Personality

All around the world today, personality is discussed. Personality reflects who a person really is on the inside. One can determine a person’s personality through expressions. Whether one is meeting a person for the first time or on a job interview, personality is what’s often identified. People are unique in their own ways, which would explain how individuals obtain different personalities. This paper will define personality and address some key personality features that define the author.

The paper will also include key concepts used to explain the author’s personality, the consistency of the author’s personality features, and the reaction to the personality analysis taken by the author. Lastly, the paper will identify what would make a personality test reliable and valid. There are various definitions for the word personality however, according to Dictionary. com (2011); Personality is the visible aspect of one’s character as it impresses others. The author defines personality as being uniquely you.

Some individuals are known for their pleasing personalities; however others may deal with angry- rude personalities. Some key personality features that define the author are Leader, Motivator/ Encourager, and Enthusiast. All of the author’s life, she has been told by many that she was a leader. As the author grew older, she realized that those statements were true. For this reason, the author takes the initiative to perform many tasks; even the tasks no one else would do. As a result, others have admired and followed her phenomenal leadership. The next personality feature of the author is the Motivator/ Encourager.

The author motivates herself by setting short and long term goals; in addition to motivating others to do the same in order to achieve goals. The author also encourages herself and others. The author is compelled to give advice to others, and likes to share with individuals what to do with truth while being open minded. The author has a strong sense of concern for others. Many people find the author to be friendly, understanding, and practical. The author uses her excellent communication skills to share specific insights based upon facts and experience.

The Enthusiast also defines the author personality. The author is very enthusiastic and has a strong willingness to work with others. The author’s personality features are consistent. The Leader, Motivator/ Encourager, and Enthusiast are features that make the author who she is today. Adapting to every situation and bringing the good out of every bad situation. The author has taken a personality test curious as to what her personality features were. The author was in awe as she identified the results of the analysis. The analysis was accurate and informed the author of the description of each feature.

The author plans to retake the same personality test in the upcoming year to ensure the test was reliable and valid. A personality test is reliable if the test and scores are accurate each time. For example, the author took the first half of the personality test and identified her features. Likewise she took the second part of the test and the features did not change. According to Friedman and Schustack (2009), this is termed Internal Consistency Reliability. Internal Consistency Reliability is the degree of consistency measured by seeing whether subparts or equivalent parts of a test yield the same results (Friedman & Schustack, 2009).

In addition to Internal Consistency Reliability, Test retest is another notion that makes a personality test reliable. Test retest is the degree of consistency between the results of the same test taken on different occasions (Friedman & Schustack, 2009). For example, next year the author plans to retake the personality test, therefore the results should be consistent. When internal consistency reliability and test–retest reliability are high, we know we are measuring something real—we have a reliable personality test (Friedman & Schustack, 2009).

Equally important, Personality tests are considered valid if the test is measuring what it is supposed to be measuring (Friedman & Schustack, 2009). In conclusion, all individuals have different personalities. The importance of knowing that there are various personalities is significant, especially when interacting with others from a different culture. For this purpose, individuals should take personality tests to exercise and enjoy who they truly are and have a better understanding of why people act the way they do.

The Kolb Learning Style Inventory—Version 3. 1 2005 Technical Speci? cations Alice Y. Kolb Experience Based Learning Systems, Inc. David A. Kolb Case Western Reserve University May 15, 2005 Abstract The Kolb Learning Style Inventory Version 3. 1 (KLSI 3. 1), revised in 2005, is the latest revision of the original Learning Style Inventory developed by David A. Kolb. Like its predecessors, KLSI 3. 1 is based on experiential learning theory (Kolb 1984) and is designed to help individuals identify the way they learn from experience.

This revision includes new norms that are based on a larger, more diverse, and more representative sample of 6977 LSI users. The format, items, scoring and interpretative booklet remain identical with KLSI 3. The technical speci? cations are designed to adhere to the standards for educational and psychological testing developed by the American Educational Research Association, the American Psychological Association, and the National Council on Measurement in Education (1999). Section 1 of the technical speci? cations describes the conceptual foundations of the LSI 3. in the theory of experiential learning (ELT). Section 2 provides a description of the inventory that includes its purpose, history, and format. Section 3 describes the characteristics of the KLSI 3. 1 normative sample. Section 4 includes internal reliability and test-retest reliability studies of the inventory. Section 5 provides information about research on the internal and external validity for the instrument. Internal validity studies of the structure of the KLSI 3. 1 using correlation and factor analysis are reported.

External validity includes research on demographics, educational specialization, concurrent validity with other experiential learning assessment instruments, aptitude test performance, academic performance, experiential learning in teams, and educational applications. © Copyright 2005: Experience Based Learning Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. 1 1. CONCEPTUAL FOUNDATION—EXPERIENTIAL LEARNING THEORY AND INDIVIDUAL LEARNING STYLES The Kolb Learning Style Inventory differs from other tests of learning style and personality used in education by being based on a comprehensive theory of learning and development.

Experiential learning theory (ELT) draws on the work of prominent twentieth century scholars who gave experience a central role in their theories of human learning and development-notably John Dewey, Kurt Lewin, Jean Piaget, William James, Carl Jung, Paulo Freire, Carl Rogers, and others-to develop a holistic model of the experiential learning process and a multi-linear model of adult development. The theory, described in detail in Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development (Kolb 1984), is built on six propositions that are shared by these scholars. . Learning is best conceived as a process, not in terms of outcomes. To improve learning in higher education, the primary focus should be on engaging students in a process that best enhances their learning —a process that includes feedback on the effectiveness of their learning efforts. “… education must be conceived as a continuing reconstruction of experience: … the process and goal of education are one and the same thing. ” (Dewey 1897: 79) 2. All learning is relearning.

Learning is best facilitated by a process that draws out the students’ beliefs and ideas about a topic so that they can be examined, tested, and integrated with new, more re? ned ideas. 3. Learning requires the resolution of con? icts between dialectically opposed modes of adaptation to the world. Con? ict, differences, and disagreement are what drive the learning process. In the process of learning, one is called upon to move back and forth between opposing modes of re? ection and action and feeling and thinking. 4. Learning is a holistic process of adaptation to the world.

It is not just the result of cognition but involves the integrated functioning of the total person—thinking, feeling, perceiving, and behaving. 5. Learning results from synergetic transactions between the person and the environment. In Piaget’s terms, learning occurs through equilibration of the dialectic processes of assimilating new experiences into existing concepts and accommodating existing concepts to new experience. 6. Learning is the process of creating knowledge. ELT proposes a constructivist theory of learning whereby social knowledge is created and recreated in the personal knowledge of the learner.

This stands in contrast to the “transmission” model on which much current educational practice is based, where pre-existing ? xed ideas are transmitted to the learner. ELT de? nes learning as “the process whereby knowledge is created through the transformation of experience. Knowledge results from the combination of grasping and transforming experience” (Kolb 1984: 41). The ELT model portrays two dialectically related modes of grasping experience-Concrete Experience (CE) and Abstract Conceptualization (AC)-and two dialectically related modes of transforming experience-Re? ctive Observation (RO) and Active Experimentation (AE). Experiential learning is a process of constructing knowledge that involves a creative tension among the four learning modes that is responsive to contextual demands. This process is portrayed as an idealized learning cycle or spiral where the learner “touches all the bases”—experiencing, re? ecting, thinking, and acting-in a recursive process that is responsive to the learning situation and what is being learned. Immediate or concrete experiences are the basis for observations and re? ections. These re? ctions are assimilated and distilled into abstract concepts from which new implications for action can be drawn. These implications can be actively tested and serve as guides in creating new experiences (Figure 1). ELT proposes that this idealized learning cycle will vary by individuals’ learning style and learning context. 2 LSI Technical Manual Concrete Experience Testing Implications of Concepts in New Situations Observation and Reflections Formation of Abstract Concepts and Generalization Figure 1. The experiential learning cycle In The art of changing the brain: Enriching teaching by exploring the biology f learning, James Zull, a biologist and founding director of CWRU’s University Center for Innovation in Teaching and Education (UCITE), sees a link between ELT and neuroscience research, suggesting that this process of experiential learning is related to the process of brain functioning as shown in Figure 2. “Put into words, the ? gure illustrates that concrete experiences come through the sensory cortex, re? ective observation involves the integrative cortex at the back, creating new abstract concepts occurs in the frontal integrative cortex, and active testing involves the motor brain.

In other words, the learning cycle arises from the structure of the brain. ” (Zull 2002: 18-19) 3 Figure 2. The experiential learning cycle and regions of the cerebral cortex. Reprinted with permission of the author (Zull 2002) ELT posits that learning is the major determinant of human development and that how individuals learn shapes the course of their personal development. Previous research (Kolb 1984) has shown that learning styles are in? uenced by personality type, educational specialization, career choice, and current job role and tasks. Yamazaki (2002, 2004a) has recently identi? d cultural in? uences as well. The ELT developmental model (Kolb 1984) de? nes three stages: (1) acquisition, from birth to adolescence, where basic abilities and cognitive structures develop; (2) specialization, from formal schooling through the early work and personal experiences of adulthood, where social, educational, and organizational socialization forces shape the development of a particular, specialized learning style; and (3) integration in midcareer and later life, where nondominant modes of learning are expressed in work and personal life.

Development through these stages is characterized by increasing complexity and relativism in adapting to the world and by increased integration of the dialectic con? icts between AC and CE and AE and RO. Development is conceived as multi-linear based on an individual’s particular learning style and life path—development of CE increases affective complexity, of RO increases perceptual complexity, of AC increases symbolic complexity, and of AE increases behavioral complexity.

The concept of learning style describes individual differences in learning based on the learner’s preference for employing different phases of the learning cycle. Because of our hereditary equipment, our particular life experiences, and the demands of our present environment, we develop a preferred way of choosing among the four learning modes. We resolve the con? ict between being concrete or abstract and between being active or re? ective in patterned, characteristic ways.

Much of the research on ELT has focused on the concept of learning style, using the Learning Style Inventory (LSI) to assess individual learning styles (Kolb 1971, 1985, 1999). While individuals tested on the LSI show many different patterns of scores, previous research with the instrument has identi? ed four learning styles that are associated with different approaches to learning—Diverging, Assimilating, Converging, and Accommodating. The following summary of the four basic learning styles is based on both research and clinical observation of these patterns of LSI scores (Kolb1984, 1999a). LSI Technical Manual An individual with diverging style has CE and RO as dominant learning abilities. People with this learning style are best at viewing concrete situations from many different points of view. It is labeled Diverging because a person with it performs better in situations that call for generation of ideas, such as a brainstorming session. People with a Diverging learning style have broad cultural interests and like to gather information. They are interested in people, tend to be imaginative and emotional, have broad cultural interests, and tend to specialize in the arts.

In formal learning situations, people with the Diverging style prefer to work in groups, listening with an open mind to different points of view and receiving personalized feedback. An individual with an assimilating style has AC and RO as dominant learning abilities. People with this learning style are best at understanding a wide range of information and putting it into concise, logical form. Individuals with an Assimilating style are less focused on people and more interested in ideas and abstract concepts. Generally, people with this style ? d it more important that a theory have logical soundness than practical value. The Assimilating learning style is important for effectiveness in information and science careers. In formal learning situations, people with this style prefer readings, lectures, exploring analytical models, and having time to think things through. An individual with a converging style has AC and AE as dominant learning abilities. People with this learning style are best at ? nding practical uses for ideas and theories. They have the ability to solve problems and make decisions based on ? ding solutions to questions or problems. Individuals with a Converging learning style prefer to deal with technical tasks and problems rather than with social issues and interpersonal issues. These learning skills are important for effectiveness in specialist and technology careers. In formal learning situations, people with this style prefer to experiment with new ideas, simulations, laboratory assignments, and practical applications. An individual with an accommodating style has CE and AE as dominant learning abilities.

People with this learning style have the ability to learn from primarily “hands-on” experience. They enjoy carrying out plans and involving themselves in new and challenging experiences. Their tendency may be to act on “gut” feelings rather than on logical analysis. In solving problems, individuals with an Accommodating learning style rely more heavily on people for information than on their own technical analysis. This learning style is important for effectiveness in action-oriented careers such as marketing or sales.

In formal learning situations, people with the Accommodating learning style prefer to work with others to get assignments done, to set goals, to do ? eld work, and to test out different approaches to completing a project. 5 FACTORS THAT SHAPE AND INFLUENCE LEARNING STYLES The above patterns of behavior associated with the four basic learning styles are shaped by transactions between people and their environment at ? ve different levels—personality, educational specialization, professional career, current job role, and adaptive competencies.

While some have interpreted learning style as a personality variable (Garner 2000; Furnam, Jackson, and Miller 1999), ELT de? nes learning style as a social psychological concept that is only partially determined by personality. Personality exerts a small but pervasive in? uence in nearly all situations; but at the other levels, learning style is in? uenced by increasingly speci? c environmental demands of educational specialization, career, job, and tasks skills. Table 1 summarizes previous research that has identi? ed how learning styles are determined at these various levels. Table 1.

Relationship Between Learning Styles and Five Levels of Behavior Behavior Level Personality types Educational Specialization Professional Career Current Jobs Adaptive Competencies Diverging Introverted Feeling Arts, English History Psychology Social Service Arts Personal jobs Valuing skills Assimilating Introverted Intuition Mathematics Physical Science Sciences Research Information Information jobs Thinking skills Converging Extraverted Thinking Engineering Medicine Engineering Medicine Technology Technical jobs Decision skills Accommodating Extraverted Sensation Education Sales Social Service Education Executive jobs Action skills Personality Types Although the learning styles of and learning modes proposed by ELT are derived from the works of Dewey, Lewin, and Piaget, many have noted the similarity of these concepts to Carl Jung’s descriptions of individuals’ preferred ways for adapting in the world.

Several research studies relating the LSI with the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) indicate that Jung’s Extraversion/Introversion dialectical dimension correlates with the Active/Re? ective dialectic of ELT, and the MBTI Feeling/Thinking dimension correlates with the LSI Concrete Experience/ Abstract Conceptualization dimension. The MBTI Sensing type is associated with the LSI Accommodating learning style, and the MBTI Intuitive type with the LSI Assimilating style. MBTI Feeling types correspond to LSI Diverging learning styles, and Thinking types to Converging styles. The above discussion implies that the Accommodating learning style is the Extraverted Sensing type, and the Converging style the Extraverted Thinking type.

The Assimilating learning style corresponds to the Introverted Intuitive personality type, and the Diverging style to the Introverted Feeling type. Myers (1962) descriptions of these MBTI types are very similar to the corresponding LSI learning styles as described by ELT (Kolb 1984, 83-85). Educational Specialization Early educational experiences shape people’s individual learning styles by instilling positive attitudes toward speci? c sets of learning skills and by teaching students how to learn. Although elementary education is generalized, an increasing process of specialization begins in high school and becomes sharper during the college years. This specialization in the realms of social knowledge in? ences individuals’ orientations toward learning, resulting in particular relations between learning styles and early training in an educational specialty or discipline. For example, people specializing in the arts, history, political science, English, and psychology tend to have Diverging learning styles, while those majoring 6 LSI Technical Manual in more abstract and applied areas such as medicine and engineering have Converging learning styles. Individuals with Accommodating styles often have educational backgrounds in education, communications, and nursing, and those with Assimilating styles in mathematics and physical sciences. Professional Career A third set of factors that shape learning styles stems from professional careers.

One’s professional career choice not only exposes one to a specialized learning environment, but it also involves a commitment to a generic professional problem, such as social service, that requires a specialized adaptive orientation. In addition, one becomes a member of a reference group of peers who share a professional mentality and a common set of values and beliefs about how one should behave professionally. This professional orientation shapes learning style through habits acquired in professional training and through the more immediate normative pressures involved in being a competent professional. Research over the years has shown that social service and arts careers attract people with a Diverging learning style. Professions in the sciences and information or research have people with an Assimilating learning style.

The Converging learning styles tends to be dominant among professionals in technology-intensive ? elds such as medicine and engineering. Finally, the Accommodating learning style characterizes people with careers in ? elds such as sales, social service, and education. Current Job Role The fourth level of factors in? uencing learning style is the person’s current job role. The task demands and pressures of a job shape a person’s adaptive orientation. Executive jobs, such as general management, that require a strong orientation to task accomplishment and decision making in uncertain emergent circumstances require an Accommodating learning style.

Personal jobs, such as counseling and personnel administration, which require the establishment of personal relationships and effective communication with other people, demand a Diverging learning style. Information jobs, such as planning and research, which require data gathering and analysis, as well as conceptual modeling, require an Assimilating learning style. Technical jobs, such as bench engineering and production, require technical and problem-solving skills, which require a convergent learning orientation. Adaptive Competencies The ? fth and most immediate level of forces that shapes learning style is the speci? c task or problem the person is currently working on. Each task we face requires a corresponding set of skills for effective performance.

The effective matching of task demands and personal skills results in an adaptive competence. The Accommodative learning style encompasses a set of competencies that can best be termed Acting skills: Leadership, Initiative, and Action. The Diverging learning style is associated with Valuing skills: Relationship, Helping Others, and Sense Making. The Assimilating learning style is related to Thinking skills: Information Gathering, Information Analysis, and Theory Building. Finally, the Converging learning style is associated with Decision skills like Quantitative Analysis, Use of Technology, and Goal Setting (Kolb1984). 7 2. THE LEARNING STYLE INVENTORY PURPOSE The Learning Style Inventory (LSI) was created to ful? l two purposes: 1. To serve as an educational tool to increase individuals’ understanding of the process of learning from experience and their unique individual approach to learning. By increasing awareness of how they learn, the aim is to increase learners’ capacity for meta-cognitive control of their learning process, enabling them to monitor and select learning approaches that work best for them in different learning situations. By providing a language for talking about learning styles and the learning process, the inventory can foster conversation among learners and educators about how to create the most effective learning environment for those involved.

For this purpose, the inventory is best presented not as a test, but as an experience in understanding how one learns. Scores on the inventory should not be interpreted as de? nitive, but as a starting point for exploration of how one learns best. To facilitate this purpose, a self-scoring and interpretation book that explains the experiential learning cycle and the characteristics of the different learning styles, along with scoring and pro? ling instructions, is included with the inventory. 2. To provide a research tool for investigating experiential learning theory (ELT) and the characteristics of individual learning styles. This research can contribute to the broad advancement of experiential learning and, speci? ally, to the validity of interpretations of individual learning style scores. A research version of the instrument, including only the inventory to be scored by the researcher, is available for this purpose. The LSI is not a criterion-referenced test and is not intended for use to predict behavior for purposes of selection, placement, job assignment, or selective treatment. This includes not using the instrument to assign learners to different educational treatments, a process sometimes referred to as tracking. Such categorizations based on a single test score amount to stereotyping that runs counter to the philosophy of experiential learning, which emphasizes individual uniqueness. When it is used in the simple, straightforward, and open way intended, the LSI usually provides a valuable self-examination and discussion that recognizes the uniqueness, complexity, and variability in individual approaches to learning. The danger lies in the rei? cation of learning styles into ? xed traits, such that learning styles become stereotypes used to pigeonhole individuals and their behavior. ” (Kolb 1981a: 290-291) The LSI is constructed as a self-assessment exercise and tool for construct validation of ELT. Tests designed for predictive validity typically begin with a criterion, such as academic achievement, and work backward to identify items or tests with high criterion correlations.

Even so, even the most sophisticated of these tests rarely rises above a . 5 correlation with the criterion. For example, while Graduate Record Examination Subject Test scores are better predictors of ? rst-year graduate school grades than either the General Test score or undergraduate GPA, the combination of these three measures only produces multiple correlations with grades ranging from . 4 to . 6 in various ? elds (Anastasi and Urbina 1997). Construct validation is not focused on an outcome criterion, but on the theory or construct the test measures. Here the emphasis is on the pattern of convergent and discriminant theoretical predictions made by the theory. Failure to con? m predictions calls into question the test and the theory. “However, even if each of the correlations proved to be quite low, their cumulative effect would be to support the validity of the test and the underlying theory. ” (Selltiz, Jahoda, Deutsch, and Cook 1960: 160) Judged by the standards of construct validity, ELT has been widely accepted as a useful framework for learning-centered educational innovation, including instructional design, curriculum development, and life-long learning. Field and job classi? cation studies viewed as a whole also show a pattern of results consistent with the ELT structure of knowledge theory. 8 LSI Technical Manual

HISTORY Five versions of the Learning Style Inventory have been published over the last 35 years. During this time, attempts have been made to openly share information about the inventory, its scoring, and its technical characteristics with other interested researchers. The results of their research have been instrumental in the continuous improvement of the inventory. Learning Style Inventory-Version 1 (Kolb 1971, Kolb 1976) The original Learning Style Inventory (LSI 1) was created in 1969 as part of an MIT curriculum development project that resulted in the ? rst management textbook based on experiential learning (Kolb, Rubin, and McIntyre 1971).

It was originally developed as an experiential educational exercise designed to help learners understand the process of experiential learning and their unique individual style of learning from experience. The term “learning style” was coined to describe these individual differences in how people learn. Items for the inventory were selected from a longer list of words and phrases developed for each learning mode by a panel of four behavioral scientists familiar with experiential learning theory. This list was given to a group of 20 graduate students who were asked to rate each word or phrase for social desirability. Attempting to select words that were of equal social desirability, a ? nal set of 12 items including a word or phrase for each learning mode was selected for pre-testing.

Analysis showed that three of these sets produced nearly random responses and were thus eliminated, resulting in a ? nal version of the LSI with 9 items. These items were further re? ned through item-whole correlation analysis to include six scored items for each learning mode. Research with the inventory was stimulated by classroom discussions with students, who found the LSI to be helpful to them in understanding the process of experiential learning and how they learned. From 1971 until it was revised in 1985, there were more than 350 published research studies using the LSI. Validity for the LSI 1 was established in a number of ? elds, including education, management, psychology, computer science, medicine, and nursing (Hickcox 1990, Iliff 1994).

The results of this research with LSI 1 provided provided empirical support for the most complete and systematic statement of ELT, Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development (Kolb 1984). Several studies of the LSI 1 identi? ed psychometric weaknesses of the instrument, particularly low internal consistency reliability and test-retest reliability. Learning Style Inventory-Version 2 (Kolb 1985) Low reliability coef? cients and other concerns about the LSI 1 led to a revision of the inventory in 1985 (LSI 2). Six new items chosen to increase internal reliability (alpha) were added to each scale, making 12 scored items on each scale. These changes increased scale alphas to an average of . 81 ranging from . 73 to . 88.

Wording of all items was simpli? ed to a seventh grade reading level, and the format was changed to include sentence stems (e. g. , “When I learn”). Correlations between the LSI 1 and LSI 2 scales averaged . 91 and ranged from . 87 to . 93. A new more diverse normative reference group of 1446 men and women was created. Research with the LSI 2 continued to establish validity for the instrument. From 1985 until the publication of the LSI 3 1999, more than 630 studies were published, most using the LSI 2. While internal reliability estimates for the LSI 2 remained high in independent studies, test-retest reliability remained low. Learning Style Inventory-Version 2a (Kolb 1993)

In 1991 Veres, Sims, and Locklear published a reliability study of a randomized version of the LSI 2 that showed a small decrease in internal reliability but a dramatic increase in test-retest reliability with the random scoring format. To study this format, a research version of the random format inventory (LSI 2a) was published in 1993. 9 Kolb Learning Style Inventory-Version 3 (Kolb 1999) In 1999 the randomized format was adopted in a revised self-scoring and interpretation booklet (LSI 3) that included a color-coded scoring sheet to simplify scoring. The new booklet was organized to follow the learning cycle, emphasizing the LSI as an “experience in learning how you learn. ” New application information on teamwork, managing con? ct, personal and professional communication, and career choice and development were added. The LSI 3 continued to use the LSI 2 normative reference group until norms for the randomized version could be created. Kolb Learning Style Inventory-Version 3. 1 (Kolb 2005) The new LSI 3. 1 described here modi? ed the LSI 3 to include new normative data described below. This revision includes new norms that are based on a larger, more diverse and representative sample of 6977 LSI users. The format, items, scoring, and interpretative booklet remain identical to KLSI 3. The only change in KLSI 3. 1 is in the norm charts used to convert raw LSI scores. FORMAT

The Learning Style Inventory is designed to measure the degree to which individuals display the different learning styles derived from experiential learning theory. The form of the inventory is determined by three design parameters. First, the test is brief and straightforward, making it useful both for research and for discussing the learning process with individuals and providing feedback. Second, the test is constructed in such a way that individuals respond to it as they would respond to a learning situation: it requires them to resolve the tensions between the abstract-concrete and active-re? ective orientations. For this reason, the LSI format requires them to rank order their preferences for the abstract, concrete, active, and re? ective orientations.

Third, and most obviously, it was hoped that the measures of learning styles would predict behavior in a way consistent with the theory of experiential learning. All versions of the LSI have had the same format—a short questionnaire (9 items for LSI 1 and 12 items for subsequent versions) that asks respondents to rank four sentence endings that correspond to the four learning modes— Concrete Experience (e. g. , experiencing), Re? ective Observation (re? ecting), Abstract Conceptualization (thinking), and Active Experimentation (doing). Items in the LSI are geared to a seventh grade reading level. The inventory is intended for use by teens and adults. It is not intended for use by younger children.

The LSI has been translated into many languages, including, Arabic, Chinese, French, Japanese, Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, Swedish, and Thai, and there have been many cross-cultural studies using it (Yamazaki 2002). The Forced-Choice Format of the LSI The format of the LSI is a forced-choice format that ranks an individual’s relative choice preferences among the four modes of the learning cycle. This is in contrast to the more common normative, or free-choice, format, such as the widely used Likert scale, which rates absolute preferences on independent dimensions. The forced-choice format of the LSI was dictated by the theory of experiential learning and by the primary purpose of the instrument.

ELT is a holistic, dynamic, and dialectic theory of learning. Because it is holistic, the four modes that make up the experiential learning cycle-CE, RO, AC, and AE- are conceived as interdependent. Learning involves resolving the creative tension among these learning modes in response to the speci? c learning situation. Since the two learning dimensions, AC-CE and AE-RO, are related dialectically, the choice of one pole involves not choosing the opposite pole. Therefore, because ELT postulates that learning in life situations requires the resolution of con? icts among interdependent learning modes, to be ecologically valid, the learning style assessment process should require a similar process of con? ct resolution in the choice of one’s preferred learning approach. ELT de? nes learning style not as a ? xed trait, but as a dynamic state arising from an individual’s preferential resolution of the dual dialectics of experiencing/conceptualizing and acting/re? ecting. “The stability and endurance of these states in individuals comes not solely from ? xed genetic qualities or characteristics of human beings: nor, for that matter, does it come from the stable ? xed demands of environmental circumstances. Rather, stable and enduring patterns of human individuality arise from consistent patterns of transaction between the individual and his or her 10 LSI Technical Manual environment.

The way we process the possibilities of each new emerging event determines the range of choices and decisions we see. The choices and decisions we make to some extent determine the events we live through, and these events in? uence our future choices. Thus, people create themselves through the choice of actual occasions they live through. ” (Kolb 1984: 63-64) The primary purpose of the LSI is to provide learners with information about their preferred approach to learning. The most relevant information for the learner is about intra-individual differences, his or her relative preference for the four learning modes, not inter-individual comparisons.

Ranking relative preferences among the four modes in a forced-choice format is the most direct way to provide this information. While individuals who take the inventory sometimes report dif? culty in making these ranking choices, they report that the feedback they get from the LSI gives them more insight than had been the case when we used a normative Likert rating scale version. This is because the social desirability response bias in the rating scales fails to de? ne a clear learning style, that is, they say they prefer all learning modes. This is supported by Harland’s (2002) ? nding that feedback from a forced-choice test format was perceived as more accurate, valuable, and useful than feedback from a normative version.

The adoption of the forced-choice method for the LSI has at times placed it in the center of an ongoing debate in the research literature about the merits of forced-choice instruments between what might be called “rigorous statisticians” and “pragmatic empiricists. ” Statisticians have questioned the use of the forced-choice format because of statistical limitations, called ipsativity, that are the result of the ranking procedure. Since ipsative scores represent the relative strength of a variable compared to others in the ranked set, the resulting dependence among scores produces methodinduced negative correlations among variables and violates a fundamental assumption of classical test theory required for use of techniques such as analysis of variance and factor analysis-independence of error variance.

Cornwell and Dunlap (1994) stated that ipsative scores cannot be factored and that correlation-based analysis of ipsative data produced uninterpretable and invalid results (cf. Hicks 1970, Johnson et al. 1988). Other criticisms include the point that ipsative scores are technically ordinal, not the interval scales required for parametric statistical analysis; that they produce lower internal reliability estimates and lower validity coef? cients (Barron 1996). While critics of forced-choice instruments acknowledge that these criticisms do not detract from the validity of intra-individual comparisons (LSI purpose one), they argue that ipsative scores are not appropriate for inter-individual comparisons, since inter-individual comparisons on a ranked ariable are not independent absolute preferences, but preferences that are relative to the other ranked variables in the set (Barron 1996, Karpatschof and Elkjaer 2000). However, since ELT argues that a given learning mode preference is relative to the other three modes, it is the comparison of relative not absolute preferences that the theory seeks to assess. The “pragmatic empiricists” argue that in spite of theoretical statistical arguments, normative and forced-choice variations of the same instrument can produce empirically comparable results. Karpatschof and Elkjaer (2000) advanced this case in their metaphorically titled paper “Yet the Bumblebee Flies. ” With theory, simulation, and empirical data, they presented evidence for the comparability of ipsative and normative data.

Saville and Wilson (1991) found a high correspondence between ipsative and normative scores when forced choice involved a large number of alternative dimensions. Normative tests also have serious limitations, which the forced-choice format was originally created to deal with (Sisson 1948). Normative scales are subject to numerous response biases—central tendency bias, in which respondents avoid extreme responses, acquiescence response, and social desirability responding-and are easy to fake. Forced- choice instruments are designed to avoid these biases by forcing choice among alternatives in a way that re? ects real live choice making (Hicks 1970, Barron 1996).

Matthews and Oddy found large bias in the extremeness of positive and negative responses in normative tests and concluded that when sources of artifact are controlled, “individual differences in ipsative scores can be used to rank individuals meaningfully” (1997: 179). Pickworth and Shoeman (2000) found signi? cant response bias in two normative LSI formats developed by Marshall and Merritt (1986) and Geiger et al. (1993). Conversely, Beutell and Kressel (1984) found that social desirability contributed less than 4% of the variance in LSI scores, in spite of the fact that individual LSI items all had very high social desirability. 11 In addition, ipsative tests can provide external validity evidence comparable to normative data (Barron 1996) or in some cases even better (Hicks 1970). For example, attempts to use normative rating versions of the

LSI report reliability and internal validity data but little or no external validity (Pickworth and Shoeman 2000, Geiger et al. 1993, Romero et al. 1992, Marshall and Merritt 1986, Merritt and Marshall 1984). Characteristics of the LSI Scales The LSI assesses six variables: four primary scores that measure an individual’s relative emphasis on the four learning orientations—Concrete Experience (CE), Re? ective Observation (RO), Abstract Conceptualization (AC), and Active Experimentation (AE)—and two combination scores that measure an individual’s preference for abstractness over concreteness (AC-CE) and action over re? ection (AE-RO). The four primary scales of the LSI are ipsative because of the forced-choice format of the instrument.

This results in negative correlations among the four scales, the mean magnitude of which can be estimated (assuming no underlying correlations among them) by the formula -1/(m – 1) where m is the number of variables (Johnson et al. 1988). This results in a predicted average method- induced correlation of -. 33 among the four primary LSI scales. The combination scores AC-CE and AE-RO, however, are not ipsative. Forced- choice instruments can produce scales that are not ipsative (Hicks 1970; Pathi, Manning, and Kolb 1989). To demonstrate the independence of the combination scores and interdependence of the primary scores, Pathi, Manning, and Kolb (1989) had SPSS-X randomly ? ll out and analyze 1000 LSI’s according to the ranking instructions. While the mean intercorrelation among the primary scales was -. 3 as predicted, the correlation between AC-CE and AE-RO was +. 038. In addition, if AC-CE and AE-RO were ipsative scales, the correlation between the two scales would be -1. 0 according to the above formula. Observed empirical relationships are always much smaller, e. g. +. 13 for a sample of 1591 graduate students (Freedman and Stumpf 1978), -. 09 for the LSI 2 normative sample of 1446 respondents (Kolb 1999b), -. 19 for a sample of 1296 MBA students (Boyatzis and Mainemelis 2000) and -. 21 for the normative sample of 6977 LSI’s for the KLSI 3. 1 described below. The independence of the two combination scores can be seen by examining some example scoring results.

For example, when AC-CE or AE-RO on a given item takes a value of +2 (from, say, AC = 4 and CE = 2, or AC = 3 and CE = 1), the other score can take a value of +2 or -2. Similarly when either score takes a value of +1 (from 4 -3, 3-2, or 2-1), the other can take the values of +3, +1, -1, or -3. In other words, when AC-CE takes a particular value, AERO can take two to four different values, and the score on one dimension does not determine the score on the other. 12 LSI Technical Manual 3. NORMS FOR THE LSI VERSION 3. 1 New norms for the LSI 3. 1 were created from responses by several groups of users who completed the randomized LSI 3. These norms are used to convert LSI raw scale scores to percentile scores (see Appendix 1).

The purpose of percentile conversions is to achieve scale comparability among an individual’s LSI scores (Barron 1996) and to de? ne cutpoints for de? ning the learning style types. Table 2 shows the means and standard deviations for KLSI 3. 1 scale scores for the normative groups. Table 2. KLSI 3. 1 Scores for Normative Groups SAMPLE TOTAL NORM GROUP On-line Users Research Univ. Freshmen Lib. Arts College Students Art College UG Research Univ. MBA Distance E-learning Adult UG N 6977 Mn. S. D. 5023 288 CE 25. 39 6. 43 25. 22 6. 34 23. 81 6. 06 24. 51 6. 39 28. 02 6. 61 25. 54 6. 44 23. 26 5. 73 RO 28. 19 7. 07 27. 98 7. 03 29. 82 6. 71 28. 25 7. 32 29. 51 7. 18 26. 98 6. 94 27. 64 7. 04 AC 32. 22 7. 29 32. 43 7. 32 33. 49 6. 91 32. 07 6. 22 29. 06 6. 4 33. 92 7. 37 34. 36 6. 87 AE 34. 14 6. 68 34. 36 6. 65 32. 89 6. 36 35. 05 7. 08 33. 17 6. 52 33. 48 7. 06 34. 18 6. 28 AC-CE 6. 83 11. 69 7. 21 11. 64 9. 68 10. 91 7. 56 10. 34 1. 00 11. 13 8. 38 11. 77 11. 10 10. 45 AE-RO 5. 96 11. 63 6. 38 11. 61 3. 07 10. 99 6. 80 12. 37 3. 73 11. 49 6. 49 11. 92 6. 54 11. 00 221 813 328 304 TOTAL NORMATIVE GROUP Normative percentile scores for the LSI 3. 1 are based on a total sample of 6977 valid LSI scores from users of the instrument. This user norm group is composed of 50. 4% women and 49. 4% men. Their age range is 17-75, broken down into the following age-range groups: < 19 = 9. 8%, 19-24 = 17. %, 25-34 = 27%, 35-44 = 23%, 45-54 = 17. 2%, and >54 = 5. 8 %. Their educational level is as follows: primary school graduate = 1. 2%, secondary school degree = 32. 1%, university degree = 41. 4%, and post-graduate degree = 25. 3%. The sample includes college students and working adults in a wide variety of ? elds. It is made up primarily of U. S. residents (80%) with the remaining 20% of users residing in 64 different countries. The norm group is made up of six subgroups, the speci? c demographic characteristics of which are described below. 13 On-line Users This sample of 5023 is composed of individuals and groups who have signed up to take the LSI on-line.

Group users include undergraduate and graduate student groups, adult learners, business management groups, military management groups, and other organizational groups. Half of the sample are men and half are women. Their ages range as follows: 55 = 8. 1 %. Their educational level is as follows: primary school graduate = 1. 7%, secondary school degree = 18. 2%, university degree = 45. 5%, and postgraduate degree = 34. 6%. Most of the on-line users (66%) reside in the U. S. with the remaining 34% living in 64 different countries, with the largest representations from Canada (317), U. K. (212), India (154), Germany (100), Brazil (75), Singapore (59), France (49), and Japan (42). Research University Freshmen

This sample is composed of 288 entering freshmen at a top research university. 53% are men and 47% are women. All are between the ages of 17 and 22. More than 87% of these students intend to major in science or engineering. Liberal Arts College Students Data for this sample were provided by Kayes (2005). This sample includes 221 students (182 undergraduates and 39 part-time graduate students) enrolled in business courses at a private liberal arts college. Their average age is 22, ranging from 18 to 51. 52% are male and 48% are female. Art College Undergraduates This sample is composed of 813 freshmen and graduating students from three undergraduate art colleges. Half of the sample are men and half are women.

Their average age is 20, distributed as follows: 35 = 1%. Research University MBA Students This sample is composed of 328 full-time (71%) and part-time (29%) MBA students in a research university management school. 63% are men and 37% women. Their average age is 27, distributed as follows: 19-24 = 4. 1%, 25-34 = 81. 3%, 35-44 = 13. 8%, 45-54 = 1%. Distance E-learning Adult Undergraduate Students This sample is composed of 304 adult learners enrolled in an e-learning distance education undergraduate degree program at a large state university. 56% are women and 44% men. Their average age is 36, distributed as follows: 19-24 = 6. 3%, 25-34 = 37. 5%, 35-44 = 40. %, 45-54 = 14. 5%, and > 55 = 1. 6%. CUT-POINTS FOR LEARNING STYLE TYPES The four basic learning style types—Accommodating, Diverging, Assimilating, and Converging-are created by dividing the AC-CE and AE-RO scores at the ? ftieth percentile of the total norm group and plotting them on the Learning Style Type Grid (Kolb 1999a: 6). The cut point for the AC-CE scale is +7, and the cut point for the AE-RO scale is +6. The Accommodating type would be de? ned by an AC-CE raw score =7, the Diverging type by AC-CE =7, and the Assimilating type by AC-CE >=8 and AE-RO +12) while the re? ective regions are de? ned by percentiles less than 33. 33% (

PSYC 305 Exam #1 Study Guide Defense Mechanisms: help ego deal with anxiety (Ego cannot handle the conflicts between ID and superego. ) * Rationalism: plausible, but false reason for action * “I needed to break up with my boyfriend for his own good. ” * Sublimation: socially productive displacement * “I’ll just go to the gym. ” * Projection: ascribing own impulses to others * “He hates me. ” * Denial: refusal to acknowledge the impulse * “I don’t hate my ex. ” * Intellectualization: clear, undistorted recognition of impulse over explained and with emotion removed * “I always have trouble with relationships” Repression: impulses or experiences kept unconscious * “I feel nothing towards him. ” * Isolation: cutting off thoughts related to occurrence * “I never think about him. ” * Identification: merging ones identity with someone else * “I want to be just like that bully. ” * Reaction Formation: transform impulse to the opposite * “I love my father so much. ” (LOVE/HATE) * Displacement: impulses toward another activity * “What a bad day, I hate my boss and my job, punch hole in wall. ” Freud’s Psychosexual Stages (oral – anal – phallic – latency – Genital) * Oral * Birth to age 1 Focus on mouth and feeding * All ID, all the time * From passive > active * Oral fixation * Passive, overly optimistic, dependent * “Experiencing through the mouth” * Traits: passive dependent, oral aggressive, oral erotic * Anal * Sphincter muscle * Age 1 – 3 * Experiencing through elimination and retention * Excreting – toilet training, ego development * Anal fixation – orderliness, parsimony and simplicity, obstinacy and stubbornness * Traits: passive aggressive, paranoid, compulsive, messy/disorganized, stubborn/stingy * Phallic * Age 3 – 5 * Focus on genitals and masturbation Successful passage leads to development of the superego * Solid understanding of the opposite sex * Fixation – immature super ego, pore sex-role typing, sexuality issues * Genitals * Seen in noticing genitals and sex differences, special attention to opposite sex-parent * Narcissistic, arrogant, vane * Oedipus conflict * Boys develop sexual feelings for their mothers and want to replace their dad * Castration anxiety: fear that dad will cut off son’s penis as revenge * Resolved when boy decides to follow in dads footsteps * Electra Conflict * Penis envy: girls feel inferior when they realize they do not have a enis, blame mom * Decides to seduce dad for revenge * Seduction hypothesis: real incest between father-daughter. Revised: fantasy only * Conflict resolved when girl learns to indentify with mother * Latency * Age 5 – puberty * Nothing much going on –ID, ego, superego already developed * Genital * Starts at puberty * Sexual satisfaction from opposite sex * Development of adult sexuality * Proper resolution if no past fixations Freud’s Topographic Model (iceberg) 3 components 1. Conscious mind: aware, accept, identify 2. Unconscious mind: can be brought to awareness readily 3. Preconscious mind: repressed. * ID Unconscious * Preverbal * Source of our instincts and passions * Infant * Driven by pleasure principle * “Innocent child that doesn’t know any better” * Primary process * First to develop * Libido: sexual energy * Eros: life instinct * Thanatos: death instinct * Balances sex and aggression * Satisfy urges, reduces tension * Seeks pleasure * Ego * The mostly conscious part of the mind * Balances or goes between id, superego and reality * Grows out of the id (ego is shown first even though id exists first) * Face the real world * Understands reality * Decision maker between id and superego * Secondary process/future Second to develop * Brings unity to personality * Reality principle * Superego * Internalization of parental images and rules * Includes “thou shalts” (ego ideal) and “thou shalt nots” (conscience) * Rules and restrictions of parents/society * Third to develop * Rules and morals of society * Guilty * Phrenology: theory that personality characteristics could be determined by reading the bumps on the skull. (Franz gall) * Localized thinking, feeling and personality in the brain * Attempted to be scientific in explaining characteristic behavior * Fostered scientific debate about the nature and causes of personality Person Metaphors (as a…) * Animal: * Respond to reward, punishment * Can be prisoner of its biology * Scientist: * Seek the truth * Try to understand the world by making/testing theories * Actor: * Idea of life as drama (roles) * Writing/acting out scripts * Backstage/onstage * Pathology as role confusion * Computer: * Hardware & software * Data * Programs needing to be debugged * Input > output * Machine: * Causes & effects * Snake biting then developing a fear of snakes * System (ecosystem) * Interconnecting living parts * Self-regulation toward homeostasis * Little changes can have big effects Homeostatic level * Avoid anxiety/fear * Pilot * The self * Being in the drivers seat, steering towards goals * Personality: 1. The stylistic aspects of how we think, feel and act and motives implied by these that make us agreeable or to live with (Dollinger). 2. The underlying causes within the person of individual behavior and experience (Cloninger). * 3 D’s 1. Description: how do we describe people? a. Traits > measures characteristics on continuous scales factors > measures an individuals characteristics based on a group of related traits types > putting people into categories 2.

Dynamics: How do our personalities influence our behaviors and motivation? 3. Development: what determines our personality? * Idiographic: looks at the characteristics of a single individual * Individual, one person, different traits * Nomothetic: comparing one person to another * Group of people, one trait in different people * Assessment 1. Interviews (value interactive and subjective approach) a. Unstructured i. Clinical Judgment b. Structured ii. Training, reliability/consistency c. Both should involve empathy, warmth and concern 2. Questionnaires (large sample, need good norms, value efficiency and objectivity) d.

General or specific e. Obvious or subtly f. Logically keyed (theory) g. Empirically keyed (what items correlate with) 3. Objectivity: Keeps things standardized and eliminate interviewer bias 4. Subjectivity: Assess your “feel” for who the person is and the informers reliability in answering. * Reliability: the consistency of response to a psychological assessment (standardization) * Consistency/stability * Questionnaire producing consistent results from time one to time two * Validity: the extent to which an assessment device measures what it is intended to measure * Really measures what it claims to measure Predictive Validity: how well a test score predicts future behavior * Does a test predict a behavior that the researcher accept as a criterion for the construct being measured * Content Validity: How well the individual items relate to measured construct (face validity) * Test – retest reliability, alternate forms * Correlation * An observational method * Looks for associations between two psychological constructs * Social support and depression * Yields a number representing the degree that two constructs are associated with each other * Coefficient Pearson’s r statistic * Range -1 to +1 * -1 = perfect inverse relationship * 0 = no mathematical relationship * +1 = perfect positive relationship * Limitations * Can’t determine cause and effect relationships * Can only conclude that one or more variable are associated with each other * Good enough if goal is prediction only * Independent Variables: the variables that are manipulated. * Dependent Variable: not manipulated but measured for possible change effects.

Ask Oscar Rodriguez about the dot-com burst and he may grin at you as if to say, “What burst?” Rodriguez, a 38- years-old entrepreneur, owns an Internet business that sells loose diamond to various buyers. Business is booming for Rodriguez, In 2004, he has sales of $2.06 million-a 140 percent increase from 2003. Rodriguez’s database of almost 60000 diamonds is one of the largest and is valued, according to Rodriguez, at over $350 million. Needless to say, Oscar Rodriguez is optimistic about his business venture.

The future wasn’t always so bright for Rodriguez, however. In 1985, Rodriguez moved from his country, Puerto Rico, to Gainesville, Florida, with little ability to speak English. There, he attended community college and worked at the local mall to support himself. After graduation, his roommate’s girlfriend suggested that he work at a local jeweler. “I thought she was crazy. I didn’t know anything about jewelry,” says Rodriguez, who took her advice. Though he worked hard and received his Diamonds and Diamonds Grading certification from the Gemological institute of America, he wasn’t satisfied with this progress. “I quickly realized that working there; I was just going to get a salary with a raise here and there. I would never become anything. That drove me to explore other business ventures. I also came to really know diamonds-their pricing and their quality.”

In 1997, tired of working for someone else, Rodriguez decided to open his own jewelry store. However, business didn’t boom. “Some of my customers were telling me they could find diamonds for less on the Internet. It blew my mind.” Rodriguez recognized an opportunity and began contacting well-known diamond dealers to see if they would be interested in selling their gems online. Roriguez recalls one conversation with a prominent dealer who told him, “You cannot sell diamonds on the Internet. You will not survive.” Discouraged, Rodriguez then says that he made a mistake. “I stopped working on it. If you have a dream, you have to keep working harder at it.”

A year later, Rodriguez did work harder at his dream and found a dealer who agreed to provide him with some diamonds. Says Rodriguez, “Once I had one, I could approach others. Business started to build. The first three months I sold $200,000 worth of diamonds right off the bat. And that was just me. I started to add employees and eventually closed the jewelry store and got out of retail.”Although Rodriquez does have some diamonds in inventory, he primarily acts as a connection point between buyers and suppliers, giving his customers an extraordinary selection from which to choose.

Rodriguez is now a savvy entrepreneur, and his company, Abazias.com, went public in October 2003. Why is Rodriguez successful? Just ask two people who have known Rodriguez over the years. Gary Schneider, a realtor who helped build Rodriguez’s building, says, “Oscar is a very ambitious young man. I am not surprised at all how successful he is. He is an entrepreneur in the truest sense of the word.” One of Rodriguez’s former real-estate instructors, Howard Freeman, concurs. “I am not surprised at all at his success,” says Freeman. “Oscar has always been an extremely motivated individual with a lot of resources. He has a wonderful personality and pays close attention to detail. He also has an ability to stick to things. You could tell from beginning that he was going to persevere, and I am proud of him.”

Rodriguez is keeping his success in perspective, but he also realizes his business’ potential: “I take a very small salary, and our overhead is $250,000 a year. I am not in debt, and the business is breaking even. I care about the company. I want to keep everything even until we take off, and then it may be another ball game.”

In the beginning I had a hard time to composed myself and thinking about how to start this essay. Until I found myself searching for my pen and a pad of paper and started to write of things that I have done in my existence.

Oftentimes I find myself staring at something I don’t even see. But I can see something more imaginative on the screen of my mind. But what do I really think of? I think of my family, friends, my girlfriends, and the people of my past and the people of my future. Later on when I get back to the real world, I realized how much time I have wasted.

But later still I want to reminisce, and think again of many things, both pleasant and unpleasant. I realized that whether they are pleasant or unpleasant they are still worth thinking of. They don’t make any difference for they serve the same purpose in shaping me for what I am now.

I was born from a Christian family and grew up with God-fearing and God-loving person. On this year Thanksgiving Day, I will be celebrating my 18th birthday. We are five in the family; I have a sister and a brother who are very supportive to me. My family is the epitome of prominence that gives me the thought of living a wonderful life for they are very understanding and always there for me no matter what.

I have the reasons to be proud of my self because I have my family, my friends, and my girlfriend. I can sweep you off your feet with my debonair and gentlemanly ways, but hands off, single girls, I’m happily taken. You can just catch glimpses when I’m around. I’m actually sensible and quite perceptive. I am a very frank person but sometimes a smooth talker; I can make you believe that pigs have wings. However, I am a considerate person who possesses one of those smiles that make you forget all your troubles. My friends would tell me that I am a nice person. After all, if I weren’t nice, I won’t have many friends.

A very hardworking person you can see in me and with high expectations to every people I meet. Despite my disposition, I can be easily approach. Some of you may see me in mid-stride, overwhelming with an air of super cool confidence but digging deeper into my persona, you will find that I am the 3’s: serious, sensitive, and sentimental. You should not base your judgment on your first impression because once you get to know me deeper; your first impression won’t last.

I am most determined to be like my father or better than him, who like him is very responsible of his family. Who has a lovely wife; my mom, and wonderful three children. Soon as I got my bachelors degree, I will be handling one of the family’s businesses with the dignity to continue and make it bigger for a better future.

In the hurry scurry of the everyday life, we still find time to reminisce our childhood years and that makes us smile. Life is full of beautiful things: soft sunsets, painted rainbows, delicate blossoms, love and laughter, quiet moments and good friends like I have. Friends everyone should have. They enjoys being with me, accepts me for who I am, and is faithful when the chips are down. We’ve gone through a lot of difficulties that friends usually going through but still we are together. We would travel jointly and have some fun. On weekends and whenever we feel to, we would play golf, or go skiing or yet get involve in fishing. You know when you are up, your friends know who you are and when you are down, you know who your friends are. We are like siblings and a family.

50 years from now, I’d be so old or else I might not be physically present here anymore. Whatever it may be, I might forget them, or might not remember ever knowing them or might forget that I once cared for them, I might but I won’t, because they are my friends whom I can let into the house when I am turning out drawers.

Releted essay – 

For one million memories, for one hundred thousand inside jokes, for ten thousand great times, for one hundred secrets there is only one reason: we are friends.

A large part of my person was telling me to let go and choose the safe way out. My friends would tell me that wits rule over the idiocy of the heart. I believed them. The problem was that my soul seemed to have a mind of its own and refused to see reason. I used to be a player, a great player not until I met Christi.

It was late Wednesday morning I was too busy listening to the radio when a friend invited me out. I went to the meeting place and grabbed a chair sat next to this beautiful girl. A little while, we were having a chat. I was star stricken and almost forgot that I was going to meet instead my good old friend. Later on, we became close. At times, he would join my friends and me for lunch or snack and she would then insist that I eat with her friends as well.

One day, I just realized that i am falling in love with her. There are times that I think I was falling out of love. But whenever that happens, something would happen; someone would come along and tell things about her as if implying that she feels the same way too.  And somehow my dying feelings would be restored to life.

She may seem to be the answer to all the prayers and wishes I have made for the last seventeen years of my existence-for me to find that someone who would manage to complete this weary soul and tame this heart who used to play with girls.

I was then too scared to allow her to come into my life. I have suffered enough disappointments. I want the person I will give my heart and soul to would be worth all the pain and sacrifices.

One night, as I sat in front of the altar, I was trying to recall everything that happened from the first time we talked up to the day we had watched a movie.

I knew by the end of that day that she was the one. Hearing her talk about life, seeing how interested she was in what I had to say, my heart has finally found home.

I like the way she value the people he love. I envy the way she would look certainly at life. I value the way she shows her concern not only to me but also to everyone she meets. She is the only girl I know who can manage to be composed under difficulty. And she wouldn’t judge nor preach, the way she just look at me straight in the eyed tell me in not so many words that she understand me completely and that her whole being is there to catch me when I fall.

In short, I love her.

I love her for the entire she is, for all that she stands for and believe in. she is worth every tear I have shed. I choose to love her through all the days of my life. I thank her for making me realized that life isn’t just about playing. I now understand what love is-Christi.

They are the people who have always been my inspiration in living life to the fullest. My family, friends, and Christi motivated me and have molded me for what I am now. No life could be better than living it according to one’s desires with respect to success and good reputation. I don’t let the day passed without telling them that I care and love them. I always cherish the day with them.

In developing my personality, I just don’t only need my whole self but the people around me have got something to do to of how I had grown up. And thanks to them that I know I am a better person now because of them. My life wouldn’t be as fulfilled as like now if not because of my determination to make up from my incomprehensible perplexity. There’s always a better outlook.

Works Cited:

• “Essay Structure”. BestEssays.com. 2007 < http://www.bestessays.com/guide.php>.

An Overarching View of Nature vs. Nature Katonia H. Dunaway Coppin State University Nature vs. Nurture 2 You got your brown eyes from your mother and your height from your father. But where did you get your thrill seeking personality and your talent for basketball. Did you get your eyes from your mom and your natural skill from your dad, or was it predetermined by your genes? Nature vs. Nurture 3

The nature versus nurture debate is one of the oldest issues in psychology. The debate centers on the relative contributions of genetic inheritance and environmental factors to human development. Some philosophers such as Plato and Descartes suggested that certain things are inborn, or that they simply occur naturally regardless of environmental influences. Other well-known thinkers such as John Locke believed in what is known as tabula rosa, which suggests that the mind begins as a blank slate (2). According to this notion, everything that we are and all of our knowledge is determined by our experience.

For example, when a person achieves tremendous academic success, did they do so because they are genetically predisposed to be successful, or is it a result of an enriched environment (2). Today, the majority of experts believe that behavior and development are influence by both nature and nurture. However, the issue still rages on in many areas, such as in the debate on the origins of homosexuality and influences on intelligence. Nature vs. Nurture 4 Nature- Heredity Scientists have known for years that traits such as eye color and hair color are determined by specific genes encoded in each human cell.

The Nature Theory takes things a step further to say that more abstract traits such as intelligence, personality, aggression, and sexual orientation are also encoded in an individual’s DNA(4). While it’s clear that physical characteristics are hereditary, the genetic waters get a bit murkier when it comes to an individual’s behavior, intelligence, and personality. Ultimately, the old argument of nature vs. nurture has never really been won. We do not yet know how much of what we are is determined by our DNA and how much by our life experience.

But we do know that ultimately both play a part. It has been reported that the use of the terms “nature” and “nurture” as a convenient catch-phrase for the roles of heredity and environment in human development can be traced back to the 13th century France (1). Scientists think that people behave as they do according to genetic predispositions or even “animal instincts. ” This is known as the “nature” theory of human behavior (5). Other scientists believe that people think and behave in certain ways because they are taught to do so.

This is known as the “nurture” theory of human behavior (5). Nature vs. Nurture 5 Fast-growing understanding of the human genome has recently made it clear that both sides are partly right. Nature endows us with inborn abilities and traits; nurture takes these genetic tendencies and molds them as we learn and mature. But that’s not all. The “nature vs. nurture” debate still rages on, as scientist fight over how much of whom we are is shaped by genes. Nurture – Environment

While not discounting that genetic tendencies may exist, supporters of the nurture theory believe they ultimately don’t matter and that our behavioral aspects originate only from the environmental factors of our upbringing. Studies on infant and child temperament have revealed the most crucial evidence for nurture theories and how much by the environment (6). American psychologist John Watson, best known for his controversial experiments with a young orphan named Albert, demonstrated that the acquisition of a phobia could be explained by classical conditioning.

A strong proponent of environmental learning, he said: Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select… regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations and race of his ancestors(3). Nature vs. Nurture 6 Harvard psychologist B. F. Skinner’s early experiments produced pigeons that could dance, do figure eights, and play tennis.

Today known as the father of behavioral science, he eventually went on to prove that human behavior could be conditioned in much the same way as animals (4). If environment didn’t play a part in determining an individual’s traits and behaviors, then identical twins should, theoretically, be exactly the same in all respects, even if reared apart. But a number of studies show that they are never exactly alike, even though they are remarkably similar in most respects (1). So, was the way we behave engrained in us before we were born? Or has it developed over time in response to our experiences?

Researchers on all sides of the nature vs. nurture debate agree that the link between a gene and a behavior is not the same as cause and effect. While a gene may increase the likelihood that you’ll behave in a particular way, it does not make people do things. This in turn means that we still get to choose who we’ll be when we grow up and the argument of nature vs. nurture continues to have theorist explore the question. References 1. Fierro, Pamela. Identical or Fraternal? You Can’t Always Tell by Looking Retrieved from http://www. about. com Guide. 2. Howe, M.

J. A. (1997). IQ in Question: The truth about intelligence. London: Sage. 3. Hughes, Neiman. Nature vs. Nurture Ended. Retrieved from http://www. HumanNurtureome. org. 4. Johnson, Ramon. Nature versus Nurture. Newsletter, (2008, November 2) Pages 1-4. Retrieved February 28, 2010 from http://www. about. com. Guide. 5. Murray, Ralph. Nature vs. Nature Intelligence. Retrieved from http://www. wilderdom. com. 6. Powell, Kimberly. (2004, September 28). Are We Really Born That Way? Retrieved February 28, 2010 from http://www. docstoc. com.

————————————————- Integrative Theory of Counseling By Rachelle Remy Liberty Baptist Theological Seminary In partial fulfillment of the requirements of Theology and Spirituality in Counseling PACO 507 Lynchburg, VA December 13, 2012 Table of Contents Abstract…………………………………………………………………………………… 3 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………. 4 Theory of Personality……………. ………………………………………………………. 4 Definition………………………………………………………………………… 4 Personality Structure…………………………………………………………….. 5 Motivation……………………………………………………………………….. Human Development… …………………………………………………………… 7 Individual Differences……………………………………………………………. 8 Where are Problems Developed………………………………………………………………………………. 8 Definition of Health………………………………………………………………. 8 Definition of Illness…………………………………………… …………………10 Developing the Framework for cure……………………………………………………….. 10 Attributes of my Theory…………………………………………………………11 Techniques of the Therapeutic Process………………………………………….. 2 Indication of Success…………………………………………………………….. 13 My Theory Relationship to a Comprehensive Worldview……………………………….. 13 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………… 14 References ………………………………………………………………………………… 15 Abstract When persons seek counseling, they are often asking what they can do to change things and wondering why their life is like it is. Counseling helps clients develop skills to cope with the dilemmas in their lives while theological reflection can help clients make meaning of these same dilemmas.

Secular counseling can be a great help to non-Christian and Christian clients by simply injecting a spiritual dynamic to counseling, especially, if the counselor has the skills in assessing the appropriate amount of integrating psychological theories with Biblical and spiritual dynamics. This paper seeks to validate that, by using techniques from the psychological area in conjunction with theological truths while being cognizant of a person’s core spirit, a therapist can combine all disciplines to help clients.

The process has a way to hone your perspective so you can focus on what really matters. We spend time and energy investing on what’s Not Important at the Expense of what’s Important. Introduction The world contains a wide variety of people, who experience a wide variety of problems coming from any number of sources. Consequently, a comprehensive theory of counseling must also address the major traits that constitute our personality; thus the need for a unified or comprehensive counseling model.

Hawkins (2010) believes that the development of a comprehensive theory for counseling should incorporate responsibly insights from theology, psychology, and spirituality, while giving preference to scriptural/theological truth as foundational for resolving what appear to be contradictions between scripture and psychology. Hawkins’ model of counseling draws heavily on Crabb’s (1977) model and on the multi-tasking model of integration of Mark McMinn (1996). The model is illustrated with five concentric circles that diagram self and the forces that shape personality.

I. The Concept/theory of Human Personality A. Definition The study of the human personality has been vast and has produced many and varied opinions, theories and hypotheses. The complexity of the human personality is the attributing factor why so many Christians are experiencing stress, despair, depression, discouragement and defeat today. Many define personality as the ability to elicit positive reactions from other people in one’s typical dealings with them. Personality is a conglomerate.

It is the sum total of what a person is – including his beliefs, attitudes, physical attributes, actions, thoughts and so on. Even larger than the mountain of research and statements on the human personality, is the question of what causes varying personalities? Is it nature, or is it nurture? B. Personality Structure Delineation of Personality Structure Personality can be shaped by many environmental factors, such as family, socioeconomic status, and even biological factors. Hawkins delineates five areas, the core, soul, body, temporal systems, and supernatural systems that make up human personality.

These forces work together to shape how a person develops, each impacting the individual’s nature. As demonstrated by Anderson (2000), spiritual forces have a tremendous impact on personality development and cannot be excluded from the growth process. Wilson (2001) claims that we are influenced at an early age and throughout adulthood by many different systems. Many times deep wounds and deep hurts affect the restoration project in a person’s life. When one believes the lies that are associated with shame, it “… ontaminates all my perceptions, choices, and relationships (Wilson, 2001, pp. 18). ” In addressing the core circle which deals with the image of God, sin, breath of life and human spirit, Crabb (1977) believes that the image of God in man is contained within four capacities: personal, rational, volitional, and emotional. Crabb notes that “the primary problem with people today is misplaced dependency” (1977, p. 139). When our dependency for having our basic needs of security and significance is on anything other than the Lord God, we will have problems.

Tozer (1993) puts it best “the man who has God for his treasure has all things in One. ” The Bible tells us that God created all things for man’s pleasure and subservient to him. However, He made man for His own glory and pleasure. Whenever that order is violated, our lives become self-centered, rather than God-centered. This leads us to a very important component of the human personality – Motivation. C. Motivation Generally speaking Motivation is what causes us to act. It involves the biological, emotional, social and cognitive forces that activate behavior.

Motivation is one of the concepts Crabb uses in dealing with how problems develop. He says, “The direction which I am motivated to follow in an effort to meet my needs depends on. . . what I think will meet those needs” (Crabb, p. 117). The client is motivated to meet his needs for being loved and have a purpose for living. Backus and Chapian (2000) advocate that most of what happens in life happens because of the way we think. Wrong thinking produces wrong emotions, wrong reactions, wrong behavior, which leads to anxiety, depression, and unhappiness.

They propose that our emotions are not created by what happens to us; rather, our emotions are created by what we tell ourselves about what happens to us; thus affecting our unconscious mind. Crabb describes the unconscious as, “. . . the reservoir of basic assumptions which people firmly and emotionally hold about how to meet their needs of significance and security” (p. 91). The unconscious mind is the area of the soul that must be renewed daily as it affords Satan opportunities to implement his illusory strategies. Our interpretations can be misguided.

Anderson (2000) affirms that “Satan’s first and foremost strategy is deception” (p. 23). The catalyst of true transformation is the renewing of our mind, as the Bible teaches us in Romans 12:2 (NKJ) “And do not be conformed to this world, but be transformed by the renewing of your mind…” The transformation process should then lead to a higher level of Maturity. D. Human Development The concept of human development warrants an understanding of how personality and behavior develops in people. According to Erick Erickson (1950), Life is a series of lessons and challenges which help us to grow.

Erikson’s psychosocial theory essentially states that each person experiences eight ‘psychosocial crises’ (internal conflicts linked to life’s key stages) which help to define his or her growth and personality. Erickson asserts that when a person passes unsuccessfully through a psychosocial crisis stage they develop a tendency towards one or other of the opposing forces, which then becomes a behavioral tendency, or even a mental problem. Ultimately, as one progress through the different life stages, they acquire a higher level of maturity, which is the ultimate goal of Christian counseling.

Crabb explains that Christian maturity is achieved by moving OVER to biblical consistency and pressing UP by developing an attitude of Christ like submission to the Father’s will (Crabb, p. 29). “Maturity involves two elements: (1) immediate obedience in specific situations and (2) long-range character growth” (Crabb, p. 23). He contends that the goal of Christian counselors should be to increase the maturity of clients by becoming more like God and striving to please Him in every activity and thought. With his “Four-Step Biblical Process” Adams (1986) offers his contribution to the concept of Christian maturity.

The substratum of Adams’ four (4) steps is 2 Timothy 3:14-17, which teach that All Scripture is inspired by God and is profitable for (1) teaching, for (2) rebuking (or convicting), for (3) correcting, and lastly (4) for training in righteousness, so that the man of God may be complete, equipped for every good work. ” (p. 13). E. Individual differences As a person matures the experiences felt in life will alter his/her personality. Sometimes these changes can be good leading to normal development and growth. Conversely, experiences in life can be traumatic and hurtful leading to abnormal development and destructive behavior.

Hawkins states that it is important that as counselors we understand the “shaping influences that have contributed to the development of the ideas, feelings, and choices of the client. ” These influences result in individual differences and can stem from many places as a human being matures. Personality traits such as discussed in Hart 2001)’s book The Anxiety Cure, can influence how a person perceives events, people, and life. Writing from personal experience, Wilson (2001) believes that, “what we learn in our families shape every area of our lives. When children grow up in hurtful homes, they do not learn the basics of healthy relationships (Wilson, 2001, p. 124). Using a cognitive behavioral approach and an emphasis on family structure, Dr. Wilson expounds that children are unable to think for themselves because of their lack of ability and reasoning capabilities. II. Where are problems developed? A. Definition of Health The three factors to determining health, according to McMinn, are accurate awareness of self, accurate awareness of needs, and involvement in healthy relationships. Basing self worth on the word of God is the most useful tool in bringing clients to health.

There must be a goal to work toward within every counseling model. For the Christian counselor the overarching goal must be to bring the client to a place where they become the image bearer of God, as was intended in the first place. In order to achieve this goal a strategy of intervention must be implemented. Hawkins clearly defines his strategy of intervention within his grid for tracking progress. Hawkins states, “There are areas that need to be investigated that contribute to the shaping of the self and it is these areas in which the strengths or weaknesses will be discovered.

They are the areas of the Spiritual, the thoughts, the decision, the feelings, the relationships (system) and the body. ” It is within these areas that the counselor, ultimately, would seek to help the client come to a place of wholeness and closeness to God. Sandra Wilson (2001) directs hurt people to the Bible to find their source of certainty. She lists Biblical references in order to aid in development of a healthy self image based on the unconditional love of Jesus Christ.

Archibald Hart (1999) says that it is helpful to practice self-talk based on truth Cloud and Townsend (2002), in Boundaries in Marriage, state that a person who is healthy displays certain characteristics: they are open to feedback and correction; are not defensive; take ownership of own problems, choices, feelings, attitudes, and behaviors; can see themselves and observe their behavior; value relationships; value the individuality of others; allow others to be different; respect other’s differences; and see their own need for growth.

When all of these attributes are in place then an individual can live out of a place of obedience to the two greatest commandments; “love the Lord with all your heart, mind, and soul and love your neighbor as yourself. ”(Matthew 22:37-39)  This truly is being an image barer of God. The overarching goal as listed by Hawkins is the imitation of Christ as stated in Ephesians 5:1. B. Definition of Illness Many theorists put faces on illnesses such as anxiety, sin, lust, neglect or depression.

They are endless in the forms they take: biological, emotional and cognitive; just to name a few. Both Christian and secular psychologists agree illness is a break from the socialistic norms that are in place. Illness has many causes; as noted earlier Wilson emphasizes outside influences as well as hereditary make up, while Hart singles out personality type and drive that cause burnout. Cloud and Townsend contend illness stems from a lack of boundaries, while Backus and Chapian hold to thoughts and beliefs to which the individual agrees.

In Wilson’s Healing Overview and Progress Evaluation (HOPE) chart, hurting people are led through a process that identifies the key issue, applies truth to it, makes new choices and them puts them into practice. Becoming aware of thought processes makes change easier. The inability to react well to stress can be genetic. Hart explains that, “Type-A people (those that are driven, ‘hot reactors,’ and always in a hurry) inherit a large part of this tendency rather than develop it later in life” (p. 55). Sin is at the very heart of illness, it is Satan’s intent to steal, kill, and destroy mankind and he will use every opportunity available. John 10:10) and as asserted by Adams, any Christian counselor that minimizes sin being at the root of all human problems is doing a disservice to his client. Sin affects every area of human life including thoughts, actions and relations. Satan is on constant watch, waiting for Christians to slip up in areas of vulnerability. III. Developing the Framework for the Cure. A. The attributes of my theory The goal of the Christian counselor is to promote mental and spiritual growth, so that the client can draw from their faith and look to God for guidance.

The most important part of change is the understanding of eternal life which completely changes reasons for existing. Shame, guilt and blame were washed away by the sacrifice that Jesus made on the cross. When this fact is ignored, much healing is denied. The whole idea of healing originates in Biblical history. Moses writes, “…for I am the Lord Who heals you” (Exodus 15:26 (NKJ). Acceptance, empathy and genuineness are all qualities that a counselor must use to put the client at ease in order for them to tell their story.

Crabb teaches that identification of problem feelings can only happen when the client feels accepted by the counselor. In Hawkins’ model of strategic intervention he clearly lays out a plan of action that leads to freedom for the entire person. He proposes each part of the self is in need of a cure and must be included in any comprehensive model of counseling. The entire person must be addressed with looking for a cure as dysfunction in one area will have an impact on other areas of the self. When addressing each part of the person, it is important for the cure to entail strategies that will be most beneficial for each area.

Within the core and connected self, Backus and Chapian propose taking the client through a three step approach of  locating the misbelief, removing the misbelief, and replacing the misbelief with truth in order to bring the individual back in line with their identity of being an image barer of God. For the covered self, what Hawkins calls the soul, Hart proposes rest and relaxation to combat anxiety, stating, “There is no tool more crucial to recovery from anxiety than the ability to produce a relaxation response. Anderson advocates that the constrained self, which is affected by natural and supernatural forces, must be confronted with truth in order for the client to be set free from the bondage of them. He states, “Freedom from spiritual conflicts and bondage is not a power encounter; it’s a truth encounter. ” B. Techniques of the Therapeutic Process In the helping relationship, techniques are used to help the client reach the point of change. One approach that Christian counselors should not be without is prayer.

When developing a therapeutic model of counseling one of the first steps toward success is making sure the counselee feels comfortable and safe. Crabb states, “Counseling is a relationship. Relationship interactions vary depending on the temperaments, problems, or personalities of the people involved. A counselor that can establish relationship from the very beginning will have better success in the long run. One of the common threads found throughout the resources used for this paper is the concept of truth.

Wilson, Backus and Chapian, and Anderson all agree that helping the client to understand the truth and let go of misbeliefs is one of the most important steps in any therapeutic process. Hawkins’ four phase process includes: (1) Listening well to the presenting story. (2) Develop with the counselee a preferred future. (3) Develop an action plan. When dealing with some common misconceptions, Anderson believes that the counselee will be able to dispel the wrong beliefs about the spiritual world that keeps him/her in darkness by moving from a Western worldview to a Biblical worldview.

C. Indication of Success The accuracy and effectiveness of any theoretical assumption is best measured by a changed life. When a counselee comes into a counseling session distraught and in pain, if the counselor can see a visible change in their countenance as they leave then they can know their methods were affective. When there is visible evidence of a destructive behavior being turned into a constructive behavior the counselor can be assured they are doing something right. True success in counseling is defined by progress not perfection.

McMinn’s theory states, “A more careful look suggests that spiritual and psychological health require a confident (but not inflated) sense of self, an awareness of human need, and limitations, and confiding inter personal relationships with God and others. ” If the methods being incorporated within the counseling model are in line with the Word of God and bring hope for change to the counselee results will be seen. By following the leading of the Spirit first while applying Biblical techniques one can be assured success. As aforementioned, the overarching goal should be the imitation of Christ.

IV. My Theory Relationship to a Comprehensive Worldview Each participant in the counseling process possesses a worldview, whether they realize it or not. These worldviews affect the way therapy progresses. It is important for the Christian counselor to have a comprehensive understanding of what his worldview consists of. The Biblical worldview sifts all information through the sieve of God’s Word. It was not God’s intent for Christians to tolerate bondage and unhealthy restraints in their lives, because what is tolerated eventually dominates.

Jesus was the example on earth for us to follow even stating, “…He who believes in Me, the works that I do he will do also; and greater works than these he will do…” (John 14:12 (NKJ). The freedom found in following after the example of Jesus and living out the promise of His word is the true inheritance Jesus left for all who believe on Him. This comprehensive theory covers all important aspects of a Biblical worldview. Possessing the ability to multitask ensures that all important aspects of worldview are included.

Uniting psychology, spirituality, and theology encompasses all the components of human behavior necessary to assess functioning. The theory presented here allows the Biblical worldview to emerge as dominant in order to resolve any conflicts between Scripture and psychology. V. Conclusion A complete counseling session would also incorporate concepts drawn from theology, psychology, and spirituality, giving weight to theology as the foundational truth from which to build as well as bring balance to the model. Proverbs 1:2 instructs us “To know wisdom and instruction, to perceive the words of understanding”.

Integration of the three areas of human behavior, psychology, theology and spirituality provide a comprehensive understanding of what makes an individual function. The discipline of theology must be the basis from which Christian counselors choose which theories, techniques and processes to use. References Adams, J. E. (1986). How to help people change. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House. Anderson, N. T. (2006). The bondage breaker (New and Expanded Edition). Eugene, OR: Harvest House Publishers. Backus, W. D. , & Chapian, M. (2000). Telling yourself the truth (20th ed. ). Minneapolis, MN: Bethany House Publishers. Beck, J. 2001). Introducing Christian doctrine (2nd ed. ). Grand Rapids, MI:Baker Academic. Crabb, L. (1986). Effective biblical counseling: A model for helping caring Christians become capable counselors. Grand Rapids, MI: Zondervan. Erikson, E. H. (1950). Childhood and Society. New York: Norton. Hawkins, R. (2010). Hawkins’ model for guiding the counseling process. Lynchburg, VA: Liberty University, Counseling Department Kollar, C. A. (1997). Solution-focused pastoral counseling. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House. Mark R. McMinn. (1996). Psychology, Theology and Spirituality in Christian Counseling. Tyndale House Publishers, Inc.