Metaphysics

Danielle Shingleton Exemplification essay 10/3/10 Integrity We are presented with choices every day. Many are easy to make and cause very little stress, but some choices can be extremely difficult and have significant consequences. The difference between making the right choice or the wrong one is often determined be a persons character, which is based upon the qualities of integrity, responsibility, and honesty. Gaining an understanding of these three character traits and how to build them is critical to creating a lifetime of positive outcomes. Honesty is the quality or fact of being honest.

Finding a pen off the floor and giving it to a teacher is honesty. Not keeping the pen was respectful and honest, in order to reach self actualization and have integrity, you have to have needs met like food and water, love and care from friends and family, especially self confidence. Honesty means basing one’s actions on an internally consistent outline of principles. Depth of principles and devotion of each level to the next are key determining factors. One said to have integrity to the extent that everything they do and believe is based on the same core set of values.

While those values may change, it is their consistency with each other and with the person’s actions that determine their integrity. The concept of integrity is directly linked to responsibility. Responsibility is acknowledging that you are solely responsible for the choices in your life. Taking on a job while still in high school and maintain good grades if very possible. Accepting that you are responsible for what you choose to feel or think. Accepting that you cannot blame others for the choices you have made.

And protecting and nurturing your health and emotional well being. When a person is trustworthy, he or she can be relied upon to be honest, reliable, and loyal which means they have integrity. But its equally important to be respectful, responsible, fair, caring, and demonstrate good citizenship. Good citizenship can be viewed in many ways. Hitler viewed his actions as reliable, honest, fair, and thought he was demonstrating good citizenship by eliminating a different race. The Nazis saw Hitler as a man with integrity. We saw Hitler as a cruel unfair man without integrity.

Good character and integrity are easiest to demonstrate when facing public disapproval, but the true test comes when you can potentially get away with anything because then nothing is at stake but your own conscience. Trustworthy is very similar to truthfulness, uprightness, and honor. Truthfulness is when a person consistently tells the truth, and is honest. Honor is the equality of being honorable, and to show respect for others. These simple but powerful words are components of integrity. A person of integrity does exactly what he says and says exactly what he means.

There is no conflict between his thoughts and actions. His actions are consistent with the values he professes. According to Dr. William Manninger, A building without integrity may receive structural damage, or even collapse, in a storm. Similarly, people without integrity are blown about by the winds of misfortune and destroyed by catastrophes, for they lack the firmness, solidity, and strength of character to weather any storm. This means that integrity is one of the six essential qualities that are the key to success. The other five are sincerity, humility, courtesy, wisdom, and charity.

Integrity is about doing what is right rather than what is appropriate. Not everyone has integrity; the family life has a major impact on a person’s values and principles. When you have integrity you know it as much as everyone else around you does. Just because someone makes a few simple mistakes here and there doesn’t mean they have no integrity. Low integrity is when people get punished, they feel guilty, and lose respect from family and friends. You have a bad reputation, your actions result in problems, accidents, injuries, even death.

You also get other people into trouble, by blaming everyone else but yourself. There are benefits to having high integrity, such as; being happy and making other people happy, you have peace of mind, and no guilt feelings. You feel good or satisfied at having done the right thing. As you gain respect from family and friends, you may become an inspiration to others. A person with integrity will have the courage to say no. Have the courage to face the truth. Do the right thing it is right. These are the magic keys to living your life with integrity. it’s not what we eat but what we digest that makes us strong; not what we gain but what we save that makes us rich; not what we read but what we remember that makes us learned; and not what profess but what we practice that gives us integrity. ” “A person is not given integrity. It results from the relentless pursuit of honesty at all times. ” “Living with integrity mean: Not settling for less than what you know you deserve in your relationships. Asking for what you want and need from others. Speaking the truth, even though it might create conflict or tension. Behaving in ways that are harmony with your personal values.

Making choices based on what you believe, and not what other believes. ” You cannot become “Integridized” in one day. In order to have integrity, you have to go through milestones in your life. No one can persuade you to become integridized. It’s all personal beliefs and doing the right thing. The majority of integrity comes from the home life. Family and friends play a major role in a person’s life. Being though the right things and to be honest and have goals and be true will have more integrity in life than anyone else. Let’s say one day you find one hundred dollars in your school.

Would you keep it, or would you hand it to the teacher? You don’t lie, and you are reliable. You can always be depended on you are trustworthy; people are able to put their trust in you. That is integrity, by not keeping the money and turning it in. That little person talking to you in the back of your head telling you turn it in is part of having integrity! According to Mark D. Rasche, in his Biblical Integrity days of praise article, “let integrity and uprightness preserve me; for I wait on thee. ” “Some have said that integrity can be measured by what a person does when no else is looking.

While this may be an indicator of integrity, it is not the real litmus test. According to scripture, the true gauge of a man’s integrity is his heart. The worlds evaluates a person’s integrity from hat it see’s in a man’s outward behavior. God judge’s integrity from what he sees in a man’s heart, for “every way of a man is right in his own eyes: but the Lord pondered the hearts”. In other words, man measure integrity from the outside, and God measure integrity from the inside. ” I truly believe integrity is not lost in America. Integrity is not found on the surface you have to dig deep within in to uncover it.

You hear all the time people saying the, “There are no men of integrity left. ” This is not true. Men and women of integrity are everywhere. Think about this, how many people pass your car, house, and your place of business each day and do not steal from it? We spend too much time focusing on people without integrity and we forget to celebrate and show gratitude to those who do what is right every day. What you focus you attention and actions on you will receive. If you search the world for examples of people failing you will find all the examples you are looking for.

The same is true for those that seek examples of integrity. If you focus your attention on discovering people that do what is right you will find integrity everywhere you look. You might not have to look very far to find what you are searching for. Chances are you will only need to look inside yourself. Yourself improvement blog, article: the most important trait of successful people! States that “a life lived with integrity-even if it lacks the trappings of fame and fortune is a shining star in whose light others may follow in the years to come” says author of article Denis Waitley

Three Theories of Cognitive Development The Swiss psychologist and philosopher Jean Piaget (1896-1980) is well-known for his work towards the cognitive sciences. Arguably one of his most important contributions involves his theory of cognitive development. In this theory, thinking progresses through four distinct stages between infancy and adulthood. Similar in scope to Piaget’s theory is Information Processing, in which human thinking is based on both mental hardware and mental software (Kail, Cavanaugh). A final theory on cognitive development was established by the Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934).

Vygotsky proposed that development is a collaborative effort between child and partner. While these three theories attempt to explain a similar topic in different manners, each can be considered an important aspect to cognitive development in infancy and early childhood. Through analyzing and comparing these theories, scientists are able to better understand how child development occurs and the process it takes in creating a functional human being. Piaget’s Theory Children are naturally curious: this is the claim Piaget proposed when explaining that children of all ages create theories about how the world around them works.

They accomplish this through the use of “schemes,” referring to mental structures that organize information and regulate behavior. Infants group objects based on the actions they can perform on them. Later in development, schemes become based on functional or conceptual relationships, not action. This means that schemes of related objects, events, and ideas are present throughout development (Kail, Cavanaugh). Schemes change constantly, adapting to children’s experiences. Intellectual adaptation involves two key processes that work together: assimilation and accommodation.

Assimilation is the process of taking in new information into previously existing schemes. Accommodation involves altering existing schemes in light of new information. Assimilation and accommodation are usually in equilibrium. But when disequilibrium occurs, children reorganize their schemes to return to a state of equilibrium, a process Piaget called “equilibration. ” According to Piaget, revolutionary changes in thought occur three times over the life p, which are divided into four stages. Sensorimotor period (0-2 years): Infants adapt and explore their environment. Reflexes are first modified by experience.

At 8 months, intentional behavior occurs. Soon, infants become active experimenters, and repeat actions with different objects for the purpose of seeing what will happen. An important aspect of the first stage is object permanence- the understanding that objects exist even if they cannot be seen. Not until at about 18 months do infants have a full understanding of object permanence. Soon after, the onset of symbols, including words and gestures, become apparent. Preoperational thinking (2-7 years): Children do not understand others’ different ideas and emotions (egocentrism). They also have trouble focusing on multiple features.

A child in the preoperational stage has a narrowly focused type of thought (a term Piaget called centration). For example, in what is known as a conservation problem, children tend to focus on only one aspect of the problem. In conservation of length, they concentrate on the fact that, after the transformation, the end of one stick is farther to the right than the end of the other, when in fact each stick is similar in length. Concrete operational period (7-11 years): This stage is characterized by the appropriate use of logic. A child is able to sort objects according to its size, shape, etc.

Also, children will now take into account multiple aspects of a problem. For example, a child will no longer perceive a wide and short cup to contain more liquid than a normal, tall cup. Egocentrism begins to disappear: the child can now view things from another’s perspective (even though that person may be wrong). Formal operational period (11 years and up): Individuals move beyond concrete experiences and begin to think more abstractly, reason logically, and draw conclusions from information available. Also changing is the way an adolescent thinks about social matters.

The future is beginning to be thought of in relation to what he or she can become. Information Processing In this view, human thinking is based on mental hardware (allows the mind to operate) and mental software (basis for performing particular tasks). There are several different aspects to this theory. Learning and cognitive development can happen through habituation, classical and operant conditioning, and imitation. Habituation is the diminished response to a stimulus as it becomes more familiar. Constantly responding to insignificant stimuli is wasteful, so habituation keeps infants from devoting too much energy to non-important events.

In classical conditioning, a stimulus elicits a response that was originally produced by another stimulus. No new behaviors are learned, but an association is developed (Huitt, W. and Hummel, J). For example, a toddler may frown when he hears water running in the bathroom because he realizes that it is time for a bath. Operant conditioning emphasizes reward and punishment. This helps children form expectations about what will happen in their environment. Imitation is important in older children and adolescents. This process entails a “watch and learn” kind of approach.

A boy can learn how to play basketball by watching a professional athlete, and an infant may imitate an adult waving her finger back and forth. A special kind of memory, “autobiographical memory,” emerges in the preschool years. These are memories of significant events and experiences in one’s own life. Infants have basic memory skills that enable them to remember past events. In addition to these skills are the language skills and sense of self obtained during the preschool years. Vygotsky’s Theory Lev Vygotsky incorporated the role that society and culture have on an individual throughout cognitive development.

According to Vygostky, children rarely grow cognitively by themselves; they learn and progress when they have others by their side. This is contrasting to Piaget’s theory and Information Processing, where the individual growth takes place mostly alone. In his theory, Vygotsky developed the idea of the zone of proximal development. This refers to the “zone” between the level of performance a child can achieve when working independently and a higher level of performance that is possible when working under the guidance of more skilled adults or peers.

This follows the idea that cognition develops first in a social setting and slowly comes under the child’s control. A factor that aids this shift is known as scaffolding. This is a style of teaching in which the teacher decides the amount of assistance given to match what the child actually needs. Scaffolding is based off the premise that children do not learn readily when they are constantly told what to do or when they are left to struggle through a problem. Finally, Vygotsky viewed private speech as an “intermediate step toward self-regulation of cognitive skills. Private speech can be defined as comments that are not intended for anyone else but the child to hear, and are designed to help children regulate their behavior. This theory holds that cognitive development is not characterized as a solitary undertaking, but a collaboration between expert and novice. Compare and Contrast All of these theories attempt to measure the biological and psychological changes apparent in child development. They look to categorize specific behaviors, and associate them with current stages in growth. However, each theory is different in that it looks for different behavior patterns.

Also, Piaget’s Theory and the Information Processing Theory can be grouped together due to the fact that they look at a child as an independent being, not cognitively dependent on its environment. However, Vygotsky views a child’s development as being reliable upon its surroundings (e. g. its peers, parents, teachers etc). Disputes These three theories are just that; theories. None of them have been scientifically proven and accepted by all scientists. Instead, they have formed the basis by which we conduct study and research of cognitive development today.

Theories will always be open to criticism and review, and Piaget’s theory has specifically been scrutinized by scientists and researchers. Some believe that Piaget underestimated the cognitive competence in infants and young children. A main theme of modern child development is that of an extremely competent infant. Also, many scientists have found that certain components of Piaget’s theory are not testable. For example, accommodation and assimilation prove to be too vague to test scientifically. In Vygosky’s Theory, some critics point out the overemphasizing of the role of language.

Also, his “emphasis on collaboration and guidance has potential pitfalls if facilitators are too helpful in some cases. An example of that would be an overbearing and controlling parent. ” Criticism is not meant to diminish the importance of these theories, but to foster more research in the field of cognitive development and improve our understanding of how children grow. Conclusion These three theories of cognitive development are meant to measure something that is physically not able to be measured. They take a look at how children behave, and attempt to classify each behavior accordingly.

Despite the outgrowth of professional individuality as a separate research country in the last decennary, there is no individual definition to explicate precisely what the construct means ( Beijaard et al. , 2004 ) . There is common understanding, nevertheless, that individuality is non a fixed property of a individual, but is an on-going procedure of reading and reinterpretation of experiences within a given context. The post-modernist position of ego, to which I subscribe, is that ego is strongly related to how people organise their experiences in their life history, which could, hence, differ in clip and context, but allows persons to understand who they are and what they would wish to go. As a consequence, influences of historical, sociological, psychological and cultural factors may all impact on a leader ‘s sense of ego as a leader. If this line of statement is followed through, it would, hence, seem that ‘self ‘ is inseparable from a individual ‘s life history and, so, it is impossible to talk about ‘self ‘ when there is no contemplation.

Introduction

Busher ‘s ( 2005 ) research of in-between leaders highlights how childhood experiences, parents and co-workers shaped his topics ‘ positions and values on instruction, acquisition and taking. He besides found that publicity shaped their sense of work-related individuality, their positions of themselves being bound up with the formal places they held within the school hierarchy. In this manner, professional individualities were developed through a combination of historical life and professional experience. However, it is besides of import to recognize that, when associating this to a life history attack, the narration of events comes to stand for a period of person ‘s lives, compressed into “ one minute of self-narration ” ( Kehily, 1995, p. 24 ) . Equally, as Kehily ( 1995 ) argues, how we see ourselves, our individuality, is capable to reformulation in a assortment of ways harmonizing to the audience and, hence, we may hold a different version of individuality harmonizing to where, when and how we articulate it. Part of our life history can be omitted, embellished or reframed harmonizing to the feeling that we want to portray of ourselves. In other words, individuality is expressed as outward articulations as a merchandise of the societal interaction, instead than an person ‘s interior ideas. As a consequence, a Reconstruction of past events is likely to be placed within the ‘framework of present concerns ‘ ( Kehily, 1995, p. 26 ) . Malus and Wuf ( 1987, in Kehily, 1995 ) use the term “ self construct of the minute ” understood as a “ continually active, switching array of accessible ego cognition ” ( p. 306 ) .

Similarly, single memory plays a big portion in determining and stating their ‘story ‘ . Memory can be selective, go forthing immense spreads and giving minutes of utmost lucidity. Identity building is, hence, an interrelatedness between past and present. Olesen ( 2001 ) , in his survey of professional individuality as acquisition procedures in life history, besides sees individuality as being a “ field for an on-going subjectiveness ” ( p. 3 ) . However, instead than it being subjective, harmonizing to the audience as a likely reading, it is more as a consequence of the person ‘s ability to reproduce experience in relation to existent world. It is this world which is capable to single perceptual experience, subjective orientations and significances. He argues that perceptual experience of individuality is besides interrelated to larning procedures of persons within their profession and general development. In this manner, ‘professional ‘ individuality can steer and develop the person but could besides curtail the learning potency.

Usher ( 1995 ) believes: “changing and switching individuality is ‘fixed ‘ and anchored by the act of composing ” and that “ life itself is conceived as societal text, a fictional narrative production where difference is repressed and clip suppressed in a demand for certainty ” ( p. 2 ). This position assumes that persons are incapable of deciding the tenseness between seeing themselves as the object and how other people influence and nowadays it. Giddens ( 1991 ) argues that how the tenseness between external and internal positions of ego are resolved depends on single “histories and experience and societal and psychological demands ” ( p. 3 ) . My place in this is that although persons may non be able to decide the tenseness between external and internal positions, they may travel to a province of cognitive disagreement where they come to accept and recognize the difference without the demand for deciding them.

Awareness of One’s Self

Busher ( 2003 ) takes a similar position reasoning that: “ leaders and directors consciousness of ego is constructed through their interactions with other people, developing a altering consciousness of other people ‘s demands and besides of themselves as other people perceive them ” ( p. 3 ) .

This requires witting contemplation and has been encouraged through the centuries to advance a greater apprehension of the person ‘s sense of ego, the mutuality of people and with their environment ( Busher, 2003 ; Beijaard et al. , 2004 ) . I would besides reason that it besides depends to what extent persons are non merely consciously cognizant of the impact of these interactions, but besides how much they are able to learn from this and, by making so, develop their ain apprehension of people’s personal and societal demands, positions and outlooks, in other words, what Goleman ( 1995 ) footings as ’emotional intelligence ‘ . For any ‘people workers ‘ , understanding people ‘s actions in footings of how they construct their self-identity in peculiar contexts is critical to being able to work with them successfully. For leaders at any degree, a sound apprehension of other people is cardinal to success in their function ( Busher, 2005 ) . These societal interactions, as Busher ( 2003 ) , argues besides serve to develop impressions of power and that in developing individualities, peculiarly in the work context, people have to “ postulate with the power relationships that operate ” ( Smyth et al. , 2000, p. 149 ) . Cardinal to self-identity is beside their impression of power and how it affects their sense of bureau. The grade of authorization and command all physiques upon the individual ‘s sense of ego and is straight related to the place within which they operate and how much power they are able to ordain. Usher ( 1995 ) suggests that, possibly, this atomization of individuality is something we merely necessitate to accept and that it is inevitable “ that the ego will be invented and reinvented ” ( p. 186 ) .

As can be seen from this treatment, professional individuality and cognition of ‘self ‘ is complex. It is made up of a assortment of elements, grounded in people ‘s single life histories, personalities and work-related experiences. The ability to reflect on their experiences and understand their ain professional individualities allows them to efficaciously wear the mantle of their several ascribed function and to hold a better apprehension of themselves and of those they lead.

The Journey to Leadership

When analyzing life history, instruction research workers have tended to convey together shared characteristics and anchored them around nucleus subjects ( Gronn, 1999 ) . Both Kelchtermans ( 1993 ) and Parker ( 2002 ) utilize critical incidents, important people and phases as “ heuristic tools in analyzing the calling narratives ” ( Kelchtermans, 1993, p. 447 ) , while others ( Day and Bakioglu, 1996 ; Gronn, 1999 ; Coleman, 2002 ; Ribbins, 2003 ) have used phases and stages of leading to develop a conceptual theoretical account of leaders within a “ longitudinal model ” ( Gronn, 1999, p. 22 ) .

Phases of Leadership

Gronn ( 1999 ) termed the first phases of influence on a leader as the “Formation ” phase and this encompasses the period from “babyhood to maturity ”, placing household, schooling and peer mention groups as of import in supplying the “staging of a character construction ” ( p. 32 ).

The 2nd phase, “ Accession ” ( Gronn, 1999, p. 34 ) , is the clip of “training ” where persons see a scope of functions, fitting themselves with an assortment of accomplishments and get down to assemble and practice a “function repertory ” ( p. 36 ) which will supply a house foundation upon which to pull for higher functions. It is in this phase, where an person ‘s strong motive to accomplish may foremost be realised, which Gronn ( 1999 ) suggests, to be effectual, needs to be accompanied by a strong sense of single ego belief and the associated feelings of one ‘s “ worth and value ” ( p. 36 ) which are developed in the Formation phase.

The 3rd phase, that of “ Incumbency ” , is about the period of headship. Gronn ( 1999 ) suggests that if, at this phase, the functions that leaders take are “ congruous with personal demands ” so they will “ be able to travel some manner to run into their demand to self actualize ” ( p. 38 ) .

The 4th and concluding phase is that of “ Divestiture ” where leaders may good lose their “ psychological clasp ” ( p. 39 ) , whether this be due to fortunes impacting on them and hence nonvoluntary or unplanned, or it may be more a voluntary, planned phase of the leader ‘s calling as retirement attacks.

Day and Bakioglu ( 1996 ) , in their survey of caput instructors ‘ lives and callings, place a series of developmental stages and sub stages undergone by caputs which are compatible with Gronn ‘s ( 1999 ) model. Their starting point, nevertheless, is at the “ Initiation ” phase where caputs are already in function and, hence, could be considered as sub stages or stairss within Gronn ‘s Incumbency phase. Like Gronn ( 1999 ) , Day and Bakioglu ( 1996 ) suggest that there are “multiple tracts and flights through different stages of caput instructors ‘ lives ” ( p. 206 ) .

There are four phases of Day and Bakioglu ‘s ( 1996 ) theoretical account: Initiation, Development, Autonomy and Disenchantment. The Initiation phase is characterised by two cardinal procedures: acquisition on the occupation and working within the bing establishment ‘s model. They suggest that idealism, uncertainness and accommodation are three sub-stages within this phase. The Initiation phase is followed by a Development stage where consolidation and extension takes topographic point. Day and Bakioglu ( 1996 ) depict this as the “most active, most satisfactory, most rewarding stage ” ( p. 212 ) of the leader’s calling and can be compared to the feeling of “self-realization” which Gronn ( 1999, p. 38 ) describes as a possible result of the Incumbency phase. The 3rd stage that Day and Bakioglu ( 1996 ) depict is that of Autonomy, which can be seen as holding both positive and negative effects upon single development and leading effectivity. In this stage, caputs still have assurance, but their control can be under menace, due to the limitations placed upon them through authorities enterprises and establishment demands, so straight impacting their ability to command their ain sense of bureau. If this deficiency of control persists so much so that they begin to lose a sense of vision, caputs may so come in the 4th stage, that of Disenchantment. Characteristics of this phase include: “ deficiency of assurance, enthusiasm and increasing personal weariness ” ( Day & A ; Bakioglu, 1996, p. 224 ) .

Ribbins ‘ ( 2003 ) more recent survey confirmed this wide form of calling phases, integrating both Day and Bakioglu ‘s ( 1996 ) four stages and Gronn ‘s ( 1999 ) four phases to suggest a modified model which suggests “ two ideal typical tracts or paths to and through headship ” ( Ribbins, 2003, p. 63 ).

Like Gronn ( 1999 ) , Ribbins ( 2003 ) suggests a formation phase where cardinal bureaus impact and determine the sort of people “that prospective caput instructors become ” ( p. 64 ) . Similarly, Ribbins ( 2003 ) describes the 2nd phase of “ Accession ” as that clip when persons seek experience and leading functions in readying for future headship places. Ribbins ( 2003 ) notes that, in hindsight, few leaders really see this phase as one of deliberate planning in order to prosecute a class taking to headship. This can be compared to McCall ‘s ( 2000 ) “serving clip ” ( p. 23 ) in order to accomplish their concluding finish. Coleman ( 2002 ), in her survey of adult females as caput instructors, suggests that there is a “ deficiency of planning and even a component of surprise in happening themselves a caput instructor ” ( p. 33 ) and, therefore, the ‘grooming ‘ phase may travel unnoticed by the participant at the clip.

It is in the 3rd phase, that of Incumbency, where Ribbins ( 2003 ) suggests an option to Gronn ‘s ( 1999 ) theoretical account and physiques on Day and Bakioglu ‘s ( 1996 ) four stages. Ribbins ( 2003 ) suggests that leaders can take one of two chief paths at this phase, each of which consists of four bomber stages. The first three bomber stages are the same as Day and Bakioglu ( 1996 ) suggest: Initiation, Development and Autonomy, but with a 4th sub stage of Disenchantment or Enchantment. This is dependent on whether the leader has negative feelings ( disenchantment and loss of committedness ) or positive feelings ( assurance and competency ) at this phase. Whereas Day and Bakioglu ( 1996 ) depict a downwards gyrating procedure taking to disillusionment, or in Gronn ‘s ( 1999 ) term ‘Divestiture ‘ , Ribbins ( 2003 ) suggests that although this disenchantment so may go on, there is besides an option, that of captivation. If this latter stage occurs, the leader will stay enchanted with headship and will go on to be motivated by professional satisfaction, relationships with co-workers and keep a balance between place and school life. The concluding stage, that of ‘Moving on ‘ focal points on go forthing headship. It deals with the way that caput instructors take one time they divest themselves from office. If the caput instructor is able to stay motivated and ‘enchanted ‘ so they can look frontward to reinvention and prosecute a different involvement or business. However, if the caput instructor becomes ‘Disenchanted ‘ they face the chance of Divestiture and, to some, welcome retirement.

Coleman ( 2002 ) merges her earlier theoretical account of calling phases ( Hall, 1996 ) with the Van Eck ( 1996 ) theoretical account, to bring forth her version of distinguishable calling phases of caput instructors. She suggests a readying phase where initial makings may be obtained, an establishment phase of come ining instruction and the lower degrees of direction, an promotion or development calling phase affecting deriving new experiences, farther makings and a concluding acquisition phase when headship is achieved.

Taysum ( 2004 ) , on the other manus, proposes a model to place the formation of the leaders self. She argues that there are four dimensions which are “ critical to understand how leaders learn ” ( p. 10 ) and that it is necessary to travel beyond a additive analysis to one which explores the interplay between “ the exercising of bureau and the construction that form and control that bureau ” ( p. 10 ) . In this manner, she argues that leading is deconstructed to give a greater penetration as “ to how leaders learn to go leaders ” ( p. 11 ) . Similarly, Johnson ( 2002 ) in her survey of higher instruction leaders, did non mention to phases in leading development but to incremental phases where, over clip, leading becomes more appealing as experience and an increased academic profile rendered them eligible for more senior places.

This attack I would reason, is more kindred to Parker ‘s ( 2002 ) and Kelchterman ‘s ( 1993 ) attack of non merely sing life stages but besides other facets such as critical incidents and people. Although Taysum ( 2004 ) affirms this, she besides goes beyond this attack and explores it within an rational, emotional and religious context.

Critical Incidents

Harmonizing to Tripp ( 1993 ) , critical incidents in educational research are created and are non something bing independently of an perceiver expecting find. Critical incidents are produced by the manner we look at a state of affairs, an reading of the significance of an event or incident. What makes an incident ‘critical ‘ is that it is memorable and interpreted as important by what it means.

Much of the research on life history, which incorporates critical incidents, reaches a similar decision. Gronn ( 1999 ) discusses “ critical turning points ” ( p. 28 ) in his stages of leading development. He suggests that they can be in the signifier of impermanent set dorsums which is portion of the class within calling patterned advance.

Similarly, Parker ( 2002 ) in his survey of the impact of life history on leading, termed critical incidents as “ specifying minutes ” ( p. 25 ) . The importance of these are illustrated in his concluding comments about the caput instructors in his survey, where he suggests that such experience “ helped them specify their educational doctrines and hone their accomplishments ” ( p. 25 ) and so believed much of their life history influenced their leading manner. These specifying minutes were seen as “ motivational drivers ” ( p. 33 ) which: “ created the deep-rooted sense of career that these caputs have carried with them throughout their callings ” ( p. 34 ) .

Goodson and Walker ( 1991 ) reached a similar decision when analyzing the life history of instructors reasoning, that critical incidents in: “ instructors ‘ lives and specifically in their work which may crucially impact perceptual experience and pattern ” ( p. 24 ) . Knight and Trowler ‘s ( 2001 ) reappraisal of the functions of leader-academics in higher instruction argue that they need seven types of cognition and propose some ways in which leaders might develop them. Reviewing critical incidents and important friends are some of the ways they suggest to develop and prolong the first signifier of cognition in their list, that of ‘control cognition ‘ ( p. 168 ) .

Contemplation on incidents is, hence, required if some experiences are to go ‘critical incidents ‘ . The survey of life history allows this contemplation to take topographic point and the building of their ain perceptual experiences of personal experience and therefore the significance these experiences have on the respondent. Harmonizing to Angelides ( 2001 ) , it is besides an efficient technique of garnering qualitative informations because a big sum of qualitative informations can be collected covering a broad clip p.

Significant Peoples

There is general understanding within the literature that critical people are “ strategically located forces ” who “ contribute to the manner and velocity of calling promotion ” ( Gronn, 1999, p. 28 ) .

Dhunpath ( 2000 ) discusses how the “ interpersonal context ” depicting critical people as “ important others ” such as parents, wise mans, co-workers and equals as: “ both powerful positive and negative influences that shape an pedagogue ‘s pattern ” ( p. 546 ) . Similarly, Parker ( 2002 ) besides discusses the importance of wise mans who were responsible for determining the thought of those leaders that he studied “ at intensely formative minutes of their lives ” and goes on to state they “ were important to fixing these caputs for leading functions ” ( p. 35 ) . Ribbins ( 2003 ) reiterates this importance at the formative phase and believes that they are partially responsible for act uponing and determining “ the sorts of people that prospective caput instructors become ” ( p. 63 ) . Coleman ( 2002 ) suggests that the significance of critical people is peculiarly of import for female leaders, as they besides provide function theoretical accounts for them. One of her respondents illustrates this by stating that the critical individual for her was a caput that: “ encouraged me to travel for headship and likely more than any other individual in my calling ” ( p. 26 ) . Kelchterman ( 1993 ) finds the usage of critical people every bit good as incidents and phases as “ really utile heuristic tools in researching the calling narratives ” ( p. 446 ) but besides every bit theoretical constructs. He uses both constructs to exemplify the influence they have on the professional committedness and occupation satisfaction of the instructors in his survey, both in a positive and negative manner. It besides proves utile in “ retracing the ( development of ) the professional ego from the calling narratives ” ( p. 448 ) .

In the latter phases of their calling and, peculiarly, for more senior leading functions, Johnson ( 2002 ) found that leader-academics ‘ contact with experts in their field was of great aid in larning how to take. These people became important in determining and developing their leading capableness, peculiarly in the absence of any formal preparation or development.

Professional Development and Training for Leadership

The increasing accent on ‘managerialism ‘ in which instruction establishments are given greater liberty, are exposed to market force per unit areas and are expected to pull off uninterrupted betterment in their public presentation, places an accent on the importance of leading and the direction of instruction alteration. Equally, the scope of duties attributed to the leader-academic function demonstrates how much leaders need to larn in order to take. The volatility of the higher instruction clime besides adds a farther bed to the demand for larning, development and support for the leader-academic. Despite this, there is a surprising deficit of research or books on professional development for middle-level leader-academics. Those which do cover different leading activities ( for illustration: Bolton, 2000 ; Smith, 2002, 2005 ; Prichard, 2000 ) tend to handle leading as a generic activity, with inside informations of what leaders do instead than how they should develop in order to larn to take, although Smith ( 2007 ) does get down to turn to this in his most recent work. Possibly it is even more surprising that many universities provide small or no formal preparation ( Johnson, 2002 ; Smith, 2005 ) . A common trouble identified by many new leader-academics in Smith ‘s ( 2007 ) research is that the bulk lacked readiness for the function and had received no leading or direction preparation before and following their assignment. The preparation that did be tended to be on issues related to wellness and safety, equality and disposal systems instead than specifically leading development. This determination may explicate why few in the survey by Rhodes et Al. ( 2007 ) held impressions of professional development as an bureau of motive or satisfaction. Similarly, Aziz et Al. ( 2005 ) lament the deficiency of developing “ despite it being an issue that has been discussed by research workers for over 30 old ages ” ( p. 573 ) . This is in blunt contrast to the increasing national accent placed on leading development at school and farther instruction degree ( James and Vince, 2001 ) . For illustration, leading characteristics conspicuously in school reviews ( Office for Standards in Education: OFSTED ) , it has an of import focal point in the examination of local instruction authorization ( LEA ) monitoring and reappraisal ( Teacher Training Agency, 1998 ) ( TTA ) ; a leading college for schools has been established and a national professional making for caput instructors ( NPQH ) has been developed. Further to these enterprises, plans have besides been designed to back up and develop caput instructors who are both new to the station and for longer functioning caput instructors. Similarly, in farther instruction, ‘The Centre for Excellence in Leadership ‘ ( CEL ) has been established since 2003 to “ guarantee first leading within the acquisition and accomplishments sector ” ( www.lums.lancs.ac.uk/leadership/cel ) . While it is recognized that the ‘Leadership Foundation for Higher Education ‘ has been established more late to foreground the importance of leading development within higher instruction, nationally the focal point appears to be much lower key than in the school and FE sectors.

Arguably, leaders in higher instruction are capable to equal alteration as that in the school and farther educational sectors and so the importance of effectual leading is as of import. However, due to the complexnesss of leading at section and module degree which have developed since the 1992 Education Reform Act, it would look that larning to take demands to be far more made-to-order and contextualised for each leader and within single modules and universities. Blackmore and Blackwell ( 2006 ) concur with this position, reasoning that a generic attack which assumes that leaders all have the same concerns and motives and that these are unchanging, is improbable to be successful.

It is likely that leader ‘s clip will be dominated by undertakings that are rather different from the involvement in research or instruction that vivified their callings to day of the month ( Knight and Trowler, 2001 ) . As a effect, Knight and Trowler ( 2001 ) argue that larning to take should include acknowledgment that the leading function has the possible to: “ gnaw the ego individuality that has brought calling success ” ( p. 166 ) .

They besides suggest that portion of larning to take will affect being more stray, to set the involvements of the establishment as high or higher than their module or squad. As a effect, it may besides affect being criticized for the determinations that they will hold to do. Keeping up with the demands and wants of the university ‘s clients and pull offing the relationships with the external universe is of all time more demanding for the leader-academic. As collegiality still operates to some extent, deriving general consent for the manner forward is more hard even though it is still seen as a: “ critical portion of the in-between director ‘s occupation in higher instruction to derive the co-operation of staff ” ( Hellawell and Hancock, 2001, p. 195 ) .

Aziz et Al. ( 2005 ) note that, although surveies allow some sense of the duties of the leader-academic, there appears to be no consensus bing as to which dimensions are most of import or around which dimension preparation plans should be designed. To travel portion manner in rectifying this, their survey inside informations the design, execution and findings from a formal procedure of measuring the preparation demands of the leader-academic within one American university. Although they do this for merely one university, the theoretical account is utile in that it could be built upon and tailored to other universities.

However, whichever theoretical account to which one subscribes, it is evident that contextual acquisition is traveling to be of import for leaders. It would be logical to presume that this “ contextual acquisition ” ( Hellawell and Hancock, 2001 ) can merely be achieved by being exposed to leading responsibilities earlier on in their calling ; therefore they have a better apprehension of the function of leading before they are appointed ( in the instance of the statutory university ) or have it imposed on them ( in the instance of the hired university ) . While it is comparatively straightforward to learn procedure and cognition of leading, as evidenced by the figure of generic classs ( e.g. hypertext transfer protocol: //www.Leadership-he.com/programmes ) and texts ( e.g. Bolton, 2000 ) available in these countries, it would look that situational cognition is as of import but more hard to learn. Knight and Trowler ( 2001 ) list the seven types of leading and direction cognition that they believe leader-academics should derive. These include the followers:

Control cognition

Knowledge of people

Knowledge of educational pattern

Conceptual cognition ( cognizing about direction and leading constructs and research )

Procedure cognition ( procedures of leading and direction )

Situational cognition ( understanding eventualities that have made the module what it is and impact what it might be )

Tacit cognition that integrates the other six signifiers in adept pattern Adapted from Knight and Trowler ( 2001, p. 168 ) .

This provides a utile model from which leaders can get down to set up what they need to larn in order to take efficaciously.

However, while experience is a widely regarded method of larning and development, Johnson ( 2002 ) points out that persons must be aware that bing cognition, accomplishments and patterns are rapidly outdated and as new jobs and restraints emerge, new signifiers of expertness are needed.

This type of informal acquisition is likely to be unstructured, ill-defined, unplanned and it is, hence, doubtful how much development really takes topographic point. Such experiential acquisition can non be merely an sum of clip spent but knowledge demands to be gained through the active reading of experience by the scholar ( Burgoyne and Stuart, 1991 ) . What Johnson ( 2002 ) found peculiarly worrying in her survey of leader faculty members was their inability to joint what they had learnt and how it had come approximately. Lessons learnt remained tacit cognition which could be particularly debatable if there was the demand to rethink their attacks and patterns.

I would propose more good to development is ‘Integrated managerial ‘ acquisition ( Mumford, 2004 ) which still occurs within managerial activities but there are clear development aims identified and the development is planned and reviewed. This is because research indicates effectual acquisition is embodied in the ‘doing ‘ ( Sugrue, 2002 ) . Critical contemplation is an of import constituent of this procedure if the experience is to take on peculiar significance. In this manner, acquisition is existent, direct, witting and likely more significant than by the inadvertent method of informal, unplanned acquisition. However, the challenge here is to convey informal procedures of larning in to the development of leaders in maintaining with leaders preferable ways of larning. Blackmore and Blackwell ( 2006 ) take a similar position proposing leader-academics need support to larn on the occupation through mentoring, brooding appraising reappraisal and planning which allows acquisition and tacit cognition to be identified, shared and extended. Indeed, Muijs et Al. ( 2006 ) , when looking at leading development in extremely effectual farther instruction suppliers, discourse the sensed effectivity of experiential signifiers of professional development which build on the leader ‘s background and demands. They peculiarly advocate encompassing technological developments which allow cost effectivity and consideration of development chances for the person.

The duality of leading acquisition in situ is that, although it becomes a merchandise of pattern and is gradual over clip to let in-depth apprehension of academic civilization and work, there remains the potency that when leader-academics take on leading functions there is still a steep initial larning curve ( Johnson 2002 ) . It would, hence, seem that larning to take comes from a scope of beginnings. Given the current volatility and alteration in higher instruction, preparation and support should be made available in the signifier of advice, chances for structured single contemplation and regular formal and informal interaction with their equal group. Those who are non as successful at larning to take may get by and trust on their positional authorization to accomplish conformity. Those who can larn from the broad spectrum of beginnings should make more than header and, alternatively, be leaders of successful modules.

Drumhead

It would look that research workers are in wide understanding that leaders, surely within the mandatory instruction sector, do travel through distinguishable life phases and that critical incidents and important people do hold an impact on how leaders learn to take.

As can be seen from this treatment, while leading and development has become one of the chief subjects of national instruction direction at school degree, small has been done to back up the development of leaders within higher instruction. There are a figure of ways in which development can be implemented, both officially and informally, to help leaders in their function. However, it has besides been seen that the accomplishments and cognition for effectual leading develop over clip and through sing a assortment of functions on the path up to a leading place. Given the importance attached to leading within instruction, guaranting a supply of able center and senior leaders is critical to single educational institutional success. As a consequence, such organisations need to ship on systematic sequence planning to guarantee there is a supply of able leaders non merely to carry through those going but besides to develop leading at all degrees throughout the organisation, non needfully merely for make fulling specific stations.

Idealism Scottish Moralist Functional Psychology Darning’s Evolution Pragmatism German Idealism: it is if the view that humans create the worlds they inhabit. That is human being occupy a world of our own making. It further argues that forms and perception have no existence prior to their objects. That is we create form and perception as we create symbolic material object. They believe that meaning is formed out of interaction. Scottish Moralist: It focuses on how the mind and self are social products.

One of the theorists is Adams smith who talked extensively about role taking. Functional Psychology: Functional psychology argues that communication is the process which makes society. They are of the view that language makes the society possible because only human possess language they are active beings who do not passively respond to stimuli. Darning’s Evolution: It argues that there Is novelty to human activity that perpetually defies both determinism and confident predictability. The evolution concept of process and emergence bestowed on some ideas such as behavior is a result of an adaptation to environment.

Pragmatism: pragmatism are of the view that human beings are active creative agent and not passive. They argue that the world people live In Is the one they had In hand that Is shaped by them. They further argue that subjectivity does not exist prior to experience but it rather flows from It.

Naina Navni Professor Adams UCWR 110 21 October 2010 Moral Responsibility America would not be where it is without the laws that have been placed and the citizens who follow the laws. In order for this to happen the knowledge and acceptance of the laws are needed to establish order. African Americans had been secluded in the past through harsh laws of segregation.

Although many believe disobeying the law is morally wrong and if disobeyed a punishment should follow, Martin Luther King’s profound statement, “One has the moral responsibility to disobey unjust laws” (King 420) leads to greater justice for all which is also supported by King’s “Letter from Birmingham Jail,” Jefferson’s “ The Declaration of Independence,” and Lincoln’s “Second Inaugural Address. ” “I am in Birmingham because injustice is here,” wrote Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. , in his “Letter from Birmingham Jail” (King 416).

Eight Alabama clergymen composed a statement urging restraint in the Civil Rights movement and the discontinuance of demonstrations in Birmingham. The clergymen explained that progress could best be achieved through negotiation and through the court system and suggested that direct action would only make the situation worse. In response to this statement, Martin Luther King, Jr. composed his famous “Letter from Birmingham Jail” to explain why he was active in civil rights demonstrations, primarily because of the failure of the courts and negotiation to address the issue of civil rights effectively.

One of King’s most important and most extended arguments begins with the distinction between just and unjust laws. He begins by stating one has a legal and a moral responsibility to obey just laws. Conversely, one has a moral responsibility to disobey unjust laws. “I would agree with St. Augustine that an unjust law is no law at all” (King 420). A distinction is made that an unjust law is a human law that is not rooted in eternal law and natural law and by contrast, any law that uplifts human personality is just.

Through these definition King can elaborate on his claim he developed earlier, “Segregation distorts the soul and damages the personality,” to draw a central conclusion which condemns segregation statutes as unjust (King 420). Any law that degrades human personality is unjust and all segregation statutes are unjust because segregation distorts the soul and damages the personality. Therefore this supports his conclusion, “Segregation gives the segregator a false sense of superiority and the segregated a false sense of inferiority” (King 420).

Segregation is morally wrong and sinful, therefore action was needed to be taken to prevent it. In the second phase of this argument, King redefines “unjust law” in such a way as to intersect the democratic argument seen developed in Jefferson’s Declaration of Independence. King begins his argument by stating what defines an unjust versus just law. “An unjust law is a code that a numerical or power majority group compels a minority group to obey but does not make binding on itself. This is difference made legal . . . a just law is a code that a majority compels a minority to follow and that it is willing to follow itself.

This is sameness made legal . . . a law is unjust if it is inflicted on a minority that, as a result of being denied the right to vote, had no part in enacting or devising the law” (King 421). The segregation laws were enacted by the Alabama legislature, representatives to which Negroes did not vote for because they were denied the right to vote brings up a question “Can any law enacted under such circumstances be considered democratically structured? ” (King 421). Such laws are not democratically structured, therefore such laws are unjust.

After King clearly demonstrated that segregation laws are unjust, it follows the immediate opening premise, “One has a moral responsibility to disobey unjust laws” that we are obliged to disobey segregation laws (King 420). King shines a new light on the disobedience of the law by expressing his belief that “An individual who breaks a law that conscience tells him is unjust, and who willingly accepts the penalty of imprisonment in order to arouse the conscience of the community over its injustice, is in reality expressing the highest respect for the law” (King 421).

This therefore means that conscientious disobedience of an unjust law, especially with the intention of overturning injustice, shows the highest respect for the law, where just law is supposed to derive from natural law and God’s moral order. King’s language here echoes Jefferson, but particularly in the Declaration of Independence where Jefferson argues that governments exist to protect basic human rights, “Deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed” (Jefferson 437).

At time it appears that the letter might even surpass the Declaration of Independence in its importance and value, as the letter speaks on behalf of all Americans as a unified “we” (Ess). Lincoln’s famous “Second Inaugural Address” given in 1865, exemplifies what King tries to explain in his letter. The main message gained is that all men are created equal, therefore segregation laws should not exist (Ess). Lincoln’s speech laid the foundation for others, such as King, to continue to work hard to abolish segregation and discriminative treatment.

King’s use of logos, appeals to our logic or reasoning and gives his own example of how segregation affected his life. Once, he was randomly arrested for walking around without a walking permit. Another example, an elderly black woman states, “My feets is tired but my soul is at rest” (King 430). He mentions that the old woman’s statement is grammatically incorrect, and emphasizes her lack of education and his awareness of it. He draws attention to this fact to point out that even the uneducated know and sense the magnitude of the injustice of segregation.

Also, in quoting this elderly woman, King’s appeal includes an appeal to the emotions. His use of imagery of this elderly woman with tired feet, we feel for her in that she is old and must endure this march to fight for something she should already have. The laws denied the rights of the elderly woman because of her race, hence the law being unjust, which King believes is fair not to follow. The main problem that was occurring in society was segregation. Similarities between King’s letter to the “The Declaration of Independence” and “Second Inaugural Address” are visible as both documents strive for the same goal: equality.

If a law is morally wrong and unjust, then it is our responsibility to disobey it. King argues his point in a variety of ways, particularly the example of the elderly black woman complaining about the pain in her feet from the march and how King points out the grammatical errors in her speech which show her lack of education, yet still understands that segregation happening, knows it is wrong, and wants it to end.

Works Cited Danner, Natalie, and Mary Kate. Paris. “King’s Letter from Birmingham Jail. ” Mercury Reader: a Custom Publication. New York: Pearson Custom Pub. , 2009. 412-31. Print. Danner, Natalie, and Mary Kate. Paris. “Lincoln’s Second Inaugural Address. ” Mercury Reader: a Custom Publication. New York: Pearson Custom Pub. , 2009. 434-35. Print. Danner, Natalie, and Mary Kate. Paris. “Jefferson’s The Declaration of Independence. ” Mercury Reader: a Custom Publication. New York: Pearson Custom Pub. , 2009. 436-40. Print. Ess, Dr. Charles. “King’s Letter from the Birmingham Jail. ” Drury University, Springfield, Missouri. Web. 16 Oct. 2010. .