By building this type of culture, allows the organization to maintain a high level of integrity with the public but to also remain competitive within the market.

The implications of doing business in today’s world means constantly being open-minded and remaining comfortable knowing that not every day is same. Some people cannot work in such conditions. As Stephen Robbins (2001) comments, “As humans, we are creatures of habit. Changes substitute ambiguity and uncertainty for the known” (p. 546). People, by human nature, inherently resist change. Management may find older employees are more loyal but have a harder time embracing new ideas like the Internet because they remember the old days. This resistance to change can result in conflict but it also creates opportunities for innovation.

The practice of innovation also begins with embracing or adopting the unexpected. Peter Drucker (1998) describes, “unexpected successes and failures are such productive sources of innovation opportunities because most business dismiss them, disregard them, and even resent them” (p. 3) and this type of behavior represents people’s resistance to change but at the same time creates recognition of new opportunities within the market. Change in the global market, including multicultural demographics and new technologies, has required perceptions to change.

The attitude toward knowledge has evolved because more than one type is needed in order to implement a new idea. This changes the needs of workers and organizations as diffusion of innovation takes place as many different points of view are considered. This adds value as it spawns creative thinking but it must also fall within economic reality. It is important to carry out a detailed implementation but also to remain on budget and schedule. The concept of innovation brings up other implications, however. It produces a whole new reality that employees may not be prepared to handle.

Product diversification could mean failure. Technology, while it is wondrous and makes jobs easier, can also be dangerous. With telecommunications, a new breed of crime has been created with identity theft and corporate brand protection becoming important. Technology can be disastrous if put in the wrong hands. Antibiotics used to cure infections have saved numerous lives while there is a continued threat of biological weapons of mass destruction. With innovations come new inventions that make our lives easier but also have a higher risk when used.

This is the nature of the realm of possibility. This can backfire as it can also destroy and impose new rules of conduct upon communities. As much as many like the idea of innovation, for those scared of change, it is difficult o embrace fully. This means as change rapidly flourishes out of control, those resistant aim to gain control of laws and rules to make change more difficult. This leads to Big Brother watching every public move and return to conservative leadership. One can look to the events of recent months to see the value of Bill Clinton’s leadership.

He has not retreated from the limelight but instead applied his passion and hope for people in his daily life of action by carrying on his role as a leader. Rather it be his participation in aiding Tsunami victims or right here at home, recent victims of Katrina, he continues his objective of serving the people of the United States. This communicates to us that he cares. Panetta (2001) reflects. “only in crisis is a president fully tested as to what part of his character will prevail” (p. 6). He may have failed many times but he also used failure as a positive means to evolve as a better man and leader for today’s people and their needs.

His ability to reach the every day man still defines his leadership power. This paper explored key elements that build a foundation for leadership. Two main attributes discussed in this paper is the ability to effectively communicate and display emotional intelligence. This brings into focus other skills needed to manage the day to day conflict and corporate environment of today’s changing business world. Not only is leadership a key to success and a reflection of the organization’s cultural values but it is group of skills needed.

This paper also discussed how leadership skills have implications and define the work environment for employees. It discussed how leaders must be mindful of change agents and possible outcomes due to innovation and new technologies available. In this respect, the workplace is constantly evolving and without leadership as a framework, the organization would be motivated or able to communicate and teams would dissolve. In order for an organization to carry on success, it must turn to role models in the community for inspiration.

Rather these role models be present within the culture is important but inherently, people will look around them to leadership already within the framework. This means looking to American culture for such leadership models. It can be continuously debated rather or not the most important leader in the world is effective. This person falls under tremendous scrutiny and accountability. The President of the United States must lead by example and be active in their leadership but one aspect of leadership that must be understood is that people are human and they err in the human way, nor are they perfect.

As a role model, this paper looked at organizational examples of effective leadership skills but also examined the leadership of Bill Clinton. It is important in leadership to embrace change and stick to a vision. By having Emotional Intelligence one can “recogise the physical and mental signs of our feelings/emotions before we can act on them meaningfully and constructively” (Eby Ruin par. 20). It is by recognizing these attributes that one can build an effective team structure. A leader acts as a coach to not only reinforce the game plan with directions but also encourage creativity, new ideas and acquiring new skills.

Foundations for Leadership include: effective communication, motivation and team building. In order to better understand leadership, we must look for role models within the organization but also outside to society. The President of the United States can be considered the ultimate definition of leadership but can he live up to the standard? This allows an organization to build a value system where the foundations of leadership are prized and seen as tools for success. And in order to survive in the business world, leadership and its foundations must be valued by the organization.

Research has shown that another problem related to the matrix organizational structure is the fact of negative organizational politics used by functional managers while assigning scare resources between the different projects. Functional managers can make mistakes with regards to the prioritization of projects because they want to please some customers at the expense of others, for example (Pitagorsky, 1998). The Bureau of Engineering had experienced problems of this nature even before the implementation of the matrix organizational structure (Kuprenas).

Kuprenas describes the process by which the organization was able to overcome the problem: Upon the shift to a matrix structure, the Bureau created, published and began use of a formal project prioritization process under the signature of the City Engineer. The process assigns each project within the Bureau a specific rank. Without Program Manager approval (in essence re-prioritization), no work is to be done on a lower rank project until the higher rank project is complete.

Project templates Handshake Agreements are still used to establish functional team performance measures, but politicization of the team effort by the functional manager is eliminated by the new prioritization protocol. With the use of this new prioritization protocol, new projects can still be added to a program. When a new or ‘‘rush’’ project now enters a Bureau program, the importance of the project is assessed by the program manager using the flowchart to determine whether any ongoing design work should be stopped. If the ongoing work is stopped or resources reallocated, then clear documentation exists for the switch in the functional manager resource’s effort and the change is at the discretion of senior executive level staff rather than the functional manager (56-59).

Training in Skills The myriad interfaces in the matrix organizational structure call for employees to develop strong communication skills in addition to the ability to effectively work in teams, just as the dual authority system requires individuals that are adaptive as well as comfortable with ambiguous situations so as to prevent negativity with regards to job satisfaction and motivation (El-Najdawi & Liberatore, 1997).

To prevent decreases in morale, therefore, the Bureau of Engineering managed the organizational change by immediately beginning the training of its staff. All people were trained specifically in coping with the organizational shift, communication, in addition to working as part of teams. Furthermore, the Bureau of Engineering trained its staff to help others adapt to the organizational change by exploring how disorientation may have a negative impact on individuals as well as teams. Project Manager Mentoring

Research has further revealed that a successful matrix organizational structure requires development programs that are specific to the project managers. These training or development programs allow for the project managers to develop a common understanding and language of the processes of management (Johns, 1999). Thus, the Bureau of Engineering used a development program that had been prescribed by research literature on matrix organizational structures – mentoring. This program allowed the new project managers of the organization to receive support and direction in the performance of their tasks.

It also helped key staff to understand the responsibilities of the new project managers. Thus, weekly sessions of mentoring proved to be a source of help for the matrix organizational structure at the Bureau of Engineering (Kuprenas). Project Planning Another problem related to the matrix organizational structure is that it increases the power of the functional managers as compared to the project managers. Hence, the functional managers may lack “project level focus (Kuprenas, 60).

” At the Bureau of Engineering, a number of functional managers were of the opinion that nothing had changed seeing as they continued to have supervisory authority over their staff. Thus, the organization had to resolve this issue by formalizing an “annual project planning process (Kuprenas, 60). ” This process helps the functional managers to recognize the significance of project delivery. Additionally, the plan created by the organization – the “Work Program Resource Report” – includes all of the projects that all functional teams within a program are expected to conclude (Kuprenas, 60).

Conclusion and Recommendations Most of the problems related to the implementation of the matrix organizational structure concern training as well as changes in responsibilities. At the same time, however, it is a recognizable fact that the support of the organizational members is crucial in the implementation of the matrix structure. Hence, the organization is required to take into consideration the needs of its employees in the light of its own mission while implementing the matrix structure.

The employees of the organization need to be clear about their new responsibilities and roles within the matrix organizational structure. As discussed in the previous section, the creation of summarized lists of new responsibilities and roles for the project and functional managers should be considered a necessity. Moreover, if there is a possibility that other organizational members, e. g. the functional team members, may be confused with regard to their reporting duties in the matrix structure, different summarized lists may be used for the remaining members of the organization as well.

The matrix structure calls for the creation of new reporting systems within the organization. For the new reporting system to work effectively, the organization should develop a central control system of project management that permits it to control and monitor its projects. The control system should be detailed enough for all managers to access reports on the performance of specific teams with respect to the projects. In addition, the control system should include formal agreements between the managers about the current projects.

In order to prevent negative politics from delaying the completion of important projects, the organization should also develop a protocol for the prioritization of projects. The functional managers should not have to prioritize projects based on their personal interests. The program management should play a central role in the prioritization of projects. In addition, as part of the implementation of the matrix structure, the organization should train its employees to cope with organizational change; help other organizational members with change; effectively communicate; and work in teams.

This would help the organizational members to increase their emotional intelligence. Project managers also require training. Mentoring has been recognized as an excellent method to help the managers develop a common understanding and language of the processes. Lastly, the organization should develop a project planning procedure so that all managers are clear about the project delivery deadlines as well as the performance expected of them. Teams in the matrix structure are additionally expected to have their functions clarified through the project plan.

Seeing that all of the above recommendations are backed by evidence-based analysis, the organization is sure to experience successful implementation of the matrix structure through them.

References

Caruso, D. R. , Mayer, J. D. , & Salovey, P. (2002). Emotional intelligence and emotional Leadership. In Riggio, R. , Murphy, S. , & Pirozzolo, F. J. (Eds), Multiple Intelligences and Leadership. Hilldale, New Jersey: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates, pp. 55-74. El-Najdawi, M. K. , & Liberatore, M. J. (1997). Matrix management effectiveness: an update for research and engineering prganizations. Project Management Journal, vol. 28, no. 1, pp. 25–31.

This essay examines and explains how groups develop and function. Groups are a fundamental part of our lives from social to professional, from large to small, depending on their particular environment. Theories and models on group work practice There are different theories that help us understand how group works. Tuckman’s theory Dr Bruce Tuckman published his Forming Storming Norming Performing model in 1965. He added a fifth stage, Adjourning, in the 1970s.

Tuckman’s theory does work in new and small groups rather than big, as it is easier to follow, observe and evaluate individual members. The facilitator can easily identify the stages the group is at, and from here he/she can lead the group to the next stage. I would associate Tuckman’s theory more with the Co-operative style of leadership, because when the group comes together, everyone has the chance to share their ideas and responsibilities. Team members’ behaviour towards each other is more open and supportive and working practice more fully reflects true teamwork.

Trust and motivation is built between team members. Everyone agrees on methods and plans which will lead to achieving the set goals. Team roles are been formed too. Douglas Theory Douglas McGregor is the creator of the theory X and theory Y. The two theories are opposite to each other. Theory X being the pessimistic as the employee does not like work and tries to escape it whenever possible and has little or no ambition of achieving the company goals. Employee needs a directive leader. Theory X leader is results-driven, intolerant, distant, poor listener, demands, etc.

Companies with Theory X leadership will usually have poor results. Theory Y is described as the optimistic model because the employee is more relaxed and can use own initiative. He/she is committed and loyal to the company and can take on responsibilities. Theory Y gives the opportunity of more leaders to be created. On the other side, Theory Y might be difficult to be put in practice in big mass productions where more control is needed. From the both theories we can conclude that staff will contribute more to the organisation if they are treated as responsible and valued employees.

Belbin Team Role Theory “A team is not a bunch of people with job titles, but a congregation of individuals, each of whom has a role which is understood by other members. Members of a team seek out certain roles and they perform most effectively in the ones that are most natural to them. ” Dr. R. M. Belbin Belbin identifies nine team roles. Each team role is associated with typical behavioural and interpersonal strengths, allowable and non-allowable weaknesses that also accompany the team roles.

The nine team roles are: plant, resource investigator, co-ordinator, shaper, monitor evaluator, team worker, implementer, complete finisher and specialist. Belbin’s Team Role Models are very useful in forming, maintaining and developing a group. For example we can use it to think about team balance before recruitment starts; we can use it to highlight and so manage interpersonal differences within an existing team; and we can use it to develop ourselves as a team players. Sometimes however, despite clear roles and responsibilities, a team can still fall short of its full potential.

This is when Belbin’s Team Role Models come into use to develop the team’s strengths and manage its weaknesses. To maintain strong team it is important over period of time to observe individual members, and see how they behave and contribute within the team. Then for each person we write down the key strengths and observed weaknesses. Using Belbin’s descriptions of team roles, we note the one that most accurately describes the person. After we do it for each member of the team, we need to consider which team roles are we missing from the team and which strengths.

Once we are clear about the outcome of our research, we then consider whether an existing team member could compensate by adopting different team role, or whether new skills need to be brought onto the team to cover weaknesses. Adair Team Theory “Leadership is the most studied subject in the world and the least understood” John Adair (2003) Adair has developed so called Action-Centred Leadership model which consist of three circles Task, Team and Individual, which overlap. The three circles overlap because: 1. To be completed the task needs a team, one person cannot achieve it. . If the team needs are not met, then the task won’t be completed and the individuals won’t be satisfied. 3. If the individuals are not satisfied, then the team will suffer and the task won’t be completed again. The conclusion is that for the team to be functioning to its high standard and to be able to achieve its goals it is important all the individuals to be satisfied, rewarded and the team to be motivated to reach its full potentials. Forming and maintaining a cohesive and effective group Group cohesion is a phenomenon that determines how well a group holds together.

When cohesion is strong, a group will remain stable and effective, but when it is weak, the group may fall apart. To build strong group cohesion is important for the leader to be able to get to know the group members individually so that he/she can tailor an appreciation message to each individual as needed. The next important attribute is for the leader to be sincere with his employees. He needs to praise his employees, one way or another – that could be done in private or in public, and not just once or twice, has to be consistent and more frequent.

At the beginning of the forming of the group the leader has to set clear goals to his employees and to make sure that these goals don’t change somewhere half way through to the group work as it may derail the team. Once the goals are set, it is important to communicate with the team not through email or memos, but verbally where the leader can ask for feedback from the team members, exchange ideas in how to achieve the set goals. Here is the stage when the team roles are being set and clarified. For the team to continue its effectiveness, the employees will need the support from their leader.

The leader needs to be approachable and supportive so the group members don’t feel alone. Providing a connection between the group goals and the company’s goal will make the group members accountable, they will feel more appreciated and important in the bigger picture not only as group members, but as individuals too. All the above factors are in the core of forming and maintaining a cohesive and effective group. A team that feels comfortable working together can have an energy that creates a positive environment and work ethic that can lift a team, making it more effective.

This positive environment can make team members work harder, more efficiently and more productively. The influence of the different facilitation styles At heart facilitation is about the process of helping people to explore, learn and change. Our role, when facilitating, and as facilitators, is to help groups to work together respectfully and truthfully and to help them to explore and respond to certain issues and questions. The leader’s success depends on many factors, including the kind of person he/she is, his/hers values of management, his/hers self-confidence and competence, his/hers trust in the team and how he/she copes with stress.

The manager’s chosen facilitation style depends on such factors. Many managers feel they are expected to make the decisions, others feel they must get their teams involved. Some have confidence in their team; others mistrust them. Particular style of facilitation will work effectively when dealing with some people rather than others. There are three styles of facilitation: directive, co-operative and autonomous. Directive Style When leaders tell people what to do through a series of directives, they are using a directive style of leadership.

Directive leaders are focused on outcomes and productivity. They are task-oriented and driven by the need to get things done. Directive leaders are not as concerned with the feelings and emotions of their followers as they are about meeting deadlines, hitting quota and reaching goals. There is not great deal of relationship-building found with directive facilitation style. With the directive style present the employees will not feel motivated and appreciated. Employees will feel pressured and soon will lose enthusiasm. The group will not have strong cohesion and will be less effective.

If we look at the Douglas’ X and Y theory, we’ll see that the directive style would be more suitable for the X employees, but it won’t be effective for Y employees as they won’t respond. The directive style does not develop future leaders. Co-operative style Here the facilitator shares responsibilities with the group: the leader guides the group to become more self-directing in the various forms of learning by conferring with them. The leader prompts and helps group members to make a decision, to give meaning to experiences, to do their own confrontation, and so on.

In this process, the leader shares own view which, though influential, is not final but one among many. Outcomes are always negotiated. The leader collaborates with the members of the group in devising the learning process: facilitation is co-operative. When the leader/manager uses the co-operative style the employees will feel valued and appreciated. They will want to make suggestions because they know that they will be listened to by the manager, hence they will be very motivated to perform to a high standard. The type of groups with a co-operative style leader will have very strong cohesion and will be highly effective.

Team roles will be very clear within such groups which will lead to achieving the set goals. Future leaders will grow in such groups. When the goals are achieved and the group is no longer needed, there will be sadness of breaking the group. Autonomous style Here the leader/manager respects the total autonomy of the group: they do not do things for them, or with them, but give them freedom to find their own way, exercising their own judgment without any intervention on the leader’s part. This does not mean the abdication of responsibility; the leader just gives the individuals a space to determine their own learning.

Unfortunately, such groups will feel that they are being left and will lack direction. The autonomous style grows future leaders, but can also suffer if group members are unqualified. Why it is important to be clear about the purpose and desired outcomes for the group? When group is formed, it is important that the leader clarifies the purpose and desired outcomes for the group. The employees will know what is to be expected from them. Then the group can engage openly and effectively discussing how the goals will be achieved. It is also the stage when the team roles are being created.

At the end of the meeting we should have clear accomplishment. Analyse the importance of participant engagement in achieving group outcomes The most important thing is what the participants in the meeting have to say. The leader has to focus on how the meeting is structured and run to make sure that everyone can participate. The leader needs to make sure that everyone feels comfortable in participating, to allow everyone to be heard, to make sure that the members feel good about their contribution, to support everyone’s ideas and not criticising.

If the leader follows the steps above the group members will feel empowered about their own ideas and participation. They will stay loyal to the company and will take on responsibilities and ownership. Conclusion From this brief overview we can see the significance of groups and why it is important to continuously develop them –from one side, to strengthen their potential and from the other, to help the development of their individual members.

They are a fundamental part of human experience and play a crucial role both in shaping and influencing individual lives and society itself. We saw how an effective group brings humans together and how an effective group gives birth to successful leaders. Humans always will be, as groups will be too. That makes the groups one of the most important factors of our lives. The more effective the group is, the more the quality of our lives will grow.

«The emphasis (of MBO) is on trying to predict and influence the future rather than on responding and reacting by the seat of the pants. It is also a ‘results-oriented” philosophy of management, one of which emphasizes accomplishments and results. The focus is generally on change and on improving both individual and organizational effectiveness.»

A successful implementation of MBO in any country requires a narrow examination of such elements as customs and traditions of that country, which give support to the application of MBO.

These elemets are higly influenced by the history.

Starting from the early centuries, Russian people got accustomed to live under the central rule when the tsar was the only decision-making body in the country. The communication between the rulers and ruled was flowing only one-way. The landlords, owning the farmers, set quotes to farmers without thinking whether they would be able to achieve them.

Afterwards, when the bolshewiks came to rule instead of the monarchy, the same thing happened. Working for a state enterprise, the employees didn”t have a chance to set objectives for their work they performed. The central planning department set quotes, by which all the organizations had to obey even if those planks were set too high to reach. Workers were responsible for reaching organizational goals no matter for at what costs, but on the other side the means by which they had to reach the organizational goals were predetermined by the central planning department.

So, we can see that the word «central», which «disables» MBO, was quite common and used heavily thrughout the whole history of Russia. Nevertheless, I would say, there were some elements of MBO such as rewarding the employees when they exceeded the quotes set by the central department. Reward was very seldom material. Usually, you would have received a red flag for an excellent work, and your photo would have been printed in the organization”s newspaper. In addition to the rewards, people were working for a common purpose: to reach the communism. And each piece they had produced contributed to this goal. Anyway, this system of rewards worked; it was a good source of motivation although it was resting solely in the willigness of the employees to contribute to the process.

Factors that influence management in Russia

After we had examined the historical factors that influence the application of MBO, let”s come down to determine factors that influence overall management in Russia now. As a result, it gives also some impact on the ability of MBO to be successful in this country.

The first and also the most important factor is the social one. Managing an organization became a real challenge for managers during these hard times. Their decisions are highly influenced by the social environment surrounding the organization. Such a factor as, for instance, values goes hand in hand with the organization”s purpose (profit) in Western societies, but Russian people”s values are different.

Russians, as they got accustomed that the only aim of the organization is to contribute to the public welfare, can”t and do not want to understand that the transition to capitalism and, particulary, to a free market economy will delete all the organizations that don”t bring profit that is at least enough to cover the expenses. That is why, for instance, formerly free hospitals are forced to charge fees. No matter whether it is for-profit or non-for-profit organization. It happened so that every organization should make money to live on.

As Russia has been passing its stage of transition to a free market economy for only 7 years, there is a lack of specialized managers. Formerly, the best profession was considered to be a physician, but starting from 1991, people realized that the economy needed skilled managers (and employees), lawyers, etc. So, at the time being, there are only a few organizations that are led by professional managers and the rest by, for instance, doctors and teachers; as a result, Russia has a high rate of firm”s failures.

The overall atmosphere of distrust has created such a situation where it is difficult to deal with any firm. You are afraid of being cheated; as a result, people are more likely to go for help to a state-owned organization than to a private one.

Political instability in Russia explains why organizations in this country are so highly centralized. Due to need of the availability to adapt to the continuously changing situation, which requires application of conceptual skills, managers are forced to have a total control over their «child», no matter how big the organization is.

Lack of important laws creates another challenge for the Russian managers; however, for some of them it is an advantage, for instance, for Mafia.

Such an important function of management as planning, which is important for MBO in order to be successful, can”t be realized fully because of ever changing situation. The manager can”t predict the future and plan for the organization because of the uncertainty about the future. That is why in Russia, also called «the country of wonders», it is more likely to fail in business than in other countries.

Another challenge for a manager is to run an organization under economic instability. The heavy dependence on the foreign investments from the USA, World Bank, IMF etc. contributes to factor of uncertainty: no investments – economic recession.

In addition to that, the main financial resources are concentrated within a small group of people, called «semibojarshina», owning the largest firms in Russia. And these become more and more involved in the political process. They extract resources, pass laws only if they are advantageous for their companies. The rest can only watch this «game».

Focusing on the USA has led to copying the Western way of life, trying to produce goods and services like Americans without actually having knowledge or background in it.

All these factors put pressure on the managers and influence the relationship between managers and employees, which is a prediciding factor for applying the MBO approach to a particular organization.

Relationship between the employer and the employee

MBO offers people a field within which to penetrate. Workers have a relative freedom of choice in deciding which means to choose for reaching a stated goal. They are motivated through reward given to individuals on the basis of how close they come to reaching their goals. Under MBO people should be self-directed and should like their work, and, of course, any MBO program is based on responsibility and proposes democratic leadership.

Throughout the previous paragraph we can see that MBO works best under Theory Y. In order to know whether individual”s way of thinking about workers enables MBO to exist in this country, I”ve taken twenty Russian people (all work for Russian organizations) and tried to get out their assumptions about workers. The result was as follows.

From the results we can see that most participants stuck to the Theory X, the theory that incorporates people who do not like work, must be forced to do the job, are motivated through the threat of punishment, see their personal gain in job security, and deslike responsibility. Under such conditions, an autocratic leadership is necessary.

And only 4 people prefer the Theory Y. The theory that incorporates that people do not dislike work, work through self-direction, are motivated through recognition & reward, see their personal gain in fulfillment, and accept responsibility. Under such conditions a democratic leadership is possible.

We see that the Theory Y, which enables MBO, got only 20%. From this research, I”ve proved my assumptions that the way of thinking about workers does not allow any MBO program to be implemented successfully.

An impact on MBO has also the system of expectations, so it is important to know what different counterparts (employer and employee) expect from each other.

To know what a Russian employer expects from a Russian employee I”ve asked 5 Russian people that are running companies to fill out a questionnaire. The result was the following.

The second answer crosses out to ability of MBO to be successful. It does not allow an employee to be creative, to be able to set objectives together with the superior… So we can see that the employer is not «mentally» ready to apply the MBO approach at the time being.

To know what a Russian employee expects from a Russian employer I”ve asked 15 Russian people that are working for Russian organizations to fill out a questionnaire. The result was the following.

Nobody has mentioned any of the MBO”s characteristics (ability to set objectives,…). That gives us much food for thoughts. If employees” primary goals, while working for an organization, do not match the MBO”s gains (advantages), then MBO won”t be advantageous for the employees. As a result, the question arises «Why should employees be for the application of MBO at their organization?»

Situational Leadership – Situational leadership theorists observed that a variety of leadership styles could be used simultaneously in response to changing situations. Hershey and Blanchard believed that leaders are flexible and can change according to need and hence developed this three-dimensional model of leadership. According to them the behavior of the leader depends on a mix of directive and supporting styles. It is primarily based on the interaction among the degree of leader task behavior, relationship behavior and the followers’ readiness to perform.

However, the theory is not based on any level of research, rather there is virtually no evidence to substantiate its fundamental tenets, which is surprising considering the wide popularity of the theory among personnel managers and training directors. Situational Leadership is based on distinction of two types of leadership behavior. First one is the relationship behavior which concerns meeting the personal needs of group members and concentrates on increasing the cohesiveness of the group, reducing interpersonal conflict and boosting group’s morale.

The second is the task leadership, which concerns the task the group is facing rather than member satisfaction. It involves behaviors aiming at coordinating actions, proposing solutions, setting sub-tasks, removing barriers, disseminating information and allocating resources. The third dimension of this model is how ready the follower is to perform the task. This is termed as readiness and once the leader is able to identify how prepared is the follower to perform the task, the model can be used to select the most appropriate style and communication pattern for that follower (Bates, 2007, p.7).

According to Hershey and Blanchard, during the initial formation stage the group life-members work best with a high-task/low relationship leader. As the group matures, the leader should aim for a high-task/high relationship behavior. As the maturity increases leader can trust on the subordinates enough to go for low-task/high relationship behavior. Finally for a fully mature group, low-task/low relationship behavior is appropriate (Bryman, 1986, p. 147). Hence an effective leader needs to demonstrate four different leadership styles during the group’s development process.

First is the telling style, which entails proving task orientation with a clear explanation necessary at the start of a group life cycle. Here, the employees are able but lack the knowledge needed to do a job and need detailed instructions for doing a job. Second is the selling or coaching style where employees receive structured but supportive instruction. This type of leadership is needed when the employees are neither willing nor able to do the job. Third is the participative style where employees and leaders share in decision making.

This style works best when the employees have the ability but require encouragement to do the task. Fourth is the delegating style where employees make and implement decisions on their own. This style works best when employees are both willing and able to do the job (Goethals, Sorenson, Burns, 2004, p. 1433). The leadership style to be used can be negotiated by the leader and the subordinates. As is said earlier the research has yet o prove the theory, but companies like Xerox, Caterpillar and Mobil Oil have found it a successful tool in their leadership training (Goethals, Sorenson, Burns, 2004, p. 1433).

i. Vroom and Yetton’s Normative Model – Victor Vroom and Philip Yetton in 1973, developed a Normative Model according to which leadership style is a consequence of choice. The theory was proposed by Vroom and Yetton and was later modified by Vroom and Jago. The model is more focused on situations and how leaders respond than on leader’s characteristics and how they interact with the situation. Normative model focuses on the interaction of the between a leader’s choice of decision making strategies and decisions situation, which predicts the quality of the decision and subordinate commitment to the decision.

It is a prescriptive model of leader’s decision-making process. The model is known by multiple names such as participative leadership model, Vroom and Yetton’s normative model and the Vroom-Jago model (Goethals, Sorenson, Burns, 2004, p. 1432). According to the theorists Vroom and Yetton, one of the primary functions of leadership is decision making. When making a decision a leader must wigh up two considerations. The first one is the quality of decision which the second is the acceptance of the decision by those who must implement it.

Vroom and Jago identified five leadership processes for decision-making which are to be chosen based on 11 heuristics. The five strategies are on a continuum from autocratic types I and II to consultative types I and II to full group participation. These processes represent solo decision making by the leader, the inclusion of subordinates at some level and full involvements of the subordinates in the decision. The decision heuristics describe the decision based on four criteria: improve the quality of the decision, improve subordinate involvement, reduce the time spent and develop the subordinates.

These criteria also form the basis for measuring the effectiveness of the decision (Antonakis, Cianciolo, Sternberg, 2004, p. 159) ii. House’s Path-Goal Theory of Leadership – Some theorists consider this theory of leadership as a contingency theory while some others consider this as a situational leadership type of theory. No what which type the theory falls under, this is one of the most studied and tested theories of leadership. The theory was proposed by Robert House, who says that effective leaders motivate employees by helping them to understand that their needs and expectations can be fulfilled through the performance of their jobs.

The better an employee performance, the greater the need fulfillment. The leader matches a subordinate’s perceptions and behavior with a desired outcome by matching the appropriate style to situational factors which results in a more satisfied and productive subordinate. The path-goal theory is related to the exchange theory of motivation whereby the behavior of individual is matched by the likelihood of achieving a desired goal and the resulting award that will follow (Clegg, Kornberger M, Pitsis T, 2005, p.239).

The path-goal theory views the function of leader as a supplemental one. The theory focuses on the member’s personal goals, their perceptions of the organizational goals and the most effective paths related to these goals. In other words the theory attempts to specify how leadership should clarify the path of members to desired goals or rewards. The theory was developed to predict subordinate’s satisfaction, motivation and performance as outcomes resulting from four types of leader behavior.

The four leadership styles are: directive leader who provides the employees with a detailed understanding of the expectations, a plan to accomplish those expectations, and resources to achieve the tasks; supportive leader who shows concern for the people, ensuring that the work environment does not impede specific tasks that lead towards organizational goals, and creates a supportive atmosphere; participative leader who seeks into from a multiplicity of internal sources including the technical core of employees to assist in the decision making process; and the achievement-oriented leader who establishes stimulating goals and expects high levels of performance in achievement of the stated goals (Borkowski, 2005, p. 194).

The path-goal theory is more advanced and complex than any other earlier theories. The theory is one of the most influential theories around in recent times and is used as a guiding philosophy for human resource management in many companies. b. Transactional leadership – Transactional theory explains leadership as a series of exchanges between leaders and followers Leaders use various versions of carrot-stick approach to achieve the goals of the organization.

Leaders set the goals and offer incentives to workers who carry out the work to achieve the goals. Transactional theory of leadership explains that transactions are the most common forms of leadership behavior. It is a task-oriented leadership theory and emphasizes on the role of the leader to accomplish a finite goal. The theory dominated the attention of researchers who studied the field until the 1980s. This type of leadership theory is also based on the assumption that leaders are superior to the followers in every way and followers essentially depend on the leaders. Hence, leaders delegate task to the followers and set a reward-punishment style of environment for their subordinates (Tosi, Mero, Rizzo, 2000, p. 472).

Transactional leadership theory is considered to be a rational form of leadership where the leadership equating with the management of systems and processes rather than the management of people. Hence the approach is concerned largely with structures emphasizing organizational purposes rather than people. The role of the transactional leader is to focus upon the key purposes of the organization and to assist people to recognize what needs to be done in order to reach the desired outcomes. However, the leader follows a laissez-faire type of leadership with his subordinates at the time of work. It is seen that if parameters are well-defined, transactional leaders are very successful. In terms of situations, transactional leadership succeeds where conformity rather than creativity is the norm (Tosi, Mero, Rizzo, 2000, p. 473). i.

Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory – LMX theory is transactional theory of leadership. Originally called the Vertical Dyad Linkage model, it arose in the earlier 1970s in reaction to the dominant behavioral and contingency models of leadership. VDL researchers believed that leaders adopt different styles of leaderships with different subordinates. That is to say leaders develop different dyadic exchange relationships with different subordinates. These relationships vary from a leader treating his subordinates as a closed and valued in-group member of the group to leaders treating his subordinates in a remote manner considering the subordinate as a out-group member of the group.

As the VDL model evolved into LMX theory, this leader-member relationship style i. e. in-group and out-group concept, disappeared and has been replaced with a continuum quality of exchange relationships (Goethals, Sorenson, Burns, 2004, p. 836).. LMX researchers focus on the quality of dyadic leader-member exchange relationships. The continuum relations can range from high-quality LMX relationships which are based on mutual trust, respect and obligation to low-quality LMX relationships which are simply based on the terms of formal employment contract between leader and subordinate. LMX relationships develop over a period of time within groups.

The LMX theory predicts that effective leadership requires leaders to develop high-quality LMX relationships with their subordinates because these relationships would enhance subordinates’ well-being, and hence their performance (Goethals, Sorenson, Burns, 2004, p. 1433). h. Transformational leadership – Transformational leadership theory explains how leaders develop and enhance the commitment of followers. In this theory leaders and followers transform each other to achieve high levels of performance. Transformational leadership is based on the leader’s effects on the followers’ values, self-esteem, trust and their confidence in the leader and motivation to perform above and beyond the call of duty.

Transformational leaders motivate other people by behaving in accordance with values, providing a vision that reflects mutual values, and empowering others to contribute. At the organizational level, transformational leadership is about innovation and change. Transformational leader uses vision based on shared values to align people and inspire growth and advancement. Both the inspiration and the empowerment aspects of transformational leadership are necessary to lead a subordinate to perform beyond self-interest. These factors are also responsible for commitment to a vision which when transformed into action leads to change (Goethals, Sorenson, Burns, 2004, p. 98).

Transformational leadership is many times called as the fifth generation of leadership and builds upon the works of earlier researchers like Kurt Lewin and Douglas MacGregor. Effective transformational leaders identify themselves as change agents, are courageous, believe in people, are value driven, are life-ling leaders, have the ability to deal with complexity, ambiguity and uncertainty and are visionaries. However transformational leadership can be demonstrated by anyone in the organization regardless of their position in the company (Tosi, Mero, Rizzo, 2000, p. 473). Peter Northouse transformational leaders are those who set out to empower followers and nurture them in change. They attempt to raise the consciousness of individuals and get them transcend their own self-interests for the sake of others.

Northouse gives the examples of transformations leadership in an organization as a manager who attempts to change his or her company’s corporate values to reflect a more human standard of fairness and justice (Northouse, 2007, p. 142). Northouse has also criticized this type of leadership one certain points. First of all he says that this type of model has a very broad approach that is difficult to succinctly define and is many times viewed from a simplistic perspective. Since it focuses on the leader’s dimensions, the approach is more trait-centric than behavior centric. There is also a possible potential of abusing subordinates through control and power (Northouse, 2007, p. 143).

Introduction

Research about educational leading theoretical accounts and teacher leading has largely been done in western contexts such as the USA, the U.K, and Australia ( Dimmock & A; Walker, 2000 ). One job of reassigning educational constructs from the West is undervaluing the impact of civilization on the successful execution of a policy in a context where the civilization is different ( Goh, 2009 ) because taking an organisation is interwoven with the civilization of those supervised ( Busher, 2006 ). In some contexts, the organisational construction of an establishment differs from that of the state. In such an instance, pedagogues are most likely to confront challenges when using leading manners that differ from what is considered the norm in that cultural context ( Law & A ; Glover, 2000 ). Cultural diverseness has been associated with differences in-universe positions that have bearing on behavioral differences ( Tajfel & A ; Turner, 1986 ). These differences manifest themselves into comprehending oneself as a member of one group and the perceptual experience of others as foreigners ( Giles, Wiemann & A; Coupland, 1991 ). This necessitates more cross-cultural surveies because most of the surveys about civilization come from the concerned field ( Dimmock & A; Walker, 2000 ). In educational establishments, leaders ‘ apprehension of their ain cultural background and that of their module is indispensable because many educational establishments now have staff from different civilizations ( Slethaug, 2007 cited in Walker & A; Riordan, 2010 ). This is peculiarly true in the field of TESOL in the Arabian Gulf where most module members are non- Arabs and the direction is largely Western. This instance survey purposes to research the interrelatedness between teacher leading and civilization at a multicultural English Department at an establishment of higher instruction in the State of Qatar.

Literature Reappraisal

Surveies that examine leading from an Arab position have been conducted entirely in the Fieldss of concern and cross-cultural psychological science. There are legion models for analyzing and comparing cultural values at the social degree and their impact on household, instruction, workplace, and province ( Hofstede, 2001 ) . Research refering to the Arabian Gulf derives from either the work of Geert Hofstede ( Dedoussis, 2004 ) or from the Globe Project ( Abdallah & A ; Al-Homoud, 2001 ) . These surveies have been criticized for 1 ) trying to homogenise the different civilizations ( Walker & A ; Dimmock, 2000 ) , 2 ) issues associating to informations aggregation, analysis, and cogency ( Smith et al. , 2007 ) , 3 ) the alteration in values because of economic development ( Inglehart & A ; Baker, 2000 ) , 4 ) and using these findings to a national degree without accounting for single and organisational differences ( Robertson et al. , 2001 ) .

Teacher leading

There is no clear cut and agreed upon definition for the term ‘teacher leading ‘ . The deficiency of consensus on a definition for the term can be attributed to the fact that it is wide and includes many facets ( York-Barr & A ; Duke, 2004 ) . The same position is shared by Lord and Miller ( 2000 ) who province that there is deficiency of apprehension of the term teacher leading and how it works. The focal point of the construct instructor leading is based on the capableness of instructors in holding and giving input on issues related to the school, which are non merely associated with decision makers and directors ( Harris & A ; Muijs, 2003 ) .

The leading functions assumed by instructors can be formal or informal ( Katzenmeyer & A ; Moller, 2001 ) . Undertaking informal instructor leader functions includes, among other things maps done by the instructor inside the schoolroom such as planning lessons, pass oning ends, oversing the pupils, and making a pleasant acquisition environment ( Berlinger, 1983 cited in Muijs & A ; Harris, 2003 ) . Taking the enterprise and sharing experiences with other instructors are besides illustrations of informal instructor leading. On the other manus, being in a formal instructor leading place involves duties associated with occupation rubrics such as coordinators, supervisors, course of study experts, or caputs of sections ( York- Barr & A ; Duke, 2004 ) . Keeping such occupations normally consequences in traveling off from the schoolroom ( Ash & A ; Persall, 2000 ; Katzenmeyer & A ; Moller, 2001 ) . A teacher leader could hold no teaching responsibilities so that s/he engages to the full in his/her leading place, or learn full-time while executing leading undertakings, or have reduced learning burden to set about the extra leading responsibilities ( Lord & A ; Miller, 2000 ) . Some research workers like Katzenmeyer and Moller ( 2001 ) believe that instructor leaders lead both inside and outside the schoolroom and this leads to lending to the wider community. This will take to betterment in educational patterns. Based on this definition, the function of a teacher leader is non merely confined within the schoolroom context and but goes beyond it in doing a alteration and act uponing others.

The range of much of the definitions of the term instructor leader discussed is limited to what instructors do indoors, outside the schoolroom, and the positive results of teacher leading on pupils ‘ accomplishment. A more comprehensive and delineated apprehension of the construct is covered in Leithwood ‘s et. Al ( 2003 ) survey in which they categorized leading. Some of the aspects covered in their survey and did non have as much attending in the literature were: personality, orientation to people, and communicating accomplishments. ( finish ) – from Patricia

The inclination in the literature is to associate teacher leading with administrative functions in stead of informal functions performed in the schoolroom. Danielson ( 2006 ) is of the sentiment that formal instructor leading functions designated by disposal do non represent existent leading. True leading is the self-generated response to a demand which is initiated by the instructor. For the intent of this survey, teacher leading refers to instructors ‘ ability to take outside the schoolroom without holding a formal occupation rubric.

Factors act uponing instructor leading

The teacher leading literature reveals a figure of hindrances that make exerting teacher leading hard ( Katzenmeyer & A ; Moller, 2001 ) . Barriers to teacher leading can be instructors themselves. Teachers may non see themselves as leaders because they think they are lone instructors ( Lieberman et. Al, 2000 ) . This reflects some instructors ‘ strong belief that being a instructor involves learning merely and the undertaking of a school disposal is to pull off and take ( Barth, 2001 ) . Another related aspect is the premise that it is portion of the instructor ‘s occupation to implement programs devised by others higher up in the school direction ( Boles & A ; Troen, 1996 ) . Colleagues can suppress exerting teacher leading when they are non accepting and supportive of teacher leading enterprises ( Little, 2000 ) by doing teacher leaders feel isolated ( Katzenmeyer & A ; Moller, 2001 ) . However, co-workers can besides be an encouraging factor of teacher leading and this will be discussed in the following subdivision.

Collaboration and collegiality

Collegiality and coaction have both been identified as factors lending to instructors ‘ authorization and committed ( Fullan, 1994; Jarzabkowski, 2000 ) . A sense of collegiality leads to trueness, trust, and a sense of community ( Katzenmeyer & A ; Moller, 2001 ) . Collegiality and coaction are used interchangeably in the literature and there is a deficiency of consensus on their specific significance. Hargreaves ( 1994 ) is a good instance of point as he suggests that assorted signifiers of collegiality and coaction exist and each has a different intent. He further notes that collegiality as a term lacks lucidity.

Professional development

Within the literature, it is argued that instructors ‘ battle in professional activities support their leading functions. Effective instructor leaders strive to better their instruction accomplishments ( Katzenmeyer & A ; Moller, 2001 ). These professional development activities should besides concentrate on facets referring to instructors ‘ leading functions ( Harris & A; Muijs, 2003 ) such as presenting workshops, carry oning action research, and join forces with others ( Katzenmeyer & A ; Moller, 2001; Sparks, 2002 ). Formal professional development activities include go to workshops and conferences whereas informal 1s involve reading about issues related to professional development country of involvement and be aftering with instructors ( Ackerman, Katzenmeyer & A ; Moller, 2001 ). The principals ‘ function is to recommend instructors ‘ professional development by offering clip and resources ( Muijs & A ; Harris, 2003 ). Developing instructors ‘ leading accomplishments will enhance/ optimise the likeliness that staff members will be successful when taking on a leading function ( Danielson, 2006 ).

Why should teacher leading be promoted?

One statement for advancing teacher leading is affecting instructors in the decision-making procedure will take to doing more informed determinations. Teachers have a deep apprehension due to their day-to-day contact with pupils ( York-Barr & A ; Duke, 2004 ). Another statement in favour of implementing teacher leading is to increase instructors ‘ feelings of ownership ( ibid ). This alteration in instructors ‘ function is needed because their feeling of impotence affects their functions and standing ( Moore, 2001 ) . Teachers ‘ engagement in determination devising makes them less disposed to experiencing they are inactive victims ( Barth, 2001 ) . She states that instructors would experience as a consequence of such authorization as “an excellent citizen in the schoolhouse instead than stay the subsidiary in a universe full of superiors ” ( ibid, p. 445 ). Teaching is alone occupation and making an environment where instructor leading is encouraged will ensue in making a more professional work environment ( ibid ). Research findings besides show that teacher empowerment encouragements instructors ‘ confidence and sense of fulfilment at work which play a function in better public presentation as a resulted of being extremely motivated ( Katzenmeyer & A ; Moller, 2001 ) .

Methodology

Qatar background info

The English Department investigated in this survey is multicultural. There are over 120 module members from 25 different states. However, the huge bulk are British and American. The direction squad consists of the Head of Department and five other coordinators, four of whom are westerners. These coordinators assist the Head of Department ( HOD ) on different issues and these five make determinations on all affairs referring to academic, administrative, and forces personal business. The following degree of direction includes four-degree supervisors (in-between directors) – one supervises each degree of the plan.

All Faculty service in one of the five commissions and this constitutes 10 – 20 % of their one-year assessment class. The coordinators make determinations in their countries through audience with their commission members. Faculty ‘s engagement in determinations referring to policy is done indirectly through their commission work. Their direct engagement is by finishing studies, being portion of focal point groups, and giving feedback on the different countries of the plan. Decisions and of import intelligence are communicated to Faculty and staff through electronic mail and Blackboard.

A instance survey was employed in the survey because it “involves the survey of an issue explored through one or more instances within a delimited system”.

Theoretical justification – why interpretative paradigm?

Why non positivist paradigm?

The participants in the survey were 10 Faculty members in an English Department of an Institution of Higher Education in the State of Qatar, a peninsula in the Arabian Gulf. The Western participants were British and American. The Arab Faculty members come from four different Arab states. The little sample size of the survey makes it hard to generalise the findings but should offer penetration into the function of civilization and its interrelatedness with the positions of teacher leading.

Informed consent signifiers were sought from the participants. There was no demand to obtain permission from gatekeepers because my ain workplace was studied. To guarantee the privatenes of the participants, anonym are used and the nationalities of the participants are non revealed in order for the respondents non to be easy identified.

The end of a qualitative enquiry is to understand a phenomenon from the point of position of the participant and this can be achieved by holding a purposeful sample which ( Merriam, 2002 ) defines as pre-determining the indispensable standards for taking who is to be interviewed or sites to be observed ( ibid ). The survey trying technique is purposeful since participants were chosen harmonizing to their nationalities and cultural backgrounds.

Data Collection

I collected informations utilizing interviews because utilizing interviews enable respondents “ to discourse their readings of the universe in which they live and to show how they regard state of affairs from their point of position ” ( Cohen et. Al, 2007, p. 267 ) . Another advantage is during the interview, the interviewer can inquire follow-up inquiries to spread out on the issue, to seek elucidation, or to contextualize ( Books, 1997 ) . A semi- structured interview format was employed to “obtain descriptions of the life universe of the interviewee with regard to construing the significance of the described phenomena” ( Kvale, 1996, p. 5- 6 ) . The interview had aˆ¦aˆ¦ . points. The instructors were interviewed separately. The interview inquiries were constructed by mentioning to relevant teacher leading literature. Interview inquiries were discussed with Faculty members with cognition and expertness in the country of civilization and educational leading to guarantee the face cogency. The interview was piloted with two participants who had the same features as the research participants. Prior to carry oning the existent interview, all interviewees were sent a screen missive explicating the intent of the survey which stated its wide subjects and included a petition to audio-tape. The single interviews lasted 40 proceedings.

To triangulate the informations, focal point groups were used as the 2nd informations aggregation tool. The intent of carry oning focal point groups is to obtain the corporate position of a group sing an issue ( Morgan, 1997 ) . Two focal point groups were conducted: one with Arabs and the other with Westerners. The written texts of both interviews and concentrate groups were sent to participants for intents of informations proof. The information was analyzed inductively because most qualitative surveies aim to bring forth new theories and accounts instead than get downing with a priori theories or hypotheses to turn out ( Gibbs, 2007 ) .

The function of the research worker is really of import in the interpretative paradigm in both informations aggregation and analysis since the research worker is non detached from the subject of probe ( Cohen et. Al, 2007 ) . Social and educational research is viewed as “ a societal activity that it is influenced by factors like political relations and power dealings within the research context. ” The values and motive of the research workers have consequence every bit good ( Blaxter et. Al, 1996, p. 15 ) . This necessitates the research worker to be automatic about his/ her impact on the survey ( Denscombe, 1998 ) . To this extent, I am cognizant of the possible influence of my cultural background on the survey.

Results &   Discussion

Both Arab and Western staff members felt that it was normal to take in category and that it is the existent leading function for instructors. Informal leading functions identified by the respondents could be categorized into: instructors ‘ function, relationship with the pupils, and teacher personality. Teachers ‘ function in category was the focal point of most of the participants. Leadership facets identified under instructors ‘ function include: being a facilitator, patterning positive behaviour, set uping boundaries and pull offing category, consciousness of latest inventions and theories, accomplishing the ends and aims of the course of study. The function of being a facilitator, a function theoretical account, and successful direction were the lone functions mentioned by two participants. The 2nd class is relationship with the pupils. The survey sample mentioned motive, set uping trust with the pupils, cognizing pupils ‘ civilization and involvement, transfusing regard in the pupils. The personality facet of a teacher leader as accessible was mentioned by one Western participant. One Arab participant provinces, “Leading in category is 2nd nature to instructors. ”Another Western participant remarks, “Teachers are in charge in category because they know who they are.”

All participants in the survey irrespective of their cultural background did non tie in teacher leading with prima outside category. Leadership outside category is exercised through giving feedback on different issues associating to curriculum and other issues. Two Western participants expressed the position that “ One of the sarcasms of instruction is that in order to hold a greater leading function you need to travel off from teaching. You need to travel to disposal. ” They expressed the sentiment that one time you have a formal leading function you can get down to do a difference outside the schoolroom context. The differences between the Arab and the Western participants emerged when replying this research inquiry. The Western participants ‘ responses focused on different facets associating to organisational civilization, and leaders ‘ personality traits that limit exerting leading in the Departmental degree. One American participant believes that it all depends on the leader of the plan and states “ if instructors are allowed to follow their passion, they can go leaders in their ain countries. ” Another British participant touches on the function of co-workers in furthering or hindering teacher leading. In the single interview, she maintains “ with co-workers it is difficult to further some sort of leading because you feel intimidated you have no right. ” She stated the demand for regard of people ‘s age, gender, experience, place, and how long they have been in the Department. She is of the sentiment that “ In some establishments, some co-workers may resent instructors doing determinations if they do non keep an official leading rubric. ” Harmonizing to the participants, bitterness of co-workers taking on leading functions without holding a formal occupation rubric can be attributed to personality traits instead than social civilization.

One British participant was of the sentiment that due to strong hierarchy in the Middle East direction systems teacher leading can non be applied outside the schoolroom. He believes that “ If you try to interrupt into that hierarchy, you are short-circuiting the concatenation of bid. ” All Western participants agreed on the demand to separate between stereotype and personal experience. An American respondent contends that “like any bureaucratic establishment, there are degrees that you can lift to where you won’t be resented. But one time you start acquiring past a certain degree bitterness will kick in. ” The other three participants agreed with him on the demand to understand and cognize how to cover with hierarchies across different civilizations. The Americans warned that if people insist on making things the same manner they are done in their place states they “will run into a wall instantly.”

The influence of the leader ‘s personality was identified by merely one participant who expressed the demand for letting instructors to “ follow their passion ” which will take to making unfastened duologue where people can experience free to show their thoughts.

Most of the Arab participants besides believed that leading functions outside category were limited. One ground given was the fact that instructors are supervised by degree supervisors and coordinators and that a instructor ‘s function is to learn in category merely. Another ground identified was instructors felt everything was “ spelled out “ for them which leaves no room for instructors ‘ originative input. Those who believed in holding chances to take outside category maintained that denoting vacant degree supervisor and coordinator places reflected the Administration ‘s position that instructors are capable of taking leading functions.

The Arab respondents expressed assorted positions about the function of co-workers in taking on leading functions outside category. While some respondents felt that their co-workers ( Arab transcripts ) .

I have always been a firm believer that there are many different types of leaders. To be a leader you must have natural ability, and have the ability to listen and grow. Being in many leadership roles and positions has helped me to become the best person that I can be. Looking at leadership and management however opened my eyes to a new concept. I had never before realized how much the two go hand in hand. I feel the two words are synonymous in some aspects. My Leadership and Management style helped me to realize what kind of natural skills I have as a leader, and what kind of defined skills I have as a manager.

My “Lamp” chart really was split between the two entities. I always thought that I was much more of a leader than a manager. Come to find out I have skills in both sides that compliment one another. My Leadership style consists of many components, but the main two are my creating abilities and my empowering abilities. I feel that these two are the natural traits that I have, and they are things that I have expanded on the more I learn about others, and myself. I have always been a creative person, the one with the ideas and new concepts.

This has allowed me to be an effective leader in my positions to find other ways to do things, and to be successful at implementing new ideas. I also have the ability to empower those around me. What this means is to get people excited and willing to do whatever it takes to accomplish the goal or task we may face. I do this by believing in those around me and giving others the tools they need to lead themselves. My management style however is a bit different. I believe management skills are learned unlike leadership traits.

Through the positions I have held on campus, in high school, an in the work place I have learned to become more responsible and in turn some vital managerial skills. Through my “LAMP” I have come to realize my top two managerial skills are organization, and I am very job centered. I have not always been an organized person, and still believe that there is much room for improvement. With that being said my organizational skills have vastly improved while in college and it is due to the roles I have had within clubs and organizations, and most importantly my fraternity.

Organization didn’t come easy for me, but I realized to become an effective manager I needed to be organized, this directly translates to being an effective leader as well. Poor organization can lead to loss of credibility and that is something I try to stay away from. I am also very job centered. This means I like to know what needs to be done, by whom, and with a set date. If I have all of that I am able to delegate and get jobs finished in a timely manner. Being job centered really means I like to have defined roles.

Who’s doing what is a big deal for me, especially in managerial and leadership positions. Now the question is are Leadership and Management the same? I think not. There is a reason that the two are separated on the test. Both Leadership and Management skills are vital when taking any role or position of power. The differences lie in how you take charge and take control. Leadership skills I feel are things you are born with. Leaders also are people who are highly revered, someone who you look up to or want to be.

While Managerial skills can be taught if enough hard work and effort is put in. Yet managers sometimes are not revered as a role model because for the most part they tend to be your boss and make less of a personnel connection. This is why I feel having defined skills in both areas can make you the most effective person you can be. Being a great leader allows you to connect with people, excite people, and build credibility. While being a good manager means you delegate well, you stay organized and on task, and you oversee/stay on top of those whom you are managing.

According to Kotter in the article What Leaders Do “Management is about coping with complexity. Leadership, by contrast, is about coping with change. ” Good management is what keeps chaos from occurring. Kotter talks about how management is a major component in consistency and profitability if we look at it from a business aspect. This article describes how management is all about the complexities and how to good managers cope. “More change always demands more leadership. ” (pg.. 86 Kotter. ) Things are ever changing today. This is why leadership as a practice has now become so important.

Kotter talks about the abilities of leaders to run with the change and make things work with little room for discrepancy or chaos. A good leader is someone who can roll with the punches, figure out a new plan of action, and take charge all at once. Leadership is something that takes courage to make the tough decisions when something arises. The two styles although different do go hand in hand. When looking at Leadership and Management in relation to the Greek community we see how vital it is to have students who exemplify both qualities.

When obtaining a Leadership role within a Fraternity or a Sorority you are taking a lot of responsibility. To run a Greek house you must have the support and respect from all members, otherwise you can accomplish nothing. Fraternities and Sororities were built on the basis that we share the same goals and aspirations, it is the Leaders job to remind everyone that so they are able to carry on together. Leadership skills also come in handy when relating to your members. If you approach them as a manager instead of their leader they may lose that connection with you.

With that being said the Managerial side of running a Chapter also is very important. I like to think of this as the work side. When managing a Greek house you must always be on top of the logistical or behind the scenes work that many members never really get a chance to see, whether it be connecting with nationals, working with housing corp. , or going to IFC meetings. This is where being a manager plays a big role because with all of this work organizational skills, delegation, and planning all must take place otherwise mayhem could occur.

Once things get out of hand it is hard to pull them back, that is why staying on top of everything as a manager is just as important as being the leader that everyone wants to follow. Another way to look at leadership and management in daily life is Stephen Covey’s book The Seven Habits of Highly Effective People. The book looks at how to be the most effective person you can be. The steps you need to take to do so is also a major component in the book. The 7 Habits prepares you to change your outlook on what it really means to be effective, and in turn what it takes to be a leader.

Habit one is Be Proactive. Sounds pretty self-explanatory but when you look more in depth you can really learn a lot from this habit. Being proactive is the root to being effective. It is the first step away from dependence towards independence. Being proactive means taking initiative, getting things done, and overall taking control of your life. When you become proactive you take responsibility for your choices. You learn what it means to really take accountability and get things done. Being proactive really is all about getting yourself to do what needs to be done and being accountable for that.

I have personally seen myself start to be more proactive the older I get. I was a huge procrastinator when I was younger and was always rushing to get things done. Now by being more proactive I have found time to do others things and take on more responsibilities as a leader. Habit two is, begin with an end in mind. This boils down to setting goals. Whenever starting a project or taking something over know what you want to achieve when you begin. This is very important in measuring success. If you have a goal you have a target you are trying to reach.

The more solidified the goal the more prepared you can become while trying to achieve it. To begin with an end in mind is like setting a personal goal or mission statement that can be applied to everything that you do, thus knowing what you can and want to achieve. I find habit two extremely insightful. I have always been an activator, someone who loves to start things and get them off the ground, my problem sometimes is once I start I don’t know where to go. This habit is really on that I connected with because I feel it can help me solidify what I want to do and where I want to go when starting any project in my life.

Habit three is put first things first. In other words it is to prioritize by importance rather than urgency. Many times people get caught up and procrastinate, leaving them behind and always rushing to catch up on due dates. In the book there is a chart called the time management matrix, which shows four quadrants. The ideal quadrant is two, if you are living in this quadrant you have your priorities in check and have some free time to enjoy life. Most people however live in quadrant one, which is crisis management and never having free time because of poor pre planning.

I find this habit to be one of the more difficult ones to live by. In my “LAMP” planning was my lowest strength on the management side. I struggle with putting first things first because sometimes I literally do not put first things first. This is something since reading the seven habits that I know I need to work on for my own leadership and management needs. Habit four is think win-win. This chapter explains all the different types of people that are out there. It explains that some people are out there only working for the good of themselves and do not care if they push anyone down to get where they want.

This chapter focuses on looking at life from the perspective of win-win. Therefore everyone is no worse off than before. If we always went into a deal looking for the best option for both parties then things would run a lot smoother. This habit teaches us that making the right call and doing the right thing will propel you further than if you are only looking out for your own self interest and nothing else. I feel that I am pretty acclimated with this habit. I have always been the type to seek mutual agreements on deals or trades.

I feel that by both parties becoming better off there is more room for working together or trading again in the future. Someone who only looks out for themselves will end up burning many bridges and will have no one to rely on soon enough. Habit Five is seek first to understand, then to be understood. This means to listen to someone, really listen to someone. Habit five is all about understanding someone, fully listening and caring about what they say. In turn they will do the same for you. Empathetic listening is key when connecting and seeing where someone is coming from. This is a great characteristic to have as a leader.

When someone feels like they are really being heard, then they will make a conscious effort to hear you out. This will in turn create an environment of complete unity and will make it that much easier to get things done when you can see from others points of views and they can see from yours. I feel that I have been getting better at understanding first then seeking to be understood. Many times during the beginning of my Presidency I would try to be heard first, what I noticed is that nobody listens when all you want is to be heard. Everybody has a voice and those voices need to have the opportunity to share.

Once I learned this many people who I had never even connected with much before my term started coming to me for daily advice because I would actually listen to them. In turn I found myself with a mass support system within the house. Habit Six, Synergize. To combine the strengths of everyone in the group for cohesive and effective teamwork is what synergy is all about. You can also use synergy to bring all seven habits together as well. Once you can figure out a way to make them all work then the habits almost condense into one proactive effective lifestyle. To truly understand synergism you must understand and trust the process.

The whole is greater than the sum of its parts is a great way to think about synergism. Working to combine the best attributes of people into one is very hard to do but with synergy you must trust others and trust yourself. Synergy can even be related to work, using synergistic energy to bring new ideas and methods is vital to keep things moving and to renew. I feel that because of my Leadership studies minor I have been able to see strengths in people and work together with them implementing my strengths to maximize the potential of the group and do the best job that we can.

I also noticed that working as a team and feeding off of others ideas really gets the engines going, creating a better work environment and creating healthy competition. Habit 7, Sharpen the Saw. This is taking a step back, viewing where you are, your goals, and life and really taking the time to meditate and think of how you are effective, and more importantly how you can become even more effective. When you “Sharpen the Saw” you are taking the time to focus on you. This can even be things like working on your physical health and mental well being.

This is very important because if you feel tired, overworked, or stressed it is time to re-evaluate everything and have a plan to better yourself. I like to think of sharpening the saw as if I am looking at my effectiveness and goals from an outsiders view and how I can grow to become a better leader. I feel that I do not take enough time to do this. , partially because I do not manage my time as well as I would like to, to really evaluate myself and how I am doing. I do find it is really difficult to revisit my strengths and weaknesses and how to improve them because I am too worried about how everyone else is doing.

When looking at the seven habits and the move from dependence, to independence, and ultimately interdependence I see how the seven habits can really be effective. I found that the seven habits, if utilized correctly can really change your life. The book however in my opinion goes too in-depth about how to use the habits. I feel that it could be condensed, giving more information about the habit itself, and less about how to live your life. The habits should be interpreted by each person from their own standpoint because everyone will use them differently.

The part of the book I connected with most was the circle of concern and the circle of influence. This really hit the nail on the head for me. I find myself worried about too much instead of figuring out ways to use my influence to change them. If I was less concerned, and more influential the problems I face would not be there in the first place. This is something I have tried to work on ever since reading Covey’s book. I also have become more aware of myself. Habit 7 opened my eyes to the fact that I really do need to take care of myself more. By doing this I can effectively use the other six habits to my advantage.

Overall I found the habits to be a guide for how to not only be a leader, but how to live life. The habits themselves are great tools to use in a leadership position or to just become a better person. The habits paired with my strengths and my management styles really all coincide. Now I just need to take what I know, take a step back and see how I can apply it to my everyday routine. I want to live like my favorite quote says, “Don’t count the days, make the days count. ” Muhammad Ali. The only way to make the days count is hard work, effort, and the application of my strengths and the seven habits.