management

Program management is usually a process or mechanism to manage the performance of several projects under one unit. Unlike project management, program management takes a long time and involves a much bigger task. The paper would examine program typologies and analyze organizational challenges when managing different types of programs.

Program Typologies

There are various types of Programs, depending on the scope of work, time, and the number of people who would be instrumental in the program (Brown 2008). The Goal-oriented programs normally deliver changes in the organization. Most often, they just deal with one-off changes. It may be organizational, national or even international.

The River Flood Protection Program in the Netherlands is an example of a goal-oriented program. An organization may come up with a plan to change the structure of management (Levin & Green 2014). The international organizations in the health sector may start a program on how to Kick Polio out. All the objectives of those projects that are under the program are subject to the program’s objectives. All the projects must work towards achieving the program goal (Wagner & Barkley 2010).

The heartbeat programs are those that involve regular improvements of what is already in existence. It may be the infrastructural programs like buildings, roads, and telecommunication (Brown 2008). They may also be business processes like production, manufacturing, the human resource or even the marketing programs.

There is also a service centre program. The program management coordinates the management of knowledge between projects (Shao & Müller 2011). It does this by integrating financial, technical, administrative and legal services. There is also a portfolio program. In this program, the individual projects are not entirely under the influence of the program goal. They mutually adapt because of the free flow of information at the program level (Levin & Green, 2014). The management program has limited control over individual projects.

Before starting any program, the management must first access the problem it wants to solve. The selection criteria are important because they guide the management to weigh the impact of the programs (Thiry 2010). An organization should not start a program using the current traditional hierarchical structure. A program has to be a special entity that does not interfere with the normal functioning of the organization.

Organizational Challenges

The difficulty in cooperation between projects within the same program is very challenging. For instance, if the financing project does not provide enough funds for the production project in an infrastructure program, it might delay or bring to a halt the entire program (Shao & Müller 2011).

Organizational learning is important for the success of the program. If the organization does not harness the learning process, then it may not succeed in its objectives. Another challenge is if the program provides an unacceptable degree of control through bureaucracy (Thiry 2010). There could also be competition between individual projects. The projects must complement each other and not compete against each other (Wagner & Barkley 2010).

Organizations that can deal with the challenges in their programs management normally succeed. Individual Projects within a program have to support the program to save costs and time. The organization has to provide good leadership by allowing the programs to run independently.

References

Brown, J 2008, The handbook of program management, McGraw-Hill, New York.

Levin, G & Green, A 2014, Implementing program management, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.

Shao, J & Müller, R 2011, ‘The development of constructs of program context and program success: a qualitative study’, International Journal of Project Management, vol. 29, no. 8, pp.947-959.

Thiry, M 2010, Program management, Gower, Virginia Tech., Burlington,

Wagner, P & Barkley, B 2010, Global program management, McGraw-Hill, New York.

Operations managers take different positions in organizations and have to deal with a number of tasks and responsibilities (Schroeder, Goldstein, & Rungtusanatham, 2013). One of their duties is to identify the importance of change and support employees in taking such an important step (Block, 2016; Voehl & Harrington, 2016). In this paper, the peculiarities of a movement from a batch process to a line process in a firm will be discussed to understand how this change can help to meet market needs in different departments, including marketing, finance, human resources, accounting, and information systems.

Process Change

A batch process is the production of products in batches or lots in regard to specific categories and tasks (Schroeder et al., 2013). On the one hand, this process helps to save money, divide people into groups, and reduce waste. On the other hand, this process may result in delays so that the downtime between batches de-motivates employees. Line processing is characterized by large quantities, fast speed, and efficient work, leading to significant production increases. The necessity to move from a batch process to a line process may cause concerns among the representatives of different departments.

Concerns of Different Departments

Marketing

The essence of marketing is to make sure that appropriate exchange relationships with different people and organizations may be supported by a company (Baker, 2014). Regarding such transformation, the representatives of this department may question the possibility of having the same volumes of production, meet customers’ needs, and offer the required quantity of products on a regular basis.

Finance

A financial department’s concern may touch upon the necessity of additional investments. A financial function is to promote efficient use of funds (Brigham, 2014). Therefore, the development of new funding programs should be offered to support this change and make sure that no quality damage occurs because of poor financing.

Human Resource

Human resource management aims at employing people and developing their skills and knowledge in the field (Armstrong & Taylor, 2014). One of the possible concerns of this department may be the number of employees required for a new type of working process and staff’s obligations to change repetitive activities within line tasks.

Accounting

In the field of accounting, where activities, decisions, and ideas have to be represented in the form of money, people should be challenged by the necessity to understand the price of new equipment and if new experts may demand a higher salary. Financial transactions should not be increased as soon as one process is replaced by another process.

Information Systems

Finally, the sphere of information systems may be interested in the possibility to introduce new facts and details in regard to the chosen organizational change. A batch process promotes flexibility in work, and information systems should not be challenged by such flexibility but use a chance to obtain new, different sources.

Conclusion

In general, the concerns of all departments in a firm that is going to replace a batch process with a line process are based on the necessity to understand if new steps and changes lead to certain benefits or just create a new challenge. All departments have to be ready to use different options and support this movement to meet organizational needs.

References

Armstrong, M., & Taylor, S. (2014). Armstrong’s handbook of human resource management practice. Philadelphia, PA: Kogan Page Publishers.

Baker, M.J. (2014). Marketing strategy and management. London, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.

Block, P. (2016). The empowered manager: Positive political skills at work. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Brigham, E.F. (2014). Financial management theory and practice. New Delhi, India: Atlantic Publishers.

Schroeder, R.G., Goldstein, S.M., & Rungtusanatham, M.J. (2013). Operations management in the supply chain: Decisions and Cases (6th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw Hill.

Voehl, F., & Harrington, H.J. (2016). Change management: Manage the change, or it will manage you. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

Introduction

Modern marketing strategies are diverse and constantly evolving. In order to reach the highest level of customer satisfaction, marketers employ a variety of tools that help to bring products closer to people and enable consumers to participate in the decision-making process. One such tool is the introduction of change management that helps to improve the organizations’ productivity by altering the business process, allocating budget, and redirecting the resources. The role of a leader in this process is significant since, without appropriate guidance and management, it is impossible to reach the best outcomes for a company. Leaders are responsible for getting the firms ready for change and helping them to manage the difficulties.

Change Management

Change management is a crucial factor in making an organization successful. Without checking new trends and adjusting to them, it is impossible to sustain the necessary levels of productivity and profitability (Van der Voet 2014). With the help of change management, employees, teams, and whole companies prepare for important adjustments that lead to considerable improvements. Without appropriate leadership, change management may fail, which leads to adverse outcomes for the organization. Therefore, it is crucial to analyze the most innovative trends in the market, evaluate the company’s ability to adapt them and think of the ways in which they might be implemented.

One of the aspects of modern change management is digital marketing. It helps leaders to promote their organizations’ products and services and simultaneously gives a possibility to predict the necessary changes. The popularity of user-generated content portals and social networks has inspired marketers to employ them as a means of becoming closer to their consumers (Füller 2010). With the help of digital tools, customers may become active participants in the production and development of a variety of products and services (Powers et al. 2012).

Companies engage their clients in generating and testing new ideas and concepts. With the help of such a change, organizations avoid failures when introducing new products. Unlike conventional consumer involvement, digital co-creation not only allows to ask people about their needs and desires but also invites them to share their creative ideas and solutions (Füller 2010). Social networks such as Tweeter play a crucial role in the implementation of change (Thoring 2011). With their help, leaders fulfill various purposes, such as increasing brand awareness, escalating sales, and performing market research.

The Role of Leaders in Change Management

In the process of change management, it is leaders who bear the greatest responsibility. Unlike managers who create plans, solve issues, and organize employees, leaders’ job is to prepare a company for change and make sure that it copes with the process of adjustment (Kotler & Keller 2012). Leaders are the ones who set the organizations’ directions, align employees, and motivate people to show their best performance.

Cameron and Green (2012) emphasize the need for modern leaders to be connective and outline the following features of such leaders:

• they should be well-informed politically but combine this knowledge with ethical conduct;
• leaders should be authentic and responsible. These objectives can be achieved through dedicating themselves to the organization’s goals and thoroughly analyzing each option before making the final decision;
• connective leaders should look for commonalities and create communities;
• they should have a long-term thinking and short-term acting. A good leader should coach successors and create long-term future prospects irrespective of the ongoing demand;
• leaders should have high expectations and show trust to their employees;
• connective leaders should seek for meaning and try to make the world a better place.

There are different views about the role of a leader during the process of change (Cameron and Green 2012). According to the machine metaphor, a leader occupies the highest position in the company, sets the objectives, and establishes the ways of attaining them. The political system metaphor presupposes that the leader should be the main person in a powerful alliance that attracts supporters by means of an appealing vision and negotiation. The organism metaphor implies that the leader’s major duty is consulting and coaching. The flux and transformation metaphor considers the leader as a facilitator of rising change (Cameron and Green 2012).

Not all scholars view the leadership of change at the top of the hierarchy. Sometimes, change is seen as something implemented from within the organization rather than by one person (Cameron and Green 2012). However, the majority of specialists agree that the leader’s role is the most significant one in planning and implementing change in the organizations. Moreover, some authors argue that it is not enough to think only of change as a separate means of reaching better outcomes. According to Hornstein (2015), much better results can be achieved if change management is combined with project management. Such cooperation helps to identify the needs and scope of work better and eventually leads to more productive results.

The Assessment of Personal Readiness for Change

In the future, I am planning to run a healthcare facility. That is why I have a full understanding of the need to implement change in my organization. Personally, I feel that I am ready for the process of adjustment because I have consulted many scholarly sources and other professional materials. I realize that implementing change is not an easy task, and I will have to be extremely cautious to avoid mistakes. However, I will keep learning and enhancing my knowledge. I think that once I start my business, I might face some challenges that I cannot predict at the moment. Thus, I will never stop improving my skills and will not be afraid to ask for advice.

The need for implementing change in my organization will impact my role as a leader since it will outline some new responsibilities to my company and employees. I will have to fulfill the following obligations:

• keep getting acquainted with the most popular innovations;
• analyze the appropriateness of change for my organization;
• arrange the communication with customers in order to find out their opinion about change;
• express trust to employees and ask for their advice and opinions;
• taking into consideration the attitudes of employees and consumers, make a plan of change;
• keep control of the implementation process and make sure that all stages are carried out in accordance with the plan;
• evaluate the impact of change on the organization’s work and draw conclusions about the positive or negative trends that have appeared.

I realize that I may meet serious obstacles when implementing change, but I am sure that if I do everything in accordance with this plan, chances for success will be increased, and the possibility of failure will be eliminated.

Examples of Prior Experiences

The experience of participating in the change management process I have is related to professional experience. There were two cases in which our leader implemented a change in the healthcare facility where I work. The first time it happened when a new patient safety initiative was introduced. I can describe this experience as a positive one. A few months before initiating this project, our leader performed a survey for patients both on the site and with the help of digital marketing.

With the help of this tool, we were able to find out the aspects of safety about which our customers felt most worried. Further, the opinions were analyzed, and viable solutions were suggested. Before introducing new safety measures, the hospital leader arranged a meeting with personnel where he explained the reasons for and expected outcomes of the suggested change. Every employee knew his or her responsibilities and fulfilled them promptly. As a result, the next survey indicated the increase in patient satisfaction and a decrease in negative incidents associated with patient safety.

The second case I recollect about change was an attempt to accomplish decentralization at the hospital where I work. This experience was not as positive as the first one. In an attempt to delegate tasks from higher levels in a hierarchy to the lower ones, our leader made a mistake. He did not allow enough time for the employees’ understanding of the coming change and did not take care to inform everyone about decentralization to a proper extent.

As a result, many people did not know what functions they were responsible for, and many duties were not performed at all. Two weeks after the introduction of the new system, it became clear that the system had to be improved. The hospital leader performed a thorough analysis of the problem and decided to postpone the process of decentralization.

As can be seen from these examples, even experienced leaders can make mistakes. The important thing is that they should learn from these mistakes and think of the new solutions. Change is a fantastic opportunity to optimize the work of a company. In order to make the most of it, a leader should approach the process of adjustment with responsibility and be ready to deal with probable complications.

Conclusion

Change management is a significant component of success in modern organizations. The process of implementing change requires much preparation and hard work, but in most cases, the efforts are rewarded. The most important figure in change management is the leader. He is the one who analyzes the current situation, predicts change, and comes up with ways of putting it into life. The difficulties that a leader may face while developing change management suggestions are concerned with insufficient time and resources.

The benefits of appropriate analysis of the situation involve higher customer satisfaction and better outcomes for the company. The leader’s role in change management is viewed in four dimensions: political system metaphor, machine metaphor, organism metaphor, and flux and transformation metaphor. Scholars identify a set of features that a leader should have in order to implement change successfully. While there are different opinions, most specialists agree that a leader should be responsible and well-informed, and they should pay attention to long-term goals as well as short-term actions.

Reference List

Cameron, E & Green, M 2012, Making sense of change management: a complete guide to the models, tools and techniques of organizational change, 3rd edn, KoganPage, London.

Füller, J 2010, ‘Refining virtual co-creation from a consumer perspective’, California Management Review, vol. 52, no. 2, pp. 98-122.

Hornstein, HA 2015, ‘The integration of project management and organizational change is now a necessity’, International Journal of Project Management, vol. 33, no. 2, pp. 291-298.

Kotler, P & Keller, K 2012, Marketing management, 14th edn, Pearson, New York, NY.

Powers, T, Advincula, D, Austin, MS, Graiko, S & Bworn, FM 2012, ‘Digital and social media in the purchase decision process: a special report from the advertising research foundation’, Journal of Advertising Research, vol. 52, no. 4, pp. 479-489.

Thoring, A 2011, ‘Corporate tweeting: analysing the use of Twitter as a marketing tool by UK trade publishers’, Publishing Research Quarterly, vol. 27, no. 2, pp. 141-158.

Van der Voet, J 2014, ‘The effectiveness and specificity of change management in a public organization: transformational leadership and a bureaucratic organizational structure’, European Management Journal, vol. 32, no. 3, pp. 373-382.

Successful SD has several associated business benefits. An increase in revenue and efficiency are some of the visible results. The firm is thus able to stop liabilities and make the brand’s reputation.

Phases of the SDLC

It is necessary to understand the phases of systems development to achieve success. The planning stage involves formulating a plan and determining the project’s goals. The end-user requirements are then analyzed to merge the goals of the project to customer needs.

The desired features of the structure are defined in the design stage, before transforming them into the definite system in the development phase. The project undergoes testing to eliminate any errors, and verify that it meets the user requirements before analyzed. It is then set to use in concrete business operations in the scheme, and any additions or changes required are recurrently made to ensure sustainability.

Software development methodologies

There are different SD methodologies which may be implemented. The agile method ensures customer satisfaction through the on-time distribution of software elements. The waterfall methodology conversely guarantees that the SDLC phases are comprehensively administered. The RAD, XP, and RUP methodologies help in breaking down systems of the phases, aiming to increase speed and secure prearranged objectives.

Software is developed through the SDLC, and hence regardless of the chosen methodology, each of the phases must be followed. The agile methodology is however preferred to waterfall due to its sequential system which guarantees delivery of desired products. It provides space for creativity and easier improvement compared to the waterfall design that does not consider any projected uncertainties.

Developing software

It is necessary to establish software appropriately to ensure the effective transformation of businesses. The user’s needs would thus be met, ensuring efficiency and facilitate decision making. If the software does not meet these needs, the agency may not succeed.

For example, Nike faced a revenue shortfall due to the inappropriate fixing of the repository supply software. The company’s stature as a pioneering user of expertise was damaged. Organizations must thus learn to implement properly these technologies while maintaining a competitive edge.

Project management

Triple constraints

These principles are prominent in project management, as it discusses capacity, resources and time. The three components interrelate; an alteration in any of them results in changes in the other components. For example, if the time of the project is decreased, it would mean supplemental expenses or decreasing capacities of the project. The project manager must, therefore, be proficient in choosing calculated projects, determining their scope, managing the presented resources, and sustaining the scheme plan.

Project stakeholders and roles of executive sponsors in choosing strategic projects

When choosing strategic projects it is necessary to focus on the foundation’s goals, group projects and execute broad monetary reviews. The projects can be grouped into predicaments, prospects, and commands, to simplify character responses.

The economic analysis determines the viability and expectations of prioritized objectives. The project management institute elaborates the role of the executive sponsor as the provision of financial resources for the scheme. He/she is answerable to the project team and shares the hope and enthusiasm of successfully fulfilling the task.

Components of a project charter

A project charter is a document issued by the project financer, authorizing the project’s life and empowering the director with resources to execute the venture. The scope, objectives, deliverables, constraints, and assumptions are part of the document. The scope explains the purpose and how it would be completed, stating the corresponding postulations, limitations, and requirements.

Meeting the organization’s objectives defines its success. The deliverable is the produced items to complete the project. HP would thus benefit from such procedures, which will ensure efficiency. Limitations, which may bind the estimations, include delivery dates and the company’s strategies. Project postulations review the working hours in which the project would be implemented.

Diagrams used in project planning

A project plan is a recognized article that manages and controls the execution of the project. A PERT chart and a Gantt list are vital parts of the system which aid in showing growth of goal implementation. The PERT model depicts the tasks of the project and how the tasks are related. The Gantt model conversely shows the project task against dates, representing the plan of the project and showing the advancement of tasks against the considered period.

Areas to be focused on to ensure success

To ensure the success of a project the manager must learn how to manage people, communications and alterations. It is necessary to maintain open communication channels between the workforces and ensure that conflicts are resolved on time.

All stakeholders must be updated on the project schedule. An organization must be well prepared to deal with the difficulties related to a swiftly shifting civilization, through instituting change management policies, and predicting and seeking change. These changes may occur as a result of technological advancement or end-user needs.

Insourcing and outsourcing

Insourcing involves using the proper expertise within a framework to develop systems while outsourcing entails relationships between different companies. There are three types of external contracting, depending on location. Onshore sourcing involves receiving services from within the nation, nearshore outsourcing reaches out to nearby countries, while in offshore outsourcing developing countries improve in mounting systems.

Rapid growth, Internet use, and globalization of markets engage companies in these services in order to provide extensive services. Businesses that outsource have been reported to obtain faster and more profitable growth than those which do not.

For example, Best Buy, which subcontracted Accenture, resulted in increased revenue and profits for the company. Unfortunately, competitive advantage and confidentially may be lost through employing outside sources. HP must thus consider these factors before choosing a sourcing criterion.

Project management institute (PMI) and HP

PMI formulates theories and procedures needed in project management. It places a priority on authorization, principles, and values. It is helpful to HP’s software development approach, as it would allow them to tell obligatory practices to meet project requirements. Continuous appraisal and supervising performance while implementing the PM methods guarantee the success of the project.

Wal-Mart is an American multinational retailer corporation that operates public discount stores as well as warehouse stores. The decision for Wal-Mart to extend its operations to India is a strategic move as India is regarded as the second emerging entrant with an estimated market of $ 396 billion and is expected to reach a high of $ 785 billion by 2015. India market has greatly improved since 1990s after Indian adoption of liberalization policies.

The policies have been instrumental in promoting the economy of India greatly. Economists associate the Indian booming market with liberalization, development of medical facilities, infrastructure as well as great increase in foreign investment. Over, the recent past, there has been a great growth of the Indian market which has resulted to a high rate in the growth of Indian Gross Domestic Product (GDP) with over 7%.

The improved economic development in India has necessitated growth in several sectors such as agriculture as well as services industry. As a result of increased foreign investment in Indian market, multinational companies have developed great interest in investing in Indian market. Foreign institutional investment in Indian has increased to approximately US $ 10 billion and FDI has significantly increased from US $ 25.1 billion to US $ 46.5 billion.

Wal-Mart has been able to establish itself as the market leader in the mass merchandize industry. Its achievement can be traced to it success creating competitive advantage over its rival brands. Wal-Mart has mastered the mechanism of consistently developing tactical internal assets plus establishing obstacles to entry for prospective competitors. One of the major advantages for Wal-Mart entry into India is its ability to acquire economies, acquire unique resources, strong brand.

The ability of Wal-Mart to achieve economies of scale that will enable to it offer its products in Indian market at a discounted prices which will help it in creating a competitive advantage over its rival brands. Wal-Mart success as the leading retailer industry in the world will be of great importance in its entry in the Indian market. This is because many Indians will tend to embrace the Wal-Mart brand as it has been able to brand accordingly as an international company.

Therefore, foreign multinational retailers that aspire to enter into the Indian market should be prepared to invest a lot, in order to survive the stiff competition they are likely to face from Wal-Mart. The need for huge investments limits the number of new entrants in Indian market. This is because competing entrants will need to have plenty of capital to be in a position to compete with Wal-Mart. Failure to have sufficient capital will result to the retailers suffering from plenty of sunk costs.

Wal-Mart is known of using large ad campaigns for advertisements which is likely to put a lot of pressure on competing brands as they endeavor to match those expenditures in order to appear competitive. The economies of scale realized by Wal-Mart will act as its competitive advantage and any competing brand should be ready to invest heavily in order to be in a position to minimize the role of economies of scale (Viskovish, 2008).

The success for Wal-Mart to develop an efficient distribution channel is one of its competitive advantages. The company distribution channel strategy entails restricting inventory while at the same time gives them opportunity to open more stores. Wal-Mart has been in the retailer business for long and as a result, it has been able to master the approach for developing very effective and efficient distribution channels that enable it to lower pricing, a situation that enables Wal-Mart to create another barrier for rival brands that plan to enter into the Indian market.

To supplement its performance in its new market, the company has the ability to develop unique resources that give it competitive advantages over its rivals. For example, Wal-Mart is able to develop its electronic data exchange system that it uses in its other markets in order to help it in improving communication with suppliers and distribution channel as well as improve inventory control. Thus, any new entrant will have to face these barriers in order to survive the competition for Wal-Mart (Peng, 2006).

Despite the success of Wal-Mart in establishing very efficient distribution channels, Wal-Mart will be required to purchase at least 30% of its goods from Indian local small industries. In addition, Wal-Mart will only be limited to operate only in 53 Indian cities that have over 1 million people.

The restriction for Wal-Mart to buy at least 30 per cent of its goods from local suppliers may affect its pricing strategy. Wal-Mart may be forced to sell its products at a much higher price, than it would sell them if it was not limited to buy at least thirty per cent of its stock from Indian local suppliers. Another challenge that Wal-Mart should overcome is the stiff competition from other multinational companies that have already ventured into Indian market.

Metro AG is one of the companies that are giving Wal-Mart Corporation a stiff competition. Metro AG which is a competitive retailer group with a global profile has already opened six wholesaler stores in India and anticipates opening approximately 50 wholesaler stores in India. Metro AG has enough resources to match Wal-Mart competitions in terms of economies of scale as well as in the development of efficient and effective channel of distribution (Pradhan & Sharma, 2011).

In order for Wal-Mart to survive and excel in the Indian market which is regarded as a very potential vibrant market, it requires to adopt appropriate strategies to enable it be able to increase its wholesale stores from the current 12 to over 50 within the shortest time possible. The merger strategy that Wal-Mart has already taken with Bharti Enterprise was a strategic move as it has given Wal-Mart a leading foothold in Indian market.

Wal-Mart should also consider expanding its operations in India through acquisition process. Expansion through acquisition will help Wal-Mart to quickly extend its operations across all the 53 cities that it is allowed to operate from. Alternatively, Wal-Mart can opt to form a merger with Metro AG Corporation.

The merger of the two firms will make the resultant company that will be formed to have the greatest market share in the retailer industry in India which will make it enjoy the economies of scale as well as eliminate direct competition which will help the company to have an upper edge in regulating the prices.

As Wal-Mart has a leading foothold in Indian market, it should try to sustain it by extending its operations to all the 53 cities in India where it is allowed to open its stores. A merger between with Wal-Mart is out of question, as the Indian government cannot approve it to as it is likely to lead to monopoly of trade. Similarly, an expansion through DFI is not sustainable as a result of the huge costs that are associated with this strategy.

The use of acquisition is the best option for Wal-Mart to extend its operations in India. The expansion will enable Wal-Mart to command a great market share in the Indian market. The economies of scale will help the company to take the advantage of economies of scale that will be important for Wal-Mart in enabling it offer its products at a discounted price to gain a competitive advantage over its rivals.

Reference List

Peng, M.W. (2006).Global Strategy. South-Western Cengage Pradhan, B. & Sharma, M. (2011).Wal-Mart, Foreign Retailers May Own 51% of India Ventures.

Viskovish, J. (2008). How Wal-Mart really Works. International Business Journal. 4, 3, 121-134

The modern-day organization operates in an environment that requires a dynamism that ensures that the different issues facing the organization are addressed holistically. To achieve this, decisions have to be made continually. Decision making always brings about organizational conflicts (Rahim, 2011).

Therefore, to achieve organizational goals and objectives, it is important to effectively deal with conflict. This essay discusses the conflict management process and the possible ways of reducing the interpersonal relationship.

Effective conflict management

An important step in resolving a problem is identifying the problem. As such, according to Rahim (2011), identifying conflict is as important as solving the conflict. There are different types of conflicts which range from substantive conflict, affective conflict, process conflict, conflict of interest, goal conflict, conflict of values, etc. (Rahim, 2011).

According to Rahim, for a conflict management strategy to be termed as effective, it ought to satisfy three criteria namely; organizational learning and effectiveness, needs of stakeholders, and ethics.

Organizational learning simply means that a conflict management strategy ought to enhance learning in the short and long term. This simply means that a manager should be able to solve the right problems that contribute to the long term effectiveness of the organization (Stein, 1976).

The second criterion to be satisfied is that of satisfying the needs of the stakeholder. The third criterion is that of ethics which present that decisions made by the organization ought to be ethical and that there is a need to institutionalize advocates for different stakeholders such as suppliers, employees, environmentalists, etc. to compel the decision makers to observe ethical conduct and codes in running the organization.

Conflict management process

In solving the conflict in the organization, the first step would be to diagnose the conflict. After diagnosis, the manager should be able to identify the nature and also know whether there is a need for intervention or not (White, 1961).

The second stage is intervention where the manager is required to intervene and decide on how the conflict will be resolved. It is needed where the affective and substantive conflict is too much for routine tasks. This then leads to the conflict itself where the amount of conflict is measured, and the conflict styles are chosen. This finally results in learning and effectiveness at the individual, group, and the organizational level.

Reducing intrapersonal conflict

Organizational conflict can be categorized into four broad classes of intrapersonal, interpersonal, inter-group, and intra-group. Intra-personal conflict is one that occurs where a person is in a position where he/she can’t decide because he/she is faced with two alternatives which are both attractive and unattractive (Stein, 1976).

Handling intra-personal conflict depends on the type of conflict at hand. There are three types of intra-personal conflict namely Approach-Approach conflict, Approach-avoidance conflict, and Avoidance-avoidance conflict. As discussed earlier, the management of intrapersonal conflict often involves diagnosis and intervention.

Diagnosis often involves establishing the source of the conflict and its effects, whether they dysfunctional in terms of individual effectiveness. Intervention in intra-personal conflict is necessary where the effectiveness is dysfunctional. Two main techniques used are role analysis and job design.

Conclusion

It has been seen that conflict is an essential part of organizational operations. Proper management and conflict resolution are therefore necessary to ensure that the organization continues in its quest for success while maintaining its workforce motivated.

References

Rahim, A. (2011). Managing conflict in organization. New Jersey: New Brunswick.

Stein, A. (1976). Conflict and cohesion: A review of the literature. Journal of Conflict resolution, 143-172.

White, H. (1961). Management conflict and sociometric structure. American Journal of Sociology, 185-199.

How do frog’s activities affect its ability to (a) maximize the fit with customer needs, (b) minimize development cycle time, and (c) control development costs?

Frog is cognizant of the fact that a firm’s success is dependent on the effectiveness with which it meets its customers’ needs. The firm is committed to maximizing the level of customer satisfaction. To achieve this, Frog appreciates the importance of creating sufficient fit with its customers’ needs. Consequently, the firm has integrated a policy that requires comprehensive market research to be conducted during the product development process. The research focuses on understanding the target customers’ needs. One of the techniques that the firm has integrated entails conducting a brainstorming session between clients, project team members, and potential consumers. This leads to optimal idea generation.

Moreover, the firm is able to minimize the development cycle time in addition to controlling development costs by ensuring that its product development plan is optimally aligned with that of its suppliers. Aligning its development plan with that of its client enables Frog to minimize complexities and cost changes that might occur during the product lifetime.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of involving customers fairly early in the design process?

Involving customers in the product design phase is advantageous in a number of ways. Firstly, it provides a firm with a unique opportunity to generate ideas from customers. Consequently, the firm’s ability to be innovative is increased. Therefore, customer involvement at an early stage aids in improving the probability of the product succeeds upon being introduced into the market. Additionally, involving customers in the product design stage enables an organization to gain insight on how to formulate effective product strategies such as pricing and the strategy to adopt when launching the product to the market.

However, one of the biggest drawbacks of customer involvement is that it limits the coordination between the project team and the client is minimized. Moreover, collecting customers’ opinions may hinder the implementation of the desired objective.

What are the pros and cons of using computer-aided design/manufacturing (CAD/CAM) and photorealistic renderings instead of functional prototypes in the development process?

Using CAD in the product development process is beneficial in a number of ways. Firstly, it provides a firm with an opportunity to undertake fast and inexpensive prototyping. Secondly, it improves the flexibility with which an organization undertakes product development. Consequently, an organization can implement changes in its production set up. Using CAD, CAM, and photorealistic rendering technologies enables an organization to create a more realistic product image.

Despite the effectiveness of these technologies with regard to enabling an organization to be effective in designing its products, they are characterized by a high degree of interoperability challenges. Additionally, most of the data stored in the CAD and CAM remain incompatible. Additionally, huge costs are involved in setting up the CAD, CAM, and photorealistic rendering technologies.

Would frog’s approach be more suitable for some kinds of development projects than others? If so, what kinds would it be appropriate or inappropriate for?

The approach used by the firm in its new product development process is more suitable in complex projects such as developing new hardware and software technologies. This arises from the fact that the approach advocates for intense collaboration between the project team members and client in order to deliver a product that meets the intended need satisfactorily.

Would frog’s approach to product development be effective in a firm that primarily manufactured marketed and distributed its own products?

A firm that manufactures and markets its own products can be successful in its operation by utilizing the Frog’s approach. This is due to the fact that the three steps that the firm has incorporated are sufficient in ensuring the idea generated by a firm succeeds in being developed to a product that meets specific market demand. Consequently, the likelihood of a new product being successfully introduced into the market using the Frog’s approach is high.