Personality

Leadership has been a topic of interest to historians and philosophers, but only around the turn of the century did scientific studies begin. Since that time, scientists and other writers have offered more than 350 definitions of the term “leadership” (Daft, 1999). Defining leadership has been a complex problem because the nature of leadership itself is complex. In recent years, however, much progress has been made in understanding the essential nature of leadership as a real influence in organizations and societies (Northouse, 2001).

It is worth rewieving the first conceptions of leadership – the trait and the behavioural approach – as one can learn from these former approaches in order to construct a new approach best fitting to the current economic situation. Therefore, the aim of this essay is to describe these two controversal approaches and present their strengths and weaknesses. First, this essay will deal with the trait approach.

The approach will be defined and Stogdill’s surveys and other studies on this theory will be presented. Morover, the strengths and weaknesses of the trait approach will be explored. The second part of the essay presents the behavioral approach by defining it and describing the Ohio State Studies, the University of Michigan Studies and Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid. The strengths and weaknesses of the behavioral approach will also be examined.

The Trait Approach

In the early 1900s, scholars became aware of the importance of leadership and created the first systematic attempt to study leadership: the trait approach (Daft, 1999). Fundamental to this theory was the idea that great leaders own innate qualities and characteristics enabled them to be successful. Scholars focused on leaders’ personal traits to identify the source of successful leadership (Northouse, 2001). In this respect the trait approach emphasises the individual rather than the situation (Handy, 1985).

Researchers began by examining different characteristics such as personality traits, physical traits, abilities, social and work-related characteristics of effective leaders. Stogdill’s surveys Although there was a lot of research on traits in the 20th century, the surveys of Stogdill in 1948 and in 1974 provide a good overview of the trait approach. In his first survey Stogdill analyzed more than 124 trait studies and uncovered the following traits that appeared important for effective leadership: intelligence, alertness, insight, responsibility, initiative, persistence, self-confidence and sociability (Northouse, 2001). Furthermore, Stodgill found out that situations in which leaders operate are ‘key determinants of whether particular traits are appropriate’ (Bryman, 1986, p. 19). This result affected a new approach to leadership that concentrated on leadership behaviors and situations. This theory will be discussed later in this essay.

In 1974 Stogdill published his second survey which analyzed another 163 studies and compared these results to the findings of his first survey (Bryman, 1986). While the first survey implied that situational factors, not personality factors, play an important role concerning leadership, the second survey showed that both factors were determinants of leadership. Stogdill’s second survey identified another 4 traits important for being an effective leader: achievement, cooperativeness, tolerance and influence (Northouse, 2001).

However, Stogdill’s second survey demonstrated that situational aspects of leadership are still very important, but there is a greater significance to traits than in his first survey. One such theorist is Mann who, in 1959, examined more than 1,400 findings regarding personality and leadership in small groups (Northouse, 2001). In contrast to Stogdill, Mann did not emphasise the situational factors of leadership; rather suggested that personality traits could be used to differentiate leaders from followers. Mann identified certain traits of effective leaders: intelligence, masculinity, adjustment, dominance, extroversion and conservatism (Bryman, 1986).

In 1986 Lord et al. reestimated the results of Mann’s study. They discovered that personality traits could be used to differentiate leaders from non-leaders consistently across situations (Northouse, 2001). Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991) identified six traits by which leaders and non-leaders can be distinguished: drive, the desire to lead, honesty, self-confidence, cognitive ability and knowledge. According to Kirkpatrick and Locke these traits can be innate qualities of leaders, learned or both (Northouse, 2001). Major leadership traits As a result of a century of research on the trait theory Daft (1999) establishes three traits deemed essential for leaders if they want to be perceived by others: self-confidence, honesty/integrity and drive. In addition to Daft, Northouse (2001) identified two more major traits: intelligence and sociability.

The confidence a leader displays and develops is positively related to leadership because it creates commitment among followers and it prevents leaders from being paralyzed into inaction even if things go wrong. Honesty is essential in order to minimize skepticism and to build productive relationships. Leaders with drive desire achievement, have tenacity and ambition to achieve their aims. Intelligence is important insofar as leaders need to have strong verbal and perceptual abilities and reasoning in order to be sucessful. But in this context it is important that the leader’s IQ is not too different from that of the followers because otherwise communication and accepting of ideas might become difficult themes for the leader.

The final trait which is important for a sucessful leader is sociability which means sensitiveness to others’ needs and concern for their well-being. Sociability is important to keep present followers and to gain new followers. Strengths of the trait approach The trait approach consists of five identifiable strengths. First, the trait approach fulfills people’s need to see their leaders as gifted people. In our society there is the common assumption that only people with gifts can do extraordinary things (Northouse, 2001). The trait approach supports this assumption by stating that leaders are different because they possess special traits.

Second, organisations only have to search for people with the specific traits examined by the trait approach in order to acquire good leadership in their organisations (Bryman, 1986). The recruitment process is less complicated when using the trait theory . Third, this approach contains of a century of research to support it. ‘No other theory can boast of the breadth and depth of studies conducted on the trait approach.’ (Northouse, 2001, p. 22).

Fourth, although leadership consists of leaders, followers and situations, the trait approach only concentrates on leaders. This strength may also be a weakness but by focusing only on the role of leaders within leadership the trait approach is able to give a deeper understanding of how the leader and his/her traits are linked to the process of leadership (Northouse, 2001). Fifth and finally, the trait approach provides supervisors and managers with information about their strengths and weaknesses and presents ways to improve the effectiveness of their leadership (Northouse, 2001).

This essay will approach types of power such as; to utilize and influence others, to either reward or punish, to confirm by role of an organization, and to identify with a leader such as rock or film personality. This essay will cover six categories of power and these interlink with each other and brings a better focus on theories of power. The functions of leadership are many and varied, depending upon the basic problem with a group must deal with, and the type of leadership style in action, which is dependent on the leaders basis of power.

Power, in the case of leadership, is divided into six categories, however, each can be linked with another, as they are inter-related. Expert and Informational power are concerned with skills, knowledge and information, of which the holders of such abilities, are able to utilize, to influence others ie technicians and computer personnel. Reward and Coercive power, differ from the previously mentioned, as they involve the ability to either reward or punish persons being influenced, in order to gain compliance.

Legitimate power, is power which has been confirmed by the very role structure of the group or organization itself, and is accepted by all as correct and without dispute, such as in the case of the armed forces or the police force. Referent power, on the other hand, involves those being influenced, identifying with the leader, ie. rock or film personalities using their image to enter the political arena. Most leaders make use of a combination of these six types of power, depending on the leadership style used.

Authoritarian leaders, for example, use a mixture of legitimate, coercive and reward powers, to dictate the policies, plans and activities of a group. In comparison, a democratic or participative leader would use mainly referent power, involving all members of the group in the decision-making process. In my research I have found that by the use of meta-analysis uncovers an approach beyond the general focus of theories of leadership.

However within the central study of the term theory, I explore this article to expand this essay in more detail. According to Hunter and Hirsh (1987), most discoveries and advances in cumulative knowledge are no longer being made by those who conduct primary research studies, but by those who use meta-analysis to uncover the latent meaning of existing literature. In addition, meta-analysis provides the empirical building blocks for theory since results derived from such analyses indicate what needs to be explained by theory.

Although meta-analysis has been criticized for not directly generating theory (Guzzo, Jackson &mKatzell, 1987), the results of meta-analyses are indispensable for theory construction, keeping in mind that theory development is a creative process distinct from cumulating results across studies. Nevertheless, there is no reason that meta-analysis cannot deal with theory and explanation as well as with description. In fact, efforts sponsored by the Russell Sage Foundation’s meta-analysis project are designed to move meta-analytic techniques beyond the descriptive into the theory development domain (Russell Sage Foundation, 1991).

Leadership itself, has been accompanied throughout time, by numerous theories, all claiming to answer the question, Are leaders born or made? Those who accept the verdict, that leaders are born and not made, maintain, “… that there are certain inborn qualities such as initiative, courage, intelligence and humour, which altogether pre-destine a man to be a leader … the essential pattern is given at birth” (Adler, 1991, p. 4)

Two leadership theories which concentrate on this point, are the Great man/great woman and theTrait theories. The great man/great woman theory, accordingly to Wrightsman, involves its followers believing that major events, both nationally and internationally, are influenced by those persons in power. “A sudden act by a great man could, according to this theory, change the fate of the nation” (Wrightsman, 1977, p. 638) The trait theory expands further on this conjecture, by concentrating on the personal characteristics of the leader.

The theory, which until the mid-1940s formed the basis of most leadership research, cited traits believed to be characteristic of leaders, the list of which grew in length over the years, to include all manner of physical, personality and cognitive factors, including height, intelligence and communication skills. However, few traits emerged to conclusively differentiate leaders from non-leaders. The traits an individual has may, increase the probability that a person will become a leader, though whether such leadership is guaranteed, is uncertain.

Nevertheless, it can be seen to be true that some people are more likely than others to assume leadership positions. “The research on trait theories of leadership has shown that many other factors are important in determining leader success, and that not everyone who possesses these traits will be a leader” (Adler, 1991, p. 267) As interest in the trait approach to leadership declined, researchers focused their attention on the leader’s actions rather than their attributes, which led to the emergence of the behaviourist theories.

The most widely publicized exponent of this approach was Robert Blake and Jane Mouton’s Managerial Grid, which attempted to explain that there was one best style of leadership, by various combinations of two factors regarding a concern for production and people. Due to the disillusionment with the fore-mentioned trait theory, the situational approach suggested that the traits required of a leader differed, according to varying situations.

The situational approach, which predominated in the 1950s, held that whether a given person became a leader of a group, had nothing to do with his/her personality, but had everything to do with such factors as the flow of events and circumstances surrounding a group. To put it simply, the leader was a person who was in the right place at the right time. “Rather than a great man causing a great event to happen, the situational approach claims that great events are the product of historical forces that are gong to happen hether specific leaders are present or not ” (Adair, 1984, p. 8)

Unfortunately, this theory still didn’t answer, why one member of a group emerged as the leader, rather than another, or why one particular leader proved to be a better leader in some situations than another. The emergence of a related theory, the interactionist approach, attempted to explain the existing anomalies. The interactionist theory proposed that both the characteristics of the individual, and the situation in which the group found itself, accounted for whom would become the leader.

Resulting from this theory, was the view that leaders are both born and made, due to the leader requiring certain abilities and skill, but as the situation and the needs of the group changed, so to the person acceptable as leader changed. Developing such abilities and skills requires no position of authority but does require commitment to self, commitment to the organization and its employees, action, and thoughtful, on-going self-assessment. Such a program of personal development, ideally begun as a part of the formal education process, can assist significantly in learning how to influence others, up, down, and across the organization.

Thus, one can learn how to become what Cohen (1990) has called an “uncrowned leader,” a person who exerts influence over others but lacks positional authority. It takes many hours of research to provide a strong research paper however this essay touches only the surface. The functions of a Leader are many and varied. It’s hard to say the one theory is better than the other because as my research shows, it takes more than one approach to accomplish a task with overall proficiency. From upper management to the first line supervisor, each situation, each environment, and each group of people requires a different approach.

In some circumstances a leader is considered to be a leader only if he/she knows the organizational structure well and knows how to execute a plan. By reviewing the theories of the previously mentioned theories, the term leader doesn’t necessarily mean he/she is a leader. Therefore a leader can have more than one meaning and the theories of leadership may need to be more refined. However this essay focuses more on the standard process of identification of a leader and the theories that identify such. If a leader is trainable to understand that different approaches are needed for different situations, then a leader can succeed.

However if a born leader hasn’t had the exposure to an array of situations, then he/she will not be effective. It stands to reason regarding a leader is born is that a leader may be born but if that person isn’t exposed to an array to various situations and factors, then that born leader will become a failure. However I agree a leader may be born and a follower is a follower but a follower can influence other followers especially if that person has charisma such as wiser experience, cultured education, and mature personality.

So a leader may be born but a follower by my own experience I’ve seen followers who are leaders and assist leaders to perform their best. Therefore sometimes a leader and follower can complement each other thus strengthening the environment and or situation. Therefore my own observations show that there are ranks of leaders and ranks of followers. Each side of the line can have leadership. Theories are many but now that we have all these theories, it may appear that we need more research to better recognize the leaders not recognized by the standard approach.

Having a good personality is an important skill in life. It is not an easy feat to achieve but with these simple yet crucial steps, a good, well-meaning personality can be achieved by anyone. Take care of your appearance ; Manner of dressing ; Use of make-up and hairdo ; Language used ; poise. Think positive thoughts, both about yourself and others in general. The thoughts that we think soon turn into the words we say and the actions we take. Having good thoughts about yourself gives you self-confidence and self-respect, essential in any good person.

Never lose a chance to prove yourself. In our day to day life we came across several opportunities which could help our self in defining our personality. For example if you are in a conversation with a group or a individual you must talk in a way thou can prove others what you are really. And it does not matter if you say a line or a speech. The thing which will matter is the words of yours. Whether they were able to leave an impact on others or not.  Look for famous people whose personality defined them. Athletes, artists, actors and musicians are people who ace challenges in their careers everyday.

They have to have patience and perseverance in order to succeed. Many of them are humble in spite of their success and fame. These are life skills which is learned culminate in the creation of a good personality. Look deep inside yourself and think about who you are. Many people find themselves to be better by reflection.  Help wherever and whenever you can. A little sacrifice can go along way in changing another person’s day. Always be yourself. If you are following some famous personality, make sure that you never lose yourself.

It means that you have to stick to that behavior every time. Feel it in your blood.  Learn to love other people. Many bad personalities come about because people do not want to forgive each other and thus become filled with so much interpersonal hate that they hate other people. This makes them come off as bad and self-centered when all they lack is the insight to forgive and forget whatever may be the root of conflict between them.

Abstract

Business success may cause due to many factors, but the greatest determinant of the business success is the entrepreneur himself / herself. Therefore, the question of what makes a successful entrepreneur is very important. There have been many answers to this question. Some people think entrepreneurs are born, others that they are made. Some see entrepreneurs as passionate leaders with a vision that is totally focused on one objective, while others describe them as compulsive controller.

Some says entrepreneurs are risk takers while others say they are risk averse. All of these words may describe some entrepreneurs but they do not describe all successful entrepreneurs. There is no doubt that entrepreneur’s diploma’s, business knowledge and skills play an important role in business growth and success, but the personality of the entrepreneur is even more important. Recent researches in the field of psychology suggest that personality has a great deal to do with being a successful entrepreneur.

This paper highlights the personality traits and essential factors of personality determinant of a successful entrepreneur and how does an entrepreneur’s personality can influence a business. The paper also reviews some notable Indian entrepreneur’s and their entrepreneurial work for justification of the topic. Introduction: Why certain people successfully starting and growing a business and others are not? Is it just luck or being in the right place at the right time? Someone can say it is just luck while others can say it is timing. But it also involves other factors too.

Recent research in the field of psychology suggests that personality has a great deal to do with being a successful entrepreneur. This may raise many questions in one’s mind such as what is meant by personality? Can it be developed or is it inborn? Which aspects does it carry? Is it really necessary for an entrepreneur? Does it have any impact on the business growth? etc.

Personality Meaning

Many people mistake the meaning of personality. They take the physical appearance and various external characteristics of an individual as his or her personality. As they talk about a marvelous personality they may refer to the height, weight, stature and complexion. Well, if you think that it is just the appearance of the physique of a person that determines the personality, then it is time to have a rethink. It is true that physical appearance does matter. However, since most of them are beyond our power and control. Physical appearance is just 10% of the total personality of an individual and not having a long lasting impact on others. There are many other aspects that contribute greatly to one’s personality, which are 90% of the total personality.

These aspects involve character, behavior and attitude. Basically, personality development is the improvement of behavior, communication skills, interpersonal relationships, attitude towards life and ethics. Character can be considered the basic factor in determining an individual’s personality. It is the fact that all other factors behind a powerful personality will become useless if the person lacks a good character and behavior. Personality is like a building. Just a building can exist only when it has a strong foundation, a personality can impress others only when it has a formidable basis.

And the strong foundation is supplied by character and behavior. If personality is developed on the solid base of values and ethics, it will last forever. Fake smiles and mannerisms may attract others for a comparatively short period. However, they are short-lived and do not help in improving one’s personality. In order to pinpoint this exactly take a look to a simple example. A book with decorative cover page may attract a person’s attention towards it but after looking inner contents of that book a person can predict his opinion regarding it i. e. whether is it a nice book or not?

Here a decorative cover page does not carry a long lasting impact on that persons mind. Therefore, personality includes both factors i. e. physical appearance and formidable foundation of good behavior and character. Physical appearance is that personality which creates first impression in front of others that’s why it can be taken as the ‘primary or outer’ personality of an individual, while foundation is considered as ‘secondary or inner’ personality because it has second impact on others. It is not necessary that one should possess physical appearance because it is sometimes depends on the heredity factors of that person.

It is an inborn type of personality and sometimes depends on the luck factor too. If a person got good looks then it adds to his plus point. We should remember that a person’s height, weight and complexion are not in his hand but he can take care to keep himself neat and clean to impress others. Thus, working on primary personality is necessary but only putting concentration on it is not sufficient. The best personality is based on the solid foundation of character. Good behavior and co-operation makes a man popular. But this strong foundation is not an inborn quality of a person.

It can be developed from one’s childhood and has impact of family, family background, friends, working area, society, regions and experience etc. These factors also contribute in developing one’s character and behavior. Does it require Certain Personality Traits to be a Successful Entrepreneur? Business may succeed due to many factors, but the greatest determinant of the business’s success is the entrepreneur himself/herself. Every year thousands of people start a business with the hope of being a successful entrepreneur. But many more business either fails or discontinues and others transfer ownership or control.

Unfortunately only 20% of those businesses will survive long enough to celebrate their 5th anniversary and only 20% of those will survive long enough to celebrate their 10th anniversary. To save you doing the math, only 4% of all new businesses formed will survive at least 10 years. Therefore, for anyone who are starting a new business or already running a business the question of what makes a successful entrepreneur is very important. Because if business fails, it may not only cause for a loss with your personal savings and other assets, but it could give your ego a tremendous blow.

So that, before making an extraordinary investment of time, energy and money to start a business, an entrepreneur needs to engage himself in some personal soul-searching. He needs to develop some personality traits in himself so that he can successfully handle his business affairs. Without it the business can fail as quickly as it started. An entrepreneur is a business owner, a franchise owner, or CEO of the company. And entrepreneur’s duties include managing employees, acquiring resources, seeking venture capitalism, handling finances, planning, time management, human resources, and more.

Thus, being an entrepreneur requires special skills. There is no doubt that entrepreneur’s diploma’s, business knowledge and skills play an important role in business growth and success, but the personality of the entrepreneur is even more important. “How strongly does the businessman believe in himself and the success of his business? ” “How decisive can the entrepreneur be in changing threats into business opportunities? ” These are just a few of the situations that businessman must deal with, and not everyone can cope with these situations.

So people who start up and run business need to know their own pluses and minuses, strengths and weaknesses, because self-knowledge through self-analysis is very important. However, self–analysis demands an understanding of one’s own personality in relation to one’s behavior. There is no ‘ideal’ entrepreneurial personality- successful entrepreneurs can be analytical, creative, fearless, flexible and focused. However, psychologists and other business people describe that successful business entrepreneur; whether male or female have some common traits. Personality traits determines the behavior of an entrepreneur in certain ways i. . how he perceive situations, solve problems, interact with people and carry out the job responsibility.

Factors Determining Personality Of A Successful Entrepreneur

According to Webster’s dictionary, an entrepreneur is one who organizes, manages and assumes the risks of a business or enterprise. Entrepreneurs live in the future. They have creative personalities, are innovative, and succeed on change. Starting and growing own business requires many skills to be successful. The traits and characteristics of an entrepreneur’s personality can blend with the needs of the business.

If one better understand his/her business personality, then he/she can give a company the best part of them. An entrepreneur is determined by the following few outer personality factors, which are only 10% of his/her total personality:

• Physical Appearance: It’s having a 50/50 born/made ratio and includes sound health, endurance, living style etc.
• Good Health: An entrepreneur has to put in hard work. This requires tremendous physical stamina to work long hours for extended periods of time.
• Family Background: It’s an environmental factor and determines environmental heritage.
• Age and Education: It’s a functional matter .
• Work Experience: Most entrepreneurs first gain some work experience in the line of business and then start up.

In spite of the above outer personality an entrepreneur must have inner personality factors, which are the formidable basis of his/her personality and contributes 90% of his/her total personality. Thus, all successful entrepreneurs will have the following personality traits in common.

• Never stop learning and growing
• Self-confident
• Intelligence
• Respect to Others
• Motivating Others
• Communication Skills
• Looking for opportunities everywhere
• Seeking advice from qualified people
• Invests in their future
• Supports their own business
• Problem-solving skills
• Always desire to work hard
• Competitive and have attraction towards Challenges
• Strong management skills
• Willing to pay a price
• Sense of Urgency
• Comprehensive Awareness
• Conceptual Ability
• Emotional Stability
• Always developing people’s skills
• A blessing to their community
• Takes responsibility
• Realistic Outlook and Possess Long term thinking
• Objective Approach
• Set goals and works towards those goals
• Organisational skills
• Decision making skills
• Optimism (Live by the philosophy that this is the best of times and that anything is possible)
• Orientation to excellence (often desire to achieve something outstanding that they can be proud of. )
• Profit oriented
• Devotion towards his work
• Humanism

Never quit tendency This is the most concise collection of the characteristics of an entrepreneur and is truly the heartbeat of what characteristics are necessary to truly succeed as a business owner. These traits can be learnt through study, practice and experience. An Entrepreneurs Personality can really influence a Business: We are in a more entrepreneurial period than we were in before the Second World War.

With the close of the Second World War, a number of changes with far-flung effect on business world took place. Establishment of World Trade Organisation (WTO) obliged many countries to open up their boundaries and welcome industries, trade and service companies. This added complex dimensions to the intensity to competition. While these changes were taking place in organizational environment, customers attitude were also changed. Customers started demanding more value from the product and services that they bought in the market. Naturally customer satisfaction and delight become the goal to be achieved by organizations.

This emerges the need for developing entrepreneurial personality in business owners. Therefore today an entrepreneurship is more than the mere creation of business. An entrepreneur has to do more than just fight hard to win their market share. They must ‘live in the world of action’ and often ‘need thinking several steps ahead’. Entrepreneur’s sense of opportunity, their drive to innovate, and their capacity for accomplishment have become the standard by which an enterprise is now measured. The presence of entrepreneurs in an economy is a sign of economic growth.

Entrepreneurs with their personality traits will continue to be critical contributors to economic growth through their leadership, management, innovation, research and development effectiveness, job creation, competitiveness, productivity and formation of new industry.

Some Notable Indian Entrepreneurs and their Entrepreneurial Work

Dhirubhai Ambani

Born: December 28, 1932 Died: July 6, 2002.  Dhirubhai Ambani built India’s largest private sector company. Dhirubhai Ambani was the most enterprising Indian entrepreneur. His life journey is reminiscent of the rags to riches story.

He is remembered as the one who rewrote Indian corporate history and built a truly global corporate group. Dhirubhai Ambani alias Dhirajlal Hirachand Ambani was born on December 28, 1932, at Chorwad, Gujarat, into a Modh family. His father was a school teacher. Dhirubhai Ambani started his entrepreneurial career by selling “bhajias” to pilgrims in Mount Girnar over the weekends. After doing his matriculation at the age of 16, Dhirubhai moved to Aden, Yemen. He worked there as a gas-station attendant, and as a clerk in an oil company. He returned to India in 1958 with Rs 50,000 and set up a textile trading company.

Assisted by his two sons, Mukesh and Anil, Dhiru Bhai Ambani built India’s argest private sector company, Reliance India Limited, from a scratch. Over time his business has diversified into a core specialisation in petrochemicals with additional interests in elecommunications, information technology, energy, power, retail, textiles, infrastructure services, capital markets, and logistics. Dhirubhai Ambani is credited with shaping India’s equity culture, attracting millions of retail investors in a market till then dominated by financial institutions. Dhirubhai revolutionised capital markets.

From nothing, he generated billions of rupees in wealth for those who put their trust in his companies. His efforts helped create an ‘equity cult’ in the Indian capital market. With innovative instruments like the convertible debenture, Reliance quickly became a favorite of the stock market in the 1980’s. In 1992, Reliance became the first Indian company to raise money in global markets, its high credit taking in international markets limited only by India’s sovereign rating. Reliance also became the first Indian company to feature in Forbes 500 list.

The Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI) named Dhirubhai Ambani the Indian Entrepreneur of the 20th Century. A poll conducted by The Times of India in 2000 voted him “greatest creator of wealth in the century”.

Ekta Kapoor

Born: June 7, 1975 . Creative Director of Balaji Telefilms. Ekta Kapoor can be aptly called as the reigning queen of Indian television industry. The serials produced by her company Balaji Telefilms are a great hit with the masses and are dominating all the major T. V. channels in India. Born on June 7, 1975, Ekta Kapoor is daughter of former Bollywood uperstar Jeetendra and sister of current Bollywood hero Tusshar Kapoor. Ekta Kapoor did her schooling from Bombay Scottish School and later on joined Mithibai College. She was not interested in academics and on the advice of her father ventured into TV-serial production at the age of 19. And soon she changed the face of Indian television industry and completely dominated it. Today, Ekta Kapoor is the creative director of Balaji Telefilms. Her company has produced more than 25 serials and each one is being shown, on an average, four times a week on different television channels. Ekta Kapoor’s serials have captured the imagination of masses.

She has broken all previous records of TV serial production and popularity in India. Her most famous television venture has been “Kyunki Saas Bhi Kabhi Bahu Thi” which began in 2000 and has leaded the TRP ratings in India. Her other famous serials include “Kahaani Ghar Ghar Ki”, “Kahiin To Hoga”, “Kavyanjali”, “Kyaa Hoga Nimmo Kaa”, “Kasamh Se”, “Kahin Kisii Roz”, “Kasautii Zindagi Kay”, “Kkusum”, “Kutumb”, “Kalash”, “Kundali”, “Bandini”, “Kitni Mohabat Hai”. For her entrepreneurial skills and achievements Ekta Kapoor was awarded with Ernst & Young (E&Y) Startup Entrepreneur of the Year award in 2001. Conclusions: Today an entrepreneurship is more than the mere creation of business. An entrepreneur has to do more than just fight hard to win their market share. This emerges the need for developing entrepreneurial personality in business owners.  An entrepreneurs personality includes two factors:  Outer Personality Factors i. e. Physical Appearance, Work Experience, Family Background, Age and Education, Good Health etc.  Inner Personality Factors i. e. Personality Traits Personality traits can be learnt through study and practice, they are the formidable basis for building inner personality of an entrepreneur.

While physical appearances, age, education, work experience are environmental factors, which are just outer part of an entrepreneur’s personality.  It is not necessary that one should possess physical appearance, family background, age, education and work experience but he should possess the personality traits to tackle business operations successfully, because an entrepreneur is not determined by age, gender, race, religion, intelligence or education but successful entrepreneur do have some common personality traits. Personality traits determines the behavior of an entrepreneur in certain ways i. e. how he perceive situations, solve problems, interact with people and carry out the job responsibility.  Entrepreneurs with their personality traits will continue to be critical contributors to economic growth through their leadership, management, innovation, research and development effectiveness, job creation, competitiveness, productivity and formation of new industry.

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9. Dhirubhai Ambani Biography http://www. iloveindia. com/indian-heroes/dhirubhai-ambani. html
10. Ekta Kapoor http://www. iloveindia. com/indian-heroes/ekta-kapoor. html

Biological and Humanistic Approaches to Personality PSY250 As research into personality progressed, scientists began to look beyond psychoanalysis and trait theories for other explanations into how personality develops. They started to look at the biological factors that influence personality formation (Hans Eysenck, Jeffrey Gray, Sir Francis Galton (genetic study of twins)), the effect of growth needs on personality formation (Abraham Maslow), and the basic aspects of the humanistic personality theory and how it compares to the biological explanation of personality formation (Eric Fromm, Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow).

These topics will be considered in more detail in the following discussion. Although environment plays a part in personality, genes also make significant contributions. Some genetic disorders, such as Angelman or Williams syndrome are characterized by excessive happiness and friendliness. Biological aspects of a person’s temperament, such as introversion/extroversion, actively, and impulsively, also help shape the personality. Studies of identical twins have shown that twins separated at birth and raised in different environments still share many personality traits.

Therefore, we are not simply blank slates totally influenced by what our environment writes on us. Responses to certain environmental stimuli seem to be hard-wired into our nervous system and endocrine systems. Electroencephalograms (EEG) have shown that, at a very basic level, extroverts show less arousal to stimulation then introverts do. Hans Eysenck theorized that because of this low level of arousal, extroverts seek out stimulating circumstances while introverts, who may be receiving too much stimulation from the environment, try to “get away from it all” by shying away from stimulating environments.

Differences in activation of the brain’s hemispheres may also effect personality formation. Greater activation of the right hemisphere, which is believed to have a role in negative emotions, may cause over reaction to negative stimuli. On the other hand, higher activation of the left hemisphere, thought to play a role in positive emotions, could result in more powerful reactions to positive stimuli. Jeffrey Gray proposed the idea that our nervous systems may be responsible for influencing whether we are more motivated by punishment or reward.

Disruption in the function of neurotransmitters like dopamine and serotonin can also effect personality. Will Sheldon expanded on Ernest Kretschmer’s ideas that body type might be connected to certain mental disorders and applied them to the general population. Sheldon developed three body types and associated personality characteristics: mesomorphs – muscular, large-boned; athletic, ectomorphs – slender; studious, and endomorphs – roly-poly; good-natured. Sheldon’s ideas were too simplistic, but it might be possible that certain biological factors could affect both personality and body type.

Social influences may affect body type, which may in turn affect how others react. Both aspects can influence personality development. “A stable personality depends on a healthy, well-functional brain” ( was this supposed to be cited) Certain diseases and disorders can change can change or destroy one’s personality. Strokes damage part of the brain and can cause a dramatic change in personality. Pick’s disease also causes deterioration of the brain. It may cause a marked change in in a person’s beliefs or preferences.

Alzheimer’s disease, as the disease becomes advanced, seems to result in total loss of personality. Postpartum depression is triggered by a biological process. Severe, untreated symptoms may include hallucinations, delusions, and persistent disturbing thoughts of suicide, being possessed, or harming the infant. Environmental toxins, such as mercury, and both legal and illegal drugs, including Valium, Prozac, cocaine, and herion, can result in biological changes to the body that may temporarily or permanently alter personality.

The following concepts are explained by definition and I have provided examples of each as they apply to the developmental behavioral approach. The first one I will discuss Is Negative Reinforcement, This Is the strengthening of a behavior by the removal of an unpleasant consequence. An example of this might be a toddler having a tantrum every time you take his pacifier away, but then as soon as he gets it jack the tantrum stops.

So by giving It back to him the behavior was negatively reinforced by the tantrum stopping and us, giving it back to him every time he cries. There are several other concepts that will be discussed next. Intrinsic Reinforcement: Feelings of pleasure and personal satisfaction derived from working on accomplishing a task, discovering something new, or seeing a problem. An example of this is, a child learning to write may get frustrated if they can’t get it down Immediately. With a little encouragement and praising the child will continue to try ND not give up.

Positive Reinforcement: Something that follows a response and results in the increase of that particular response. A pleasant consequence. Examples are, helping a child achieve balance when learning to ride a bike, sitting next to the child when they are working hard on an art project, asking questions, nodding and thumbs up on a good Job. Natural and Logical Consequence: Natural consequence would occur without a parent’s or teacher’s intervention. Logical consequence is determined by an adult that is related to the child’s original inappropriate behavior.

Examples of these are, a child refusing to take a nap so that they can stay up late to watch their favorite show, consequence Is they child falls asleep early and misses their show. Another example is a child purposely coloring on the table when told not to do that the consequence might be that the child will have to clean that table as well as the other tables. Withdrawing or Withholding Reinforcement: Taking away something special. A child being told several times to share the blocks or they may not play with them.

The child continues to be mean so he consequence Is that the blocks get taken away. Incompatible Behavior: an inappropriate and an appropriate behavior can’t take place at the same time. A child listening to a story and another child shouts out. The two things can not be done at the same time by the same child t n the Child being Good’ Respond positively and reinforce the good behavior. If a child is playing in housekeeping and they are sharing nicely when they normally would not. The child should be praised for doing such a good Job sharing.

Reminders, Redirection, Reprimands: A gentle reminder o not do something usually works if it doesn’t then a very stern “NO” at eye level may be needed, followed by a brief explanation. If the child still insists on doing it then they may need to be removed from the situation briefly. The sand box is a good example. The child throwing sand after being reminded not to several times might need to sit briefly why throwing sand is not the right thing to do. This brings me to my last few examples. Sit and Watch and Time Out: Sit and watch is a mild time out for children who have a hard time understanding expectations.

It meaner the child sits out for a min or two to watch the other children playing appropriately. Time out is an extreme reinforcement it includes removing the teachers attention, other children, materials and equipment. It should be used as a last resort. An example of this is children spitting or biting, they are told that their teeth are not for biting, if they do it again they need to be removed to think about it. They should sit for no more then 1 min for every year of age. If it continues a one on one might be needed to help the child lean about his behavior.

Advanced Counselling Skills Level 4 Assignment 0ne 1. Briefly describe Analytic Psychology www. jungclub-london. org C. G. Jung Analytical Psychology Club London. “Who looks outside, dreams, who looks inside, awakens,” The term ‘psychoanalyst’ is currently used to cover all those facts and theories presented in the works of Freud, Jung, and Adler. However it is often recommended that it should be applied only to the theory and practice of Freud and his disciples, and that the theory and practice of Jung should be designated ‘Analytical Psychology’, and that the theory and practice of Adler should be designated ‘Individual Psychology’.

Psychoanalysis’ in this broader sense covers both a set of theories and a set of practices. Analytic psychology is the analysis of the human mind, psyche and the unconscious, as well as the conscious components of the mind. It is thought that man’s behaviour and his conscious states can be explained only by unconscious sources of motivation. What is common in the practice of the psychoanalytic schools is the use of special techniques for bringing these unconscious factors into light. The practice of psychoanalysis has grown out of the treatment of mental illness.

In one sense, the practice of psychoanalysis is prior to the theories, since the theories first were developed from experiences from therapeutic practice. These theories have, however, been extended and enriched by material derived from other sources. Jung believed that the mind could be divided into unconscious and conscious parts. He felt that the unconscious mind was made up of layers. The personal unconscious is the part of the unconscious mind in which is stored each person’s unique personal experiences and memories that may not be consciously remembered.

Jung believed that the contents of each person’s personal unconscious are organized in terms of complexes – clusters of emotional unconscious thoughts. One may have a complex towards their mother or towards their partner. Jung referred to the second layer of unconsciousness as the collective unconscious. This level contains memories and behavioural predisposition’s that all people have inherited from common ancestors in the distant human past, providing us with essentially shared memories and tendencies.

People across space and time tend to interpret and use experience in similar ways because of “archetypes” – universal, inherited to perceive and act in certain ways. During analytic therapy, Jung may use certain archetypes to explain person’s unconscious thoughts that in turn affect their outward behaviour. He believed that there are certain archetypes that are important in people’s lives. These archetypes are as follows. The persona archetype is the part of our personality that we show the world, the part that we are willing to share with others.

The shadow archetype is the darker part of a person, the part that embraces what we view as frightening, hateful and even evil about ourselves – the part of us that we hide not only from others but also from ourselves. The anima is the feminine side of a mans personality, which shows tenderness, caring, compassion and warmth to others, yet which is more irrational and based on emotions. The animus is the masculine side of a woman’s personality, the more rational and logical side of the woman.

Jung posited that men often try to hide their anima both from others and from themselves because it goes against their idealized image of what men should be. According to Jung, archetypes play a role in our interpersonal relationships. For example, the relationship between a man and a woman calls into play the archetypes in each individual’s collective unconscious. The anima helps the man to understand his female companion, just as the animus helps the woman to understand her male partners.

Jung felt that the “self” – the whole of the personality, including both conscious and unconscious elements – strives for unity among the opposing parts of the personality. Jung distinguishes two differing attitudes to life, two ways of reacting to circumstances, which he finds so widespread that he could describe them as typical. The extraverted attitude, characterized by an outward personality, an interest in events, in people and things, a relationship with them, and a dependence on them. This type is motivated by outside factors and greatly influenced by the environment.

The extraverted type is sociable and confident in unfamiliar surroundings. He or she is generally on good terms with the world, and even when disagreeing with it can still be described as related to it, for instead of withdrawing (as the opposite type tends to do) they prefer to argue and quarrel, or try to reshape it according to their own pattern. The introverted attitude, in contrast, is one of withdrawal of the personality and is concentrated upon personal factors, and their main influence is ‘inner needs’. When this attitude is habitual Jung speaks of an ‘introverted type’.

This type lacks confidence in relation to people and things, tends to be unsociable, and prefers reflection to activity. Jung uses the term Analytical Psychology to describe his own approach, which is not only a way of healing, but also of developing the personality through the individuation process. Since individuation is not the goal of all who seek psychological help he varies his treatment according to the age, state of development, and temperament of his patients ‘ and does not neglect either the sexual urge or the will to power. 2. What were the life stages identified by Freud: ww. wikipedia. org/wiki/Sigmund_Freud “At that time, the eel life cycle was unknown and Freud spent four weeks at the which he frequently demonstrated with patients on stage in front of an audience” Famed originator of psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud created a psychosexual model of human development based upon the erogenous zones of the body. He believed that as these zones matured neurologically, they activated the emotional world of the child (largely resident in the unconscious), and in the course of doing so, created the basis for later emotional health or mental illness in adulthood.

The stages are as follows: Oral Stage of Psychosexual Development (ages 0-18 months) – At this stage, the infant is focused upon getting pleasure from its mouth, especially through breastfeeding, which may be a source of satisfaction or frustration for the baby. Anal Stage of Psychosexual Development (18 months – 3 1/2 years) – At this stage, the young child is fixated upon its own process of eliminating faeces, experiencing pleasure in the anal regions of the body, and reacting emotionally to attempts by parents or other caregivers to control this physical function through toilet training.

Phallic Stage of Psychosexual Development (3 1/2 years – 6 years) – At this stage, the penis or vagina is the source of erotic satisfaction for the child, and he or she fantasizes about getting pelvic pleasure with the opposite sex parent and aggressively doing away with the same sex parent (the Oedipal Crisis). Latency Stage of Psychosexual Development (6 years – puberty) – At this stage, the emotional surges of the previous three stages go into hiding for a few years as the child learns how to repress, project, introject, sublimate, and in other ways channel the psychosexual energies of their earlier development.

Of Psychosexual Development (puberty – adulthood) – At this stage, the psychosexual instincts of the first three stages of development reassert themselves at puberty, but instead of being directed toward fantasy or the child’s own body, are directed Genital Stage outward toward a genuine love relationship focused on heterosexual genital sex. The conscious mind includes everything that we are aware of. This is the aspect of our mental processing that we can think and talk about rationally.

A part of this includes our memory, which is not always part of consciousness but can be retrieved easily at any time and brought into our awareness. Freud called this ordinary memory the preconscious. In Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality, the conscious mind includes everything that is inside of our awareness. This is the aspect of our mental processing that we can think and talk about in a rational way. The conscious mind includes such things as the sensations, perceptions, memories, feeling and fantasies inside of our current awareness.

Closely allied with the conscious mind is the preconscious, which includes the things that we are not thinking of at the moment but which we can easily draw into conscious awareness the unconscious mind is a reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories that outside of our conscious awareness. Most of the contents of the unconscious are unacceptable or unpleasant, such as feelings of pain, anxiety, or conflict. According to Freud, the unconscious continues to influence our behavior and experience, even though we are unaware of these underlying influences.

In Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality, the unconscious mind is a reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories that outside of our conscious awareness. Most of the contents of the unconscious are unacceptable or unpleasant, such as feelings of pain, anxiety, or conflict. According to Freud, the unconscious continues to influence our behaviour and experience, even though we are unaware of these underlying influences. The id is the only component of personality that is present from birth.

This aspect of personality is entirely unconscious and includes of the instinctive and primitive behaviours. According to Freud, the id is the source of all psychic energy, making it the primary component of personality. The id is driven by the pleasure principle, which strives for immediate gratification of all desires, wants, and needs. If these needs are not satisfied immediately, the result is a state anxiety or tension. For example, an increase in hunger or thirst should produce an immediate attempt to eat or drink.

The id is very important early in life, because it ensures that an infant’s needs are met. If the infant is hungry or uncomfortable, he or she will cry until the demands of the id are met. However, immediately satisfying these needs is not always realistic or even possible. If we were ruled entirely by the pleasure principle, we might find ourselves grabbing things we want out of other people’s hands to satisfy our own cravings. This sort of behaviour would be both disruptive and socially unacceptable.

According to Freud, the id tries to resolve the tension created by the pleasure principle through the primary process, which involves forming a mental image of the desired object as a way of satisfying the need. The ego is the component of personality that is responsible for dealing with reality. According to Freud, the ego develops from the id and ensures that the impulses of the id can be expressed in a manner acceptable in the real world. The ego functions in the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious mind.

The ego operates based on the reality principle, which strives to satisfy the id’s desires in realistic and socially appropriate ways. The reality principle weighs the costs and benefits of an action before deciding to act upon or abandon impulses. In many cases, the id’s impulses can be satisfied through a process of delayed gratification–the ego will eventually allow the behaviour, but only in the appropriate time and place. The ego also discharges tension created by unmet impulses through the secondary process, in which the ego tries to find an object in the real world that matches the mental image created by the id’s primary process.

The last component of personality to develop is the superego. The superego is the aspect of personality that holds all of our internalised moral standards and ideals that we acquire from both parents and society–our sense of right and wrong. The superego provides guidelines for making judgments. According to Freud, the superego begins to emerge at around age five. There are two parts of the superego: The ego ideal includes the rules and standards for good behaviours. These behaviours include those, which are approved of by parental and other authority figures.

Obeying these rules leads to feelings of pride, value and accomplishment. The conscience includes information about things that are viewed as bad by parents and society. These behaviours are often forbidden and lead to bad consequences, punishments or feelings of guilt and remorse. The superego acts to perfect and civilize our behaviour. It works to suppress all unacceptable urges of the id and struggles to make the ego act upon idealistic standards rather that upon realistic principles. The superego is present in the conscious, preconscious and unconscious.

With so many competing forces, it is easy to see how conflict might arise between the id, ego and superego. Freud used the term ego strength to refer to the ego’s ability to function despite these duelling forces. A person with good ego strength is able to effectively manage these pressures, while those with too much or too little ego strength can become too unyielding or too disrupting. According to Freud, the key to a healthy personality is a balance between the id, the ego, and the superego. The term got its start in psychoanalytic therapy, but it has slowly worked its way into everyday language.

Think of the last time you referred to someone as being “in denial” or accused someone of “rationalizing. ” Both of these examples refer to a type of defense mechanism. In Sigmund Freud’s topographical model of personality, the ego is the aspect of personality that deals with reality. While doing this, the ego also has to cope with the conflicting demands of the id and the superego. The id seeks to fulfill all wants, needs and impulses while the superego tries to get the ego to actin an idealistic and moral manner.

What happens when the ego cannot deal with the demands of our desires, the constraints of reality and our own moral standards? According to Freud, anxiety is an unpleasant inner state that people seek to avoid. Anxiety acts as a signal to the ego that things are not going right. Frued identified three types of anxiety:Neurotic anxiety is the unconscious worry that we will lose control of the id’s urges, resulting in punishment for inappropriate behavior. Reality anxiety is fear of real-world events. The cause of this anxiety is usually easily identified.

For example, a person might fear receiving a dog bite when they are near a menacing dog. The most common way of reducing this anxiety is to avoid the threatening object. Moral anxiety involves a fear of violating our own moral principles. In order to deal with this anxiety, Freud believed that defense mechanisms helped shield the ego from the conflicts created by the id, superego and reality. 3. what factors determine a person’s behaviour according to watson: “Behaviourism … holds that the subject matter of human psychology is the behaviour of the human being.

Behaviourism claims that consciousness is neither a definite nor a usable concept. The behaviourist … holds, further, that belief in the existence of consciousness goes back to the ancient days of superstition and magic…. The great mass of people even today has not yet progressed very far away from savagery – it wants to believe in magic…. Almost every era has its new magic, black or white, and its new magician. Moses had his magic: he smote the rock and water gushed out. Christ had his magic: he turned water into wine and raised the dead to life…. Behavioral psychology, also known as behaviorism, is a theory of learning based upon the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning. Conditioning occurs through interaction with the environment. According to behaviorism, behavior can be studied in asystematic and observable manner with no consideration of internal mental states. There are two major types of conditioning:Classical conditioning is a technique used in behavioral training in which a naturally occurring stimulus is paired with a response. Next, a previously neutral stimulus is paired with the naturally occurring stimulus.

Eventually, the previously neutral stimulus comes to evoke the response without the presence of the naturally occurring stimulus. The two elements are then known as the conditioned stimulus and the conditioned response. Operant conditioning Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning) is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior. Behaviourism holds that only observable behaviours should be studied, as cognition and mood are too subjective.

According to behaviourist theory, our responses to environmental stimuli shape our behaviours. Important concepts such as classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and reinforcement have arisen from behaviourism. In operant conditioning, the learner is also rewarded with incentives, while classical conditioning involves no such enticements. Also remember that classical conditioning is passive on the part of the learner, while operant conditioning requires the learner to actively participate and perform some type of action in order to be rewarded or punished. . list 6 examples of metaneeds and metapathologies: www. oaks. nvg. org/abraham-maslow. html “Metaneeds and metapathologies. Another way that Maslow approaches the problem of self-actualization is to talk about special, driving needs” The basic psychological needs are the instinctive needs for the self-respect and self-esteem which provide the conditions for psychological growth and full personality development. The most urgent or ‘prepotent’ is the need for freedom from fear and anxiety i. . the need for safety or ‘security’. Security needs which includes the need to strive for  perfection or ‘ideals’ is communicated through loving care and affection of ‘unconditional love’ i. e. the need for ‘belongingness’. The sense of belongingness is the basis for approval of one’s identity and expectations for oneself – faith in oneself as ‘self-respect’ or ‘self-esteem’ i. e. the ‘ego needs’. Gratification of ego needs establishes a natural condition of self-identity or ‘healthy ego’.

The healthy ego involves a high evaluation of the self based on faith in one’s potentialities, recognition and appreciation of one’s personal achievements, competence and confidence in the sense of importance of one’s status. This basic sense of worthiness leads to the sense of purpose – ‘self-directedness’ or ‘self-discipline’ – which is prerequisite to ‘spiritual growth’ of complete ‘personality development’ of maturity i. e. ‘self-actualisation. Self-actualisation is mature growth which involves the harmonising of psychic forces i. . ‘growth motivation’. Metaneeds are human motivations for spiritual growth of the human organism as a social organism… subconscious needs for awareness of human values for living: ‘social values’ or ‘human values’ Metaneeds are instinctive needs of the human organism as a social organism which depends for survival on human solidarity and social cooperation. Metaneeds are the survival needs of creative  socialisation – the higher psychological needs for personality integration.

The metaneeds are the so-called ‘higher spiritual needs’ – the ‘Being needs’ (‘B-needs’) for self-transcendence – the needs for truth, morality, goodness, beauty, perfection, justice, kindness, happiness, serenity, wisdom, love simplicity, lawfulness, and ego-transcendance etc. The metaneeds are equally urgent or ‘potent’ and each can be defined in terms of the others. In the process of normal psychological growth the subconscious B-needs rise to the conscious level of awareness as the human values for living – the ‘social values’ i. e. ‘Being-values’ or ‘B-values’ i. e. ‘human values’.

In the transcendental realm, the being needs become the ‘being-values’. They are just as biologically based as are the so-called ‘lower needs’ – the  obviously physiological needs of hunger and thirst. The transcendant, religious, esthetic, and philosophical facets of life are as real and intrinsic to human nature as any other biological needs. Each of the human values represents a different facet of the development of ‘moral conciousness’ or ‘conscience’. As the source of human values the functions to maintain the integration of personality while adapting to changes in the socal environment.

Development of conscience depends on gratification of metaneeds in a process of ‘spiritual growth’. Psychologist Abraham Maslow (1954) stated that human motivation is based on people seeking fulfilment and change through personal growth. Maslow described self-actualized people as those who were fulfilled and doing all they were capable of. By studying people he considered to be self-actualised (including Abraham Lincoln, Albert Einstein and William James). Maslow identified 15 characteristics of a self-actualised person (illustrated as a pyramide).

For example: enjoyment of new experiences, sense of humour, close friendships, creativity etc. It is not necessary to display all 15 characteristics to become self-actualised, and not only self-actualised people will display them. Maslow did not equate self-actualisation with perfection. Self-actualisation merely involves achieving ones potential. Thus someone can be silly, wasteful, vain and impolite, and still self-actualise. Less than one percent of the population achieve self-actualisation. The hierarchy of needs include: Biological and Physiological needs – air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep, etc.

Safety needs – protection from elements, security, order, law, limits, stability, etc. Belongingness and Love needs – work group, family, affection, relationships, etc. Esteem needs – self-esteem, achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige, managerial responsibility, etc. Self-Actualisation needs – realising personal potential, self-fulfilment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences. 5. Describe the theories of Carl Rogers. How do you think his work is relevant to the counselling you will undertake with your clients? www. simplypsychology. org/carl-rogers. tml “Carl Rogers believed that humans have one basic motive, that is the tendency to … Central to Rogers’ personality theory is the notion of self or Self-Concept” Theory of Personality Development Rogers’ therapy was an extension of his theory of personality development and was known as client-centred therapy, since the basis of the therapy was designed around the client. According to Rogers each person has within them the inherent tendency to continue to grow and develop. As a result of this the individual’s self-esteem and self-actualisation is continually influenced.

This development can only be achieved through what Rogers refers to as “unconditional positive regard. In order for an individual to experience total self-actualisation the therapist must express complete acceptance of the patient. Roger’s found that this was best achieved through the method of “reflection”, in which the therapist continually restates what the “patient” has said in an attempt to show complete acceptance and to allow the patient to recognize any negative feelings that they may be feeling. Throughout the counselling session the therapist may make small interruptive remarks in order to help identify certain factors.

For the most part the “patient” is allowed to direct the course of the session. Rogers began to use the expression “client” instead of “patient” due to the fact that the individuals that he was counselling did need help but not within the same regard that a medically ill person does. These individuals do not need to completely surrender themselves to a medical expert although they do need help. Today throughout the field of psychology it is a worldwide practice to address the individual as a client instead of a patient.

Eventually throughout its development Rogers theory began to be known as “people-centred” due to its expansion beyond psychotherapy to such areas as education, marriage, leadership, parent-child relationships, and the development of professional standards. Within each branch that Rogers theory expanded to there were several basic elements that were applied to each. They were as follows: The individual comes for help. This is the most significant step within the steps of therapy. The individual has taken it upon himself to take the first step for help even if he does not recognize this as the reason he’s there.

The helping situation is defined. The client is made aware that the counsellor does not have the answers, but that with assistance he can, work out his own solutions to his problems. . The counsellor encourages free expression of feelings in regard to the problem. The counsellor provides the client with a friendly, interested, and receptive attitude, which helps to bring about free expression. The counsellor accepts, recognizes, and clarifies negative feelings. Whatever the negative feelings are the counsellor must say and do things, which helps the client recognize the negative feelings at hand.

When the individual’s negative feelings have been expressed they are followed by expressions of positive impulses, which make for growth. The counsellor accepts and recognizes the positive feelings in the same manner as the negative feelings. There is insight, understanding of the self, and acceptance of the self along with possible courses of actions. This is the next important aspect because it allows for new levels. Then comes the step of positive action along with the decreasing the need for help. When I am counselling I would use the following teniques: Active listening as a listener I would show much interest.

As the listener I would reflect back to the client and only speak to find out if what they said has been correctly heard and understood. I would watch my Body language and take into account my facial expressions, angle of my body, proximity of myself to another, placement of arms and legs. I need to monitor the tone of your voice – in the same way that I monitor my body language. I believe that Carl Rogers core conditions I would use such as Empathic understanding I feel this is important when counselling to make sure the client are simply understood – not evaluated, not judged, simply understood from their own point of view.

As the facilitator I am real person, being what I say I am, entering into a relationship with the client without presenting a front or a facade, the client is much more likely to be effective. Being real and genuine. This means that feelings that the client is experiencing are available, available to their awareness that I am able to live these feelings, be them, and able to communicate if appropriate. It means coming into a direct personal encounter with the client, meeting the client on a person-to-person basis.

Like Carl Rogers I believe that client – centred therapy is for me because it is a non-directive approach is very appealing on the face of it to many clients, because they get to keep control over the content and pace of the therapy. It is intended to serve them, after all. The therapist isn’t evaluating them in any way or trying to “figure them out”. 6. How is attachment theory relevant to counselling? Briefly describe the strange situation test and its importance in attachment theory: www. wikipedia. rg/wiki/Attachment_theory “Attachment theory describes the dynamics of long-term relationships between humans. Its most important tenet is that an infant needs to develop a relationship” The relationship between a counselor and client is the feelings and attitudes that a client and therapist have towards one another, and the manner in which those feelings and attitudes are expressedThe relationship may be thought of in three parts: transference/countertransference, working alliance, and the real- or personal-relationship.

Another theory about the function of the counseling relationship is known as the secure-base hypothesis, which is related to attachment theory. This hypothesis proposes that the counselor acts as a secure-base from which clients can explore and then check in with. Secure attachment to one’s counselor and secure attachment in general have been found to be related to client exploration. Insecure attachment styles have been found to be related to less session depth than securely attached clients. The professional boundary defines the extent and limitations of the relationship with your client.

It preserves your client’s confidentiality and creates a ‘safe space’ for your client to reveal and explore personal issues. Boundaries are signified by the temporal and spatial routines of the counseling process: regular appointment times, consistent length of sessions and a dedicated counseling room. Attachment theory describes the dynamics of long-term relationships between humans. Its most important tenet is that an infant needs to develop a relationship with at least one primary caregiver for social and emotional development to occur normally.

Attachment theory is an interdisciplinary study encompassing the fields of psychological, evolutionary, and ethological theory. Immediately after WWII, homeless and orphaned children presented many difficulties, and psychiatrist and psychoanalyst John Bowlby was asked by the UN to write a pamphlet on the matter. Later he went on to formulate attachment theory. Infants become attached to adults who are sensitive and responsive in social interactions with them, and who remain as consistent caregivers for some months during the period from about six months to two years of age.

When an infant begins to crawl and walk they begin to use attachment figures (familiar people) as a secure base to explore from and return to. Parental responses lead to the development of patterns of attachment; these, in turn, lead to internal working models which will guide the individual’s perceptions, emotions, thoughts and expectations in later relationships. Separation anxiety or grief following the loss of an attachment figure is considered to be a normal and adaptive response for an attached infant. These behaviours may have evolved because they increase the probability of survival of the child.