Natural Resources

The main two types of people involved in the Great Carajas Project are the CVRD ( A company which owned mines) and the Garimperos.

Garimperos are the illegal miners or free lance miners. They mine for gold and are forbidden to mine in the Carajas area. The Garimperos come from all over Brazil and usually mine for Gold. They are annoyed with the government because they feel that they have the right to mine in the area as well. If a Garimpero is caught mining where they shouldn’t be, security guards will hunt them down and confiscate their gold.

In Serra Pelada 80,000 Garimperos invaded a Gold mine and took it over. They were extracting around $200 million annually but although they were making good money, they are damaging the environment and working in a very unsafe manor. They are using mercury to separate the gold and this mercury was then getting into rivers and contaminating/poisoning them and various food chains. They also burn the mercury which gave off toxic gas and the safety in the mining pits was appalling; there were regular rock falls and some miners are killed.

In January 1986, Riot police were ordered into the mines to force the Garimperos out. A miner was killed by accident when a policeman intended to shoot a bullet in the air but shot too soon and killed the miner. Soon after, the mine was shut down but the company re-opened it and increased safety levels by using bulldozers.

The CVRD were confident that they would make lots of money and they were very strict about the area; check posts were set up to ensure that only people involved with the mines/CVRD were allowed to enter and all cars were searched, only allowing people to enter who had a permit.

The government were in control of the project and showed interest because of the investment being made. The project had an annual income of $700 million. The company are licensed to run the project, unlike the Garimperos.

The companies are looked upon as being sufficient but inhumane and the Garimperos are seen as trying to fend for themselves but obliviously harming the environment and putting their own lives in danger.

Local tribes who live in the forest called Amerindians are moved out of their settlements so that the CVRD can expand the mining areas. The CVRD destroy their living area and when the Amerindians next settle they are still weary of having to move again.

In My opinion I think that both Garimperos and the CVRD should be allowed to mine there. They should compromise as to who gets what land so that everyone is happy. I think that if this did happen the Government would have to do some serious thinking into safety regulations and the damaging of the environment.

Dartmoor lies in South Devon, in South Western England. Devon is next to Cornwall, Somerset and Dorset. The Dartmoor National Park lies not far from the Cornwall border, next to the city of Plymouth and close to Exeter.

To the south of Dartmoor lies several honeypot locations such Paignton, Torbay and Torquay. These attract masses of tourist every year.

There are many rivers and streams which run through The Dartmoor National Park. Some of the major ones are the River Teign and Bovey, running through the North East of the park; the River Dart, running through the South East of the park; the River Plym, Erme and Yealm, running through the South West of the park; and the River Tavy and Taw running through the North West of the park.

Throughout the park there are many A and B class roads. These include the A38 which runs from Exeter to Plymouth, the A30 which runs from Exeter to Launceston, the A386 which runs from Sourton to Plymouth, A382 which runs from Bovey Tracy to Whiddon Down, the B3212 which runs from Moretonhampstead to Yelverton, the B3357 which runs from Tavistock to Dartmeet, the B3193 which runs through Teign Valley, and the B3387 which runs from Bovey Tracey to Widecombe.

Sketch Map Of The Dartmoor National Park

Land Issues Facing The Dartmoor National Park

Unlike many other countries in the world, such as the United States Of America, the government doesn’t control the National Parks within the United Kingdom and Wales. Within the park there are many landowners such as public bodies and private individuals. This causes many conflicts within the park.

National Parks were setup in the 1950s. Up to 1957, ten National Parks were confirmed. 1989 saw another area, the Norfolk and Suffolk Broads, given National Park status. In 1999 the Government declared that two new National Parks in England were to be created; South Downs and the New Forest.

National Parks were set up to:

* conserve and enhance the natural wildlife, beauty and cultural heritage of the area.

* show the outside public how to promote and understand the countryside.

* care for the social and economic welfare of the communities within The National Parks.

The National Parks are home to 300 000 people. Dartmoor National Park accommodates 32 300. This is spread over the main settlements in the National Park; Ashburton, Buckfastleigh, Moretonhampstead, Princetown, Yelverton, Horrabridge, South Brent, Christow, Chagford. The population of the largest settlement, Ashburton is about 3,500.

One of the major issues that have a big concern for everybody within The National Park is tourism. All this is due to:

* people having more money to spend on recreation.

* additional time for holidays, particularly short breaks such as a bank holiday or weekend.

* a better infrastructure.

The Dartmoor National Park has to cope with thousands and thousands of visitors per month. The National Park Authority claims that it has 10 million day visits every year. More than 40% of all visitors are from surrounding honeypots such as Torbay and neighbouring cities such as Plymouth. To be precise:

* 22% come from Plymouth.

* 10.2% come from Torbay.

* 18.7% come from Teignbridge.

* 8.9% come from South Hams.

* 14.4% come from West Devon.

* 8.8% come from outside Devon

* 8% come from the rest of Devon

* 9% come from Exeter.

All the information above is the percentage of people coming from that area, both the people who have a permanent house there and people who are staying at that place, on holiday.

Coping with so many tourists is a very big problem for The National Park Authorities. When it is extremely busy, there are not enough parking spaces. All visitors expect easy access. The edges of the park are particularly under pressure as major holiday routes pass it to the North and South. Visitors anticipate that there will be tourist shops, litter collections, picnic areas, and toilets. The Dartmoor National Park houses four National Park Information Centres, twelve Village Information Points, four Community Information Points and several other Centres supported by the National Park Authority. There are 72 different places to park within Dartmoor.

The prices of houses within The Dartmoor National Park, and other parks, are soaring because rich, wealthy people from urban areas pay more for their second home than local people can afford. The majority of the community in National Parks throughout the United Kingdom have a lot of elderly retired people. There are not a lot of young people in the area because these areas do not have a lot of schools; primary and secondary, and they certainly do not have colleges and universities.

Another key factor is erosion. Here is a diagram showing the main reasons why erosion occurs:

The human causes of erosion are walking across the grassy terrain, grazing live stock on the fields, driving farm vehicles, horse riding, mountain biking and military training. Although all the things here can be refrained from doing, the National Park really would not be. Things like military training and some driving of vehicles can be avoided.

All the natural causes of erosion; rain, wind and vegetation, cannot be avoided. These are natural and if it did not happen then all kinds of life in the park would die.

The Ministry of Defence control around 13,340 hectares; about 32,951 Acres; of the park. This about 14% of the whole park. Most activity is intense between Okehampton and Two Bridges, to the North of the park. Both live and “dry” ammunition is used. Live firing has caused damage to ancient monuments and has disturb wildlife, When training commences, large areas are closed off from the public.

Even though there are no natural lakes in The Dartmoor National Park, there are eight reservoirs, taking up around 1% of the park. Burrator, Venford, Fernworthy, Trenchford, Tottiford and Kennick were built before 1940. The other two were added latter; Avon Dam and Meldon. These reservoirs were created by blocking off valleys and waiting for them to fill up. These reservoirs are used to supply water to the towns and cities of Devon. Rainfall on the moors are much higher than urban areas such as London.

Kaolin, otherwise known as china clay, is the source of the main mining industry in Dartmoor today. Kaolin is extracted by open cast mining and used in to make paper shiny. The kaolin is exported throughout the world. There are large reserves in southern Dartmoor, mainly around Lee Moor, which has one of the largest china clay pits in the world;

over 90 m deep and covering over 40 hectares, around 100 acres. Producing kaolin produces large amounts of waste. Land that is important for recreation, wildlife and archaeological interest has been threatened by the dumping of kaolin waste.

The main reason for the creation of The National Parks were to conserve the natural beauty of the areas.

Within Dartmoor there are two large areas of blanket fog. This area waterlogged all year long because there is very heavy rainfall there and poor drainage. It is dominated by rushes, cotton grass and a thick layer sphagnum moss. Around this area there are heather and grass moors, providing better grazing for farm and wild animals.

Solutions:

The Authorities

So what’s going on to combat the land issues facing The Dartmoor National Park?

Many things are being done to help conserve the environment from tourists:

* More and more information centres are being created to inform visitors about the park, to make them understand how to use and preserve the park. This not only through information centres but also signposts and leaflets.

* The Rangers observe the park the most .They are the eyes and ears of The Dartmoor National Park. They try to make certain that all visitors enjoy their visit and monitor the effects of recreation on the landscape and the local community. The local communities support their work a great deal.

* The visitor mangers. These are the people who control more or less every man-made aspect of the park. They say were to put an information centre, where to put a toilet. They plan for these things by doing surveys. (One can be found on the next page).

* New roads are being made. A trunk road was created a few years back, through the North of the park, although an act was passed that no new roads were to be created in parks.

Erosion is single handedly destroying the environment. The National Park Authority has created a strategy to turf or re-seed the most eroded parts.

The military is a big problem in the way to totally cleaning the park. All the Authorities are trying to ban them from The National Park.

Authorities do not like the eight reservoirs already in the park. A bid for another one was made a few years back. It was refused by parliament.

With all the waste from the kaolin, the authorities are trying to find suitable places for the waste to be stored. A place has not been found yet although they are still looking.

Solutions:

My Opinion

I think that all cars should be banned from the area. People should park their cars and catch a bus into the area.

The military should be also banned from the area. They should go and find else were to do their training.

The earliest remains of dams that archaeologists have unearthed date back to around 5000 A.D.They were constructed as part of a domestic water supply system for the ancient town of Jawa in Jordan. Over the next few millennia, the building of dams for water retention spread throughout the Mediterranean, the Middle East, Southern Asia, China, and Central America. Later, as technologies increased and industrialization took hold in Europe, dam mechanisms advanced to incorporate watermills. With the advent of the water turbine in 1832 and developments in electrical engineering, the first hydropower plant began running in Wisconsin in 1882. Over the next few decades, while structural engineering techniques improved, dams multiplied in size, strength, and numbers worldwide.

Today, although the construction of new dams is halting ( albeit with less vigor in underdeveloped countries), they are still being built around the globe for a multitude of social and economical reasons: flood control, hydroelectric power production, river navigation, irrigation, human consumption, industrial use, emergency water reservation, tourism, and flat-water recreation. For all the benefits that dams provide, however, there are adverse effects and concerns that arise from manipulating the environment in such an unnatural manner.

Impacts of Dams on the Hydrologic Regime

Dams are ultimately created as a water reservoir. This impounding of water impedes the circulation of a river and subsequently changes the hydrology and ecology of the river system and its contiguous environments.

Behind a dam, the rise in water level submerges the landscape; often displacing people and engorging culturally valuable ruins. Furthermore, biodiversity of the region is constrained by the destruction of vegetation and loss or extinction of wildlife (Power et al. 887-895). In essence, both the aquatic and land-based ecosystems are damaged by the advent of a dam (Pielou 209).

Upstream of the barricade, the once flowing water that housed the riverine habitat becomes still, oxygen depleted, deepens into darkness, temperature stratified, and susceptible to enhanced evaporation which adjusts the entire hydrologic cycle (e.g., Pielou 207, 210; Ocean Planet n. pag.; Leopold 157). Moreover, drowned vegetation in the stagnant water is subject to rotting and may thereby pollute the atmosphere and reservoir with methane and carbon dioxide (Leopold 158; Pielou 208).

Another change in the water chemistry that alters many river-based systems is the inclusion of heavy metals (and minerals) such as methyl mercury due to reactions between the reservoir bed and the standing water (Pielou 114, 207). If undetected, these toxins may bioaccumulate by moving through the trophic levels of the food web, eventually reaching humans.

Aside from the changes in the chemical constituencies of the water, a dam will also physically augment the river by modifying the shape of the channel. This is primarily due to the retention of sediments behind the dam wall. Water that was once entrained with silts has the increased erosive power to degrade the riverbanks downstream while upstream, the deposition process is shallowing and narrowing the river reaches (e.g., Moffat 1116; Pielou 210). These alterations in channel shape can also shift the elevation of the groundwater table and can amplify the severity of the floods that the dams may have been built to prevent (de Villiers 155-56; PCFFA n. pag.).

The silting process, though, can have other effects on riverine environments. With the deprivation of sediments, valuable nutrients are withheld from the floodplains and the delta of the river. Ultimately, agricultural land suffers from fertility loss and coastlines recede (e.g., DRIIA n. pag.; Pielou 212). In addition to the above noted deterioration of wetland environs, major fish spawning and nursing grounds are harmed by the lack of continual silt and gravel replenishment (e.g., Chambers n. pag.).

Fish species, nevertheless, are not simply affected by the decreased deposition that occurs below a dam. These, and other aquatic based biota adapted to the natural pulsations of seasonal flooding, can be strained by the regulation of stream flow afforded by a dam (Pielou 145; Leopold 156). Furthermore, moderating the flow may actually retard the entire regime of the river by delaying spring break-up.

Apart from the precipitous effects on the hydrologic cycle and river-based ecosystems thus far noted, there are an extensive number of further reasons to remove a dam. Briefly, a few of these are :

• the restoration of anadromous fish migration and subsequent reliant fisheries
• ameliorate conditions associated with damming which promote epidemics such as bilharzia and milaria
• damming has accelerated the rate of earth¡s rotation, displaced the axis of the earth, changed the shape of earth¡s magnetic field, increased the occurrence of seismic events, and influenced sea level changes
• dam removal has been shown to improve recreation, tourism, and aesthetics to the associated riverside communities
• amend the river and groundwater quality

Yet for all of the reasons that a dam may be removed, it is often economic and, in part, safety purposes that prompts the decommissioning of a dam. Whether the reservoir has filled with silt, wear-and-tear has taken its toll, or the dam has become obsolete, the benefit of removal may outweigh the cost of maintaining dam operation.

Consequences Associated with Dam Removal: A Case Study of the Elwha River

Early in the 20th century, two hydroelectric dams were built on the Elwha River within the Olympic Peninsula of Washington State. The Elwha Dam, the first to be constructed (1910), created the Lake Aldwell reservoir 4.9 miles from the mouth of the Elwha river. Respectively, 8.5 miles upstream, Lake Mills is contained by the Glines Canyon Dam (1926). Despite their continued success as a viable resource for Bonneville Power Administration (Meyer n. pag.), the existence and utilization of the Elwha and Glines Canyon dams causes detrimental besetment for the ecosystem and native anadromous fish populations of the Elwha River basin. Thus, per restitution stipulations, the 1992 Elwha River Ecosystem and Fisheries Restoration Act (the Elwha Act) authorized the Secretary of the Interior to appropriate the two dams. Measures to remove the dams will be undertaken as sanctioned from the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIS) that followed in 1995.

Between the inauguration of the Elwha River dams and 1994, it is estimated that 17.7 million cubic yards of sediments has become trapped in the Lake Aldwell and Lake Mills reservoirs. Of that total deposition, some 4.8 to 5.6 million cubic yards of fine-grained alluvium (silts and clays less than 0.075 m in diameter) and 1.2 to 2.6 million cubic yards of coarse grained sediments (sands, gravels, and cobbles greater than 0.075 mm in diameter) will be reintroduced into the Elwha River system through the proposed action.

In comparison, approximately 6.9 million cubic yards of the fine-grained sediments stand to be directly pumped via a pipeline into the Strait of Juan de Fuca if the dredge and Slurry alternative is undertaken. Incremental removal of the dams will be the primary regulation on the rate of sediment withdrawal and will partially effect the resulting term of biological and physical impacts felt on downstream reaches of the Elwha River.

An increase of alluvium transport will renew the natural sediment distribution and hydrological flow patterns to their pre-dam character while new channels and wetland habitats will be created in the freshly drained areas. Aggradation of stream load materials will be most prominent in the low-lying and less circulating shoals, including a revitalization of the Ediz Hook and estuarine beaches . In response to these raised river beds, water elevations are expected to rise, thereby threatening the resources that fall within the 100-year floodplain.

Surface water quality is likely to be hampered for two to six years after dam abstraction as turbidity, suspended sediments and dissolved solids flow through the system. Furthermore, water temperatures, dissolved oxygen concentrations, and pH levels will be affected for the interim of dam removal. Turbidity, in turn, will be the chief cause of groundwater contamination by infiltration into underlying foundations or well and septic systems.

The implementation of either the Proposed Action or Dredge and Slurry alternatives will also impact the native anadromous and resident populations on the Elwha River. The high sediment regimes, especially those of the River Erosion Alternative (the proposed action), will encumber the migrating fish over the deconstruction process.

However in the long term, runs will improve with the staged delayed of dam destruction, fisheries management (including the supplementation fish stocks through hatchery intervention), unrestricted passage up the full stretch of the Elwha River, and the formation of quality spawning grounds and rearing habitats from the released sediments. Moreover, apart from the obvious economic profits of salmon run restoration, the heightened decomposition of dead fish after spawning will significantly enrich nutrients cycling through the riparian area.

Magnified numbers of anadromous fish will, too, eventually increase the biotic diversity down the length of the Elwha Basin. In the future wildlife will be drawn to the decaying remains of dead fish and their young even though the immediate disturbances during the removal period may ward off certain animals (U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Apr. 1996, n. pag.). Vegetation and marine organisms will benefit from the circulation of organic remains; those primarily adapted to sandy substrates will flourish after the initial strain of post-dam sediment conditions.

Prospective temporary consequences to the environment will also include air, traffic, and noise pollution in conjunction with dam destruction and debris conveyance.

This Elwha River case study exemplifies the foremost probable impacts on the hydrologic cycle and the environmental ecosystems which it encompasses. Successful removal of a dam can, in the end, rehabilitate a region to its natural state. Recovery, however, is not without adverse consequences to the existing regimes and full restoration may take many years.

Over the past decennary the important resurgence of trade good monetary values, the inflating monetary value of crude oil resources, and the turning political instability in many of the oil bring forthing parts of the universe, has led to a renewed involvement in the development of natural resources, with energy security at the head of many international political docket. The oil and gas industries are expected to stay the dominant fuel providers worldwide for the following 30 old ages, and presently supplies 62 per centum of the universes energy demand. This per centum is expected to increase to around 67 per centum by 2030, despite a move towards renewable resources, as the addition in demand continues to turn at gait. Trans National Corporations ( TNCs ) are puting to a great extent in these energy industries, and there is great possible for developing states to capitalize on the new economic chances and development chances that oil and gas geographic expedition may convey. The increased export grosss and an gap to worldwide markets, every bit good as increased employment, instruction, and even the modernization of substructure can assist a state grow and expand and break free of a subsistence being. Despite these chances, these states must besides guarantee that they are besides progressively cognizant of the possible inauspicious effects associated with resource extraction. The oil and gas sector is the prime capitalistic industry, and investing and policy determinations are perfectly important to guarantee that any development is good on all foreparts. This is critical in guaranting that the long term hereafter of the host nature is assured and unafraid, and that there are no long permanent negative effects. TNC geographic expedition and development of oil and gas resources can hold positive effects, and any complete appraisal needs to take into history the possible deduction of affecting TNCs in the procedure across a broad scope of factors.

Economic impacts

There are assorted economic impacts from TNC engagement in developing oil and gas militias in an developing state. In developing their ain natural resources, developing states can confront restraints with regard to things like capital and foreign exchange, proficient and managerial capablenesss, and entree to markets and distribution channels [ UN World Investment Report 2007, pp 129 ] . The engagement of TNCs can sometimes be a manner for developing states to get the better of these restraints. The other statement is that TNC engagement merely exacerbates these jobs. In seeking to efficaciously measuring these statements we need to thoroughly measure both direct and indirect economic factors that are produced as a consequence of TNC investings.

Direct Economic Impacts

When TNCs invest in oil and gas development, they are puting in an industry that requires engagement throughout the supply concatenation. At a national degree constructing the foundations of a successful oil and gas industry can be one million millions and one million millions of dollars ( investing in local undertakings such as the Minera Escondida in Northern Chile totalled $ 4 billion between 1991 andn 2004, and Petrobras ‘ planned investings in seaward oil Fieldss in the Gulf of Mexico are expected to amount to $ 15 billion ). This degree of investing from TNCs can take to a direct injection of money into a national economic system ( which can besides be felt at local and regional degrees ) , and can hold a important and sometimes permanent consequence on the overall macroeconomic public presentation of a host state, every bit good as the more direct microeconomic benefits. TNC ‘s can assist make value in the host economic system straight through assorted equity or non-equity signifiers of engagement.

One of the greatest direct economic impacts that a TNC can do to an underdevelopment nature, is to better the technological capablenesss of the host state. TNC engagement in oil and gas geographic expedition and development can assist to reassign engineering and heighten technological capablenesss. Underdeveloped states are technologically limited, and oil and gas geographic expedition is dependent on external entrepreneurial enterprises. Many market progressives believe that investing in these industries from foreign TNCs is more likely to see the transportation of cleaner extraction and geographic expedition engineerings. They argue that even in the oil and gas industries TNCs are more likely than domestic houses to utilize more sustainable engineerings as they provide a competitory advantage in production – being by and large more efficient and bring forthing a higher choice end merchandise. The development of oil and gas industries can besides assist to excite employment in destitute parts. The job is that the part of the oil and gas industry to entire national employment is by and large really little. In Saudi Arabia, for illustration, less than 1.5 % of the on the job population are employed in the oil and gas industries, despite the fact that they account for 90 % of the state ‘s GDP.

Indirect Economic Impacts

Investing by TNCs in oil and gas development in can assist to excite economic growing via indirect spillovers such as substructure betterments, and the development of associated service industries. In the oil and gas industry, oilfield services now account for the majority of the entire cost of oil production. The size of oilfield services in Africa entirely has been estimated at about $ 30 billion a twelvemonth. This suggests a high potency for heightening the engagement of local contractors in the supply concatenation, and developing a web of concern and industrial growing, stimulated by the oil and gas industry. In the oil and gas industry, TNCs have helped states such as Angola, Argentina, Azerbaijan, Ecuador, Indonesia, Kazakhstand increased production and exports over the long term.

Industrial Development

The addition in services that energy provides is necessary for economic growing, improved life criterions, and to supply for increased human populations.

Training and education

Environmental Impact

Oil and gas production carries with it the possible for lay waste toing environmental impacts, and the nature of this pollution and debasement can take many signifiers. Oil spills, damaged land, accident and fire and incidents of air and H2O pollution have all been recorded at assorted times and topographic points. Offshore oil spills have huge potency for environmental impact, as shown by the Gulf Oil Spill in 2010, which was dispatching 5000 barrels of oil per twenty-four hours over a month after the initial fire, and devastated local wildlife and ecosystems. Equally good as these one-off environmental catastrophes, there is besides a duty, peculiarly for developing states, to turn to the cumulative effects of oil and gas development. Though a spillage from an single oiler may be considered little, and possibly inconsequential, a figure of spills accumulate to represent a menace to the environment. On land, run off from grapevines and Wellss can foul groundwater and surface H2O, there are associated hazards of exposure, and the pollutants can pollute local dirt and lay waste to local harvest supplies. There is a considerable sum of research demoing that the effects of oil on marine life from offshore geographic expedition and boring, or on leaks from damaged conveyance vass, can be lay waste toing, particularly in the short term. The oil itself can surface and pollute marine life, its toxic constituents can bioaccumulate up the nutrient concatenation, impacting animate beings, workss and even worlds via the ingestion of filter-feeders. Cleanup attempts can besides damage the environment when certain types of chemicals are used, or environing reefs and the ocean floor are disturbed.

In the Niger Delta there has been widespread environmental desolation as a consequence of oil geographic expedition and development in the part. This debasement has been caused by gas flaring, above-ground pipe escape, oil waste dumping, and oil spills. Prior to May 2000, about 75 % of the gas produced yearly was flared, doing considerable and permanent ecological harm to the environing land, groundwater, surface H2O, flora and wildlife. The desolation has been so utmost that the country is now undergoing a monolithic UN orientated extenuation and monitoring programme in an effort to clean up the part.

Despite the above illustrations, it should be said that some oil and gas exporting states in the underdeveloped universe, such as Malaysia and Oman have non encountered the same negatives.

That being said the overall image for developing states is however instead black. That so much of the cost is frequently borne by local communities, including autochthonal people, and so much of the gross goes to the national authoritiess is a major beginning of dissatisfaction. While this is true for most natural resources, oil and to a lesser extent gas have, in add-on, inauspicious planetary environmental effects as a carbon-based fuel that gives off important emanations of nursery gases, with the most of import of these being C dioxide

Political Consequences for the states society

• Local
• Regional
• National

Where local fiscal resources and capablenesss for set abouting the investing are missing, TNC production represents a direct add-on to end product and income for the host economic system ; the significance of this depends on the size and nature of TNCs local value-creating activities and their placement along the value concatenation. The job is that foreign engagement implies that portion of the entire income generated will be capture by the TNCs involved and, in some instances, their comparatively strong bargaining power enables them to have a important portion of this income via contractural dialogues.

International

Strategic Options

In order to efficaciously and responsibly specify the available strategic options for the host state is obvious that we need to guarantee that there is an first-class degree of understanding about the environment in which the company will be runing – over societal, environmental and economic Fieldss. Therefore, any section in charge of this scheme must guarantee that they invariably monitor and analyse the markets for rough monetary value behavior, the relationship between participants, and the political and environmental hazards.

This inquiry that arises, so, is what authoritiess and companies can make to mend or avoid these negative effects and promote the more positive facets of oil and gas production. Ideally, the excess grosss from hydrocarbons could better life criterions for the broader population, while still guaranting that the involvements of groups most instantly affected by the industry are met.

TNC engagement can increase fiscal resources for investing, better direction, transportation engineering and heighten technological capablenesss, generate employment and accomplishments, and increase production and income in the host economic system.

Accelerate modernization and heighten the fight of domestic industries.

It is of import to see the long-run fiscal security of the host state, and that state should guarantee that it is non economically dependent on oil and gas geographic expedition. Though gross may be big, oil and gas TNCs trade with planetary markets on improbably huge graduated tables ( such as the EU, Japan and the United States ) . The fiscal deductions of the underdeveloped universe being excessively reliant on a individual resource and industry, can take to TNC ‘s merely drenching the economic system. Oil monetary values on the planetary markets are extremely unstable, and the complete trust on oil gross can drives a roar and broke rhythm in the domestic economic system, lending to increasing degrees of external debt every bit good as rises in poorness rates

Decisions

There are two primary jobs that have led to struggles worldwide: the environmental impact of geographic expedition, boring, and transporting oil and gas, and the effects of foreign authoritiess and companies on a state ‘s political, economic, and societal construction – what research workers call the ‘human dimension ‘ of environmental policy, particularly in developing states dependent upon crude oil and gas merchandise for economic endurance.

In add-on, TNCs may lend to higher degrees of efficiency, productiveness and invention in the industries concerned.

There are two chief grounds for the universe ‘s continued trust on oil and gas. First, there are presently no options to these fuels in transit. Although a figure of the universe ‘s major energy companies are forcing to progress research on hydrogen-driven fuel cells, this is improbable to hold a important impact on crude oil demand over the following 30 old ages. Second, natural gas is likely to go on its rapid acclivity as the universe ‘s favorite fuel because of its advantages in generated electricity.

It seems that in the United States of America Capitalism streams with grace. For me capitalism seems to be the best way for an economy to grow. Some may say, capitalism is unfair in terms of competition and giving the best possible price to the consumer. Or that capitalism creates classes where “the rich get richer and the poor get poorer”. I”m no doctor of the economy, or a spokesperson for all of America, but I feel that company”s can be more profitable both in an economic and a personal standpoint by running a business based on capitalism.

Looking at the predicament with competition, from most of my experiences at this stage of life for me, competition has done great things in terms of making products cheaper for me. For example, the computer hardware business, I built a computer one year ago using an Intel Pentium II 300mhz processor. I paid $520 for the motherboard and processor. Since AMD (a competitor of Intel) came out with the AMD K-6-2 processor, Intel”s prices have dropped considerably.

As a matter of fact, I was on the Internet just yesterday and saw that I could by an Intel Pentium II 333mhz processor and a motherboard for just $335. It”s just too bad that I couldn”t say the same for Microsoft”s prices. But that topic alone could spawn a novel. I think that of late, many Americans have less faith in their government than they did 50 years ago. And having the government control the country”s industry would create all kinds of dilemmas. I was thinking about the statement “the rich get richer and the poor get poorer” and also about capitalism creating economic classes among society.

Again, I”m not a economics major, so the next few statements are going to be based on my assumption that – the difference between say, a doctors salary and a janitors salary in a capitalist economy would be much more significant than in a socialist economy. With that being said, I think that a capitalist economy can promote much more motivation for self improvement and fulfillment than a socialist economy can provide. Lets say you went to college for four, six, or even eight years to be a business executive.

And the guy pushing the mail cart who, perhaps, dropped out of school in the 11th grade, was pulling in about the same amount as you are, now what”s that going to do for your motivation or dignity for that matter? Why bother going through all that work and mental stress when we can be lackadaisical and unproductive but still receive the same opportunities and benefits as the executives (kind of like Union workers – Just Kidding)? The point I”m trying to make is, most people like rewards, and most people like accomplishment.

It just seems that capitalism can offer more to the society and its individuals by allowing them to set and work towards goals. Plus by providing a good standard of living for workers I think capitalism helps to allow people to gain confidence in their government. Getting away form capitalism, there are a lot of stupid and foolish laws that exist today but most are ethical. It appears that what is an ethical guideline for most of us today, often will be translated to law or regulation some time in the future. I find it strange how ethics and morals are learned.

I mean, I feel that I am a fairly ethical person, especially in public places like, work or school. A little common sense can get you the basics of morals and ethics. In the work place, attention to the ethics beyond the basics looks to be deteriorated for many companies and employees for that matter. Consequently, it looks like there is no clear moral conductor to guide upper management about what is right or wrong. But, for me its confusing to learn because there are so many different ways to look at ethics, similar to religion, how do you know really what style is best for you and your surroundings, or maybe, the best is a little of each?

The fluorite (CaF2) deposits were discovered by prof. Al Amin in 1967 in the areas of Kimwarer, Choff and Kamnaon. He was searching for semi-precious stones, and initially mistook the purple fluorite for gemstone. He therefore collected the sample and took them for analysis in Mombasa. It was later found to be fluorite.

A hand-mining operation was started and the fluorspar was supplied to the Bamburi Portland Cement Company in Mombasa. At its peak, the operation, which relied on donkeys to transport the fluorspar, produced around 400 tons per month of high grade fluorspar. In 1971 the Fluorspar Company of Kenya (FCK) was established, under the auspices of the Kenya government, to exploit the deposits on a larger scale. Crushing and jigging plants were later put up at mining site for large scale production of the metallurgical grade. Kenya fluorspar was a state parastatal upto 1996 when it was privatized.

It is currently owned by local and foreign investors. The company has seven active mining sites available from which ore can be mined depending on the grade and quality required. In 2003 the company obtained made a major investment in earth-moving equipment and plant upgrading. The deposit has been commercially mined since 1971. Initially, metallurgical grade fluorspar was produced. In 1975 a 100,000 ton per annum acid grade fluorspar concentrator was commissioned and by 1979 metallurgical grade fluorspar was no longer produced as primary product, but can still be produced as secondary product for smaller consignments.

The Kimwarer ore deposit has now been mined for over 35 years It is an EPZ (Export processing zone). LOCATION Kenya Fluorspar is a concern based in the Kerio Valley in the district of Eldoret and Iten. FORMATION OF FLOURITE (CaF2) The fluorite is an industrial mineral formed 150 to 200 million years ago. It is formed by replacement reaction known as mesomatism. The magma or hot water containing fluorine and other minerals was forced up from deep within the Earth. When this brine reached the calcium rich, limestone bedrock (CaCO3), fluorite crystals formed along the walls of fractures and voids in the rock.

Flat layers of fluorite also formed parallel to the limestone beds, replacing the host rock. The fluorine replaced the CO32- from the CaCO3 to form CaF2. The CO32- was dissipated as CO2 and water. This process is further elaborated in equation below: Ca2- + F22- CaF2 (fluorite) GEOLOGY AND OCURRENCE Fluorite (also called fluorspar) is a halide mineral composed of calcium fluoride, CaF2. It is an isometric mineral with a cubic habit, though octahedral and more complex isometric forms are not uncommon. Crystal twinning is common and adds complexity to the observed crystal.

The fluorite deposits are believed to be of hydrothermal origin in the Post-Miocene era when lavas formed a protective cap over Precambrian rocks in the area. The main deposit of fluorite is located at Kimwarer and is exposed on a series of five hills, four of which have been mined. Two other minor deposits knows as Choff and Kamnaon are approximately 2 to 5 km north of the present mine site and have been partially mined in the past for the production of metallurgical-grade spar. The Kimwarer ore bodies contain by far the largest ore reserves. The ore body contacts are distinct due to the buff colour of the ore in contrast to he grey gneiss, white marbles or pegmatites. Typically the fluorite is finely crystalline and disseminated through a siliceous matrix. Zones of high grade ore are often purplish or creamy yellow in colour with cavities filled with distinct cubic crystals. The Choffs have two ore bodies running parallel to each other for more than 3 km. The Choffs are separated by ridges and dips. The ore body pinches and swells and its width varies between 4 metres and 26 metres. This ore is soft and friable hence easy liberation in the plant and provides a good yield. The phosphate in this vein is medium to high.

The Kamnaon ore body has more than five partly parallel veins with varying dips of between 35-45 degrees. There are a number of other sites which are yet to be explored. The Fluorite at Kerio Valley occur as a vein deposit, especially associated with galena, sphalerite, barite, quartz, calcite and metallic minerals, where they often form part of the gangue (the surrounding “host-rock” in which valuable minerals occur). It is a common mineral in deposits of hydrothermal origin and has been noted as a primary mineral in granites and other igneous rocks and as a common minor constituent of dolostone and limestone.

The deposit at Kerio Valley is steeply diping at 40o, with strike varying with mine: Mine| Strike| Percentage CaF2| No. of mines| mines operating| Cheberen| North-South| 37%| 1-6| 1and3| Kamnaum| North west-South east| 40%| 1-5| 1| Choff| East-West| 50%| 1-12| 6and9| The deposit is stratified from Kamnaum to Cheberen1. The fluorite is polychromous i. e occurs in different colours depending on the trace elements. The different colours include: * Colourless * Orange * Green * Purple * Base yellow. GRADES OF FLOURSPAR The fluorite can be processed into grades depending on the use: 1.

Acid grade: This grade is used in the manufacture of Hydrofluoric acid (HF). 2. Metallurgical grade: This grade is used as flux in steel and cement industry. 3. Ceramic grade: This grade is used in the manufacture of ceramics. Only the acid grade is currently produced by Kenya Fluorspar. Metallurgical grade was also produced but stopped. MAJOR IMPURITIES AVAILABLE IN FLUORITE 1. Silica (silicon dioxide), SiO2 2. Calcite (calcium carbonate), CaCO3 3. Phosphorus pentaoxide , P2O5 4. Iron(III)oxide, Fe2O3 STAGES IN MINING AND PROCESSIG OF FLOURITE (CaF2) 1. Exploration 2. Overburden removal 3. Mining . Processing EXPLORATION This is normally done to obtain sufficient information about the deposit in order to enable a safe and economic design and to avoid difficulties during mining of the fluorite. The Kenya Fluorspar utilizes the diamond core drilling machine to obtain the drill cores. This machine can drill upto 140m-180m depth. The drill cores are then logged upto beyond the fluorite zones. The drill cores are then taken to laboratory for testing. The cores undergo through assessment, determination and classification. Diamond core drilling equipment. LAND CLEARING AND OVERBURDEN REMOVAL

LAND CLEARING This involves the removal of all the trees and stumps including the roots from the mining site. In Kenya Fluorspar, currently land clearing and overburden removal is done at choff 9. The main equipment used for land clearing at choff9 is a D355 Komatsu tractor-mounted dozer. The brush is disposed by dumping in gullies. D355 dozer. OVERBURDEN REMOVAL This involves the removal waste soil or rock that overlies the ore. At Kenya Fluorspar the overburden depth depends on the stripping ratio and dipping angle. Dozer is the main equipment used for stripping the overburden at choff 9.

This equipment pushes the overburden over the high wall. After the overburden has been stripped by the dozer, it is loaded onto trucks by a hydraulic hoe excavator for dumping in gullies. The waste is then pushed into gullies by the D355 dozer. Overburden is removed at a ratio of 3:1 to 8:1 (waste to ore) depending on the ore body, with over 700,000 tons of waste being stripped per annum at current production levels. Overburden is normally trucked away using 25 ton trucks provided by contractors. Overburden stripping continues until the fluorite is exposed. ORE EXTRACTION (MINING) Mining is by open cast methods.

The exposed ore is extracted by drilling and blasting. A total of approximately 360,000 tons of ore is mined annually. The geology has indicated that the ore body extends beneath the valley floor level and an open pit is being planned. Drilling and blasting The Kenya Fluorspar utilizes two types of drilling equipment (rig) to drill holes. These include: 1. Down the hole hammer (DTH). This is mainly used in solid hard formations. The hammer is just behind the bit. 2. Top hammer drill rig (TH). This is mainly used in loose formations. The hammer is on top of the drill string (pipes).

Crawler mounted DTHTop hammer drill rig The drill pattern to be applied depends on the: 1. Size of the drill bit to be used. 2. Geological condition of the area. All the bits are 102mm The drill pattern is square, 3m by 3m (burden by spacing) when there is a free face and staggered in absence of a free face. The depth of the drill holes differs, with most holes 10m and others 7m and 4m. Subdrilling is normally 3m. Both the DTH and TH are crawler mounted with TH complete with compressor mounted on it. Kenya Fluorspar has 3 operating crawler mounted drilling machines (2 DTH and 1 TH).

BLASTING This operation involves the following stages: 1. Preparation of ANFO 2. Hole charging 3. Initiation of explosives PREPARATION OF ANFO This involves mixing the ammonium nitrate with fuel (diesel) in the ratio 0. 075ml of diesel for every 1kg of ammonium nitrate. This operation is done by an explosive mixer in Kenya Fluorspar. HOLE CHARGING This process involves placing booster/ primer at the bottom of the drilled hole. The boosters normally used include: cast booster, pentolite booster and gelignite. The Kenya fluorspar utilizes the pentolite booster for the priming purposes.

Before placing the primer it is connected to a detonator. These detonators include: 1. Plain detonators 2. Instantaneous electric detonators. After placing the primer, ANFO is added depending on the hole depth as shown in the table below: Hole depth| Height of ANFO| Stemming| 10m| 7m| 3m| 7m| 5. 5m| 1. 5m| 4m| 3. 5m| 0. 5m| These holes charged are then connected by 25MS (millisecond) nonel shock tubes, short period detonating delay (SPDD) type. The rows are connected by 17MS surface trunk lines (also nonel shock tubes). The nonel shock tube has the following advantages: 1.

Produces low noise and vibration 2. It has less fly rock. It is because of the above advantages that make it useful near factory where less vibration are required. The nonel shock tube is very expensive. INITIATION OF EXPLOSION Once charging is complete the explosion can be initiated depending on the detonator used. Initiation can be done using the following: 1. Safety fuse which burns at a rate of 2 minutes per metre. This is used incase of plain detonators 2. Blasting machine incase of electric detonators. Secondary blasting is also done incase large boulders are produced in the primary blasting.

Large boulders can also be broken using the rock breakers. LOADING AND HAULAGE The blasted ore is loaded into trucks by an hydraulic excavator (Komatsu) hoe. The loaded ore is hauled a short distance of between 2 km and 7 km by contracted trucks to the crushing plant. These trucks range from 10tons to 20tons. The ore stock pilled separately depending on the source. PROCESSING OF FLOURITE (CaF2) The processing of fluorite at the processing plant involves the following stages: 1. Blending 2. Crushing 3. Grinding 4. Conditioning 5. Floatation 6. Thickening 7. filtration 8. Stock pilling

BLENDING Blending in normally done at the primary crusher by a wheel loader before feeding into the crusher in ratio of: 2cheberen:1choff:1kamnaum This blending ratio ensures that the feed is 40% CaF2 CRUSHING Types of crushers 1. Primary crusher: Jaw crusher 2. Secondary crusher: cone crusher 3. Tertiary crusher: cone crusher PRIMARY CRUSHING The ore feed to the hopper through a 12in grizzly screen. It is then feed to the primary crusher through an apron feeder and belt conveyor. The ore is first crushed in a primary stage crushing plant from a feed of 350 mm to less than 30mm in size.

The ore that is less than 60mm but more than 30mm is passed through the cone crusher where it is further reduced to less than 30mm. Any material that is more than 30mm is passed through the tertiary crusher. GRINDINGTypes mills used in Kenya Fluorspar 1. Rod mill 2. Ball mill 3. Re-grind mill. It is then conveyed to the grinding circuit where the material is added to a rod mill along with water to form slurry. The rod mill instantly grinds the ore after which it is sized using a hydrocyclone. Any oversized material is passed to the ball mill for a further grinding to the desired size of 80%.

The ore is now ready for conditioning and flotation. CONDITIONINGThis process takes place in the conditioner. This where the depressants and collectors are added. 1. Depressants a) Sodium fluorite which depresses the P2O5 b) Sodium bifluorite which also depresses the P2O5 2. Collectors a) Betacol b) TapiocaThis process renders the fluorite hydrophobic by the addition of a surfactant or collector chemical. FLOATATIONFlotation is the process that concentrates the ore. This is done by agitating the ore slurry in cells with air bubbles.

By adding a combination of fatty acid reagents, the fluorspar in the ore attaches itself to the air bubble to float to the top of the cell. This product is skimmed off leaving the waste in the bottom of the cell. The process is conducted in a series of rougher, scavenger, and cleaner cells that successively concentrates the ore from 40% CaF2 in the feed material to a minimum of 97. 0% CaF2 in the final concentrate. The water in the final product is then removed in a thickener and a rotary drum filter. This produces a filter cake concentrate containing approximately 11. % moisture. The samples are analyzed in the company’s assay and research laboratory. The waste product is pumped to the tailings dam and settled water is recycled to the plant for reuse. A FLOATATION CELLPERCENTAGE CaF2 CONCENTRATED PER SERIES OF FLOATATION CELL FLOATATION CELL| PERCENTAGE CaF2 CONCENTRATED| ROUGHER CELLS| 80%| SCAVANGER CELLS | 85%-87%| CLEANER CELLS| 97%| FLOATATION CIRCUITDEWATERINGThe water in the final product is then removed in a thickener and a rotary drum filter. This produces a filter cake concentrate containing approximately 11. % moistureTHICKENER ROTARY DRUM FILTEROperational Sequence * Cake Formation With the overflow weir set to a maximum the “apparent submergence” is normally 33-35% so the slurry levels between 0400 and 0800 hrs. Once a sector enters submergence vacuum is applied and a cake starts to form up to a point where the sector emerges from the slurry. The portion of the cycle available for formation is the “effective submergence” and its duration depends on the number of sectors, the slurry level in the tank and the bridge setting which controls the form to dry ratio. Cake Washing and Drying After emerging from submergence the drying portion of the cycle commences and for non-wash applications continues to about 0130 hrs where the vacuum is cut-off. If cake washing is required the wash manifolds will be located from about 1030 to 1130 hrs and the remaining time to vacuum cut-off at 0130 is the portion allocated to final cake drying. * Cake Discharge After vacuum for the entire sector is cut-off air blow commences at about 0200 hrs in order to facilitate cake discharge.

The blow, depending on the position of the tip of the scraper blade, will cut-off at approximately 0300 hrs. Drum filters are normally operated with a low pressure blow but on certain applications a snap blow is applied and to avoid the snapping out of the caulking bars or ropes wire winding of the cloth is recommended . Blow is used on scraper and roll discharge mechanisms but on belt discharge filters vacuum cuts-off when the filter media leaves the drum. The final product has composition shown in the table below: PRODUCT| PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION| Fluorite, CaF2| More than 97%|

Silica, SiO2| Less than 1%| Carbonate, CaCO3| Less than 1%| Iron III oxide, Fe2O3| Neglible| Phosphorus penta oxide, P2O5| Less than 0. 5%| TAILINGS DAMTailings, also called slimes, tails, leach residue, or slickens, are the materials left over after the process of separating the valuable fluorite from the uneconomic fraction (gangue) of the ore. These are the wastes from the floatation cells. Tailings are distinct from overburden or waste rock, which are the materials overlying an ore or mineral body that are displaced during mining without being processed.

The tailing are pumped from the processing plant to the to tailings dam for disposal. The height is about 15m and dimensions are 150m by 30m. it is trapezoidal in shape. The dam also has drain pipes to remove the seepage water. Hydraulic cyclones are used to build the dam. The cyclones separate the tailings into fine and coarse material. The coarse materiel from the cyclone underflow is used to build the wall of the dam will the material and water is disposed into the dam. The water is recycled and pumped back for reuse into the factory. The will built until the dam touches the adjacent hill.

LABORATORY QUALITY CONTROLL SECTIONThe company conducts two types of tests – chemical and metallurgical. The chemical section performs wet chemistry analysis (mainly titration) and operates 24 hrs a day throughout the year and each shift is headed by a qualified chemist. The metallurgical section mainly concentrates on research and development work. The sample (pellet) is subjected to an XRF machine which scans the sample imparting energy to it. The sample then radiates heat of various wavelengths. The wavelengths are analyzed by a computer program which displays the information instantly on the screen.

Strict quality control of run-of-mine ore, exploration and final product analysis is maintained by sampling. KFC prides itself in the quality of its assays, which are always crosschecked with those of European laboratories, namely SGS (Netherlands), HOFF and BSI in the United States. Weight sampling and analysis:  All analyses are being performed by SGS Kenya Ltd (Swiss company) at the cost of the company. Apparatus in the laboratory: a) Two Jaw crushers (14in. and12in. ) b) Pulverizer c) Oven for drying d) Splitter e) XRF machine f) Analytical balance g)

A pilot plantSample preparation i. Drying ii. Splitting iii. Crushing iv. Pulverizing. CARGO CONDITIONThe fluorite is Chemically inert, non-reactive, non-flammable, non-hazardous mineral sand. No hazard labelling required in accordance with IMO regulations. No special precautions for storage however, in order to maintain the purity of the material, it must not be allowed to be contaminated by any other material as it is used as the base product in sensitive chemical processes to produce other products and substances.

TRANSPORT Once the acid spar is produced, the fluorspar is loaded into 10 ton trucks and hauled to the railway siding at Kaptagat, a distance of 37km. From here it is loaded into 36 ton rail wagons for the 860 km journey to the Mbaraki wharf at Mombasa. The wagons are offloaded at the wharf where the fluorspar is stockpiled and covered while awaiting shipment. The storage capacity at Mbaraki is approximately 25,000 tons. The process of off-loading of wagons and trucks is labour intensive by means of manual labour.

Loading of the vessels is conducted using an automatic Demag Ship Loader, owned and operated by Bamburi Portland Cement Company. An average rate of 2,500 tons per day can be loaded on a continuous basis even on public holidays. The quantity loaded and moisture analyses are conducted by an independent surveyor on a continuous basis to ensure a representative result of the product loaded. Since Mombasa is one of the main ports in East Africa, chartering of vessels to carry bulk cargoes to any destination in the world can be easily arranged. |

Meanders are sinuous bends in a river’s middle and lower courses. In low flow conditions, alternating pools and riffles are formed along the river bed. The river channel is deeper in pools so it has greater energy and more erosive power. Energy is lost as the river flows over a riffle because of friction. These cause the river’s flow to become uneven and maximum flow to be concentrated on one side of the river, causing lateral erosion on one side, creating an outer concave bank.

Deposition takes place on the other side of the bend, creating a convex bank. The cross-section of a meander is asymmetrical. The outer bank forms a river cliff or a bluff with a deep pool close to the bank, mainly because of the fast flow, hydraulic action and abrasion. The inner bank is a gently sloping deposit of sand and gravel, called a point bar. Meanders are maintained by a surface flow of water across to the concave outer bank with a balancing subsurface return flow back to the convex inner bank.

This corkscrew-like movement of water is called helicoidal flow. In this way, eroded material from the outer bank is transported away and deposited on the inner bank. The combination of erosion and deposition exaggerates the bends until large meanders are formed. Sometimes, oxbow lakes are formed when the neck of the loop of a meander is broken through, and the new cut eventually becomes the main channel, leaving the formed channel sealed off by deposition.