Physics

It includes the pipe and flow features of the transported fluid under specified operating conditions as established in the design footing.

Speed

The grapevine has to be laid for the distance of 770km between Portland and Montreal, the fluid in the pipe is Light Crude Oil.

Speed of flow in a grapevine is the mean speed based on the pipe diameter and liquid flow rate. Its choice is first measure in the scheming process of our undertaking. The flow speed can hold both advantages and drawbacks. High speeds can do turbulency, and the contact of the fluid on the walls of the pipe which will do harm to the pipes and finally gnaw away the pipe, while low speed on the other manus can do the deposition of particulates in the line and cleanliness of the fluid will be compromised. Therefore, to avoid these problemsliquid lines are usually sized to keep a speed sufficient to maintain the solid atoms from lodging and besides to forestall the eroding of the pipe. Under these considerations the recommended speed is in the scope of 3ft/s to 8ft/s.

From this selected scope of speed we have to choose a individual speed. The speed we have selected for our line is 5ft/s. This is the intermediate speed from the recommended scope and all the farther computations will be done on this speed.

Velocity Selection

The scope as mentioned above is taken every bit 3ft/s to 5ft/s. The following measure is to choose a individual speed from this scope. We have selected 5ft/s for our line. The ground for this speed choice is the tradeoff between pipe diameter and figure of pump Stationss. Harmonizing to continuity equation if we increase the speed, the corresponding diameter will cut down but the force per unit area loss will increase due to which a higher figure of pump Stationss are required. Similarly if we decrease the speed, the figure of pump Stationss will cut down but the diameter will increase for a given flow rate. Since the grapevine is laid over a long distance, the grapevine cost holds the major portion of the capital investing hence increasing the diameter will adversely impact the economic sciences of grapevine. This tradeoff is seeable in the computations shown in appendix A.

The other ground for taking this speed is that if the flow rate fluctuates in the hereafter for any ground the diameter selected from this intermediate speed will be able to suit those fluctuations without impacting our system.

Diameter Calculation

Calculation of the diameter is the nucleus of the hydraulic designing.The diameter selected should be able to back up the emphasiss on the pipe, the capacity of the fluid and minimise the force per unit area losingss.

Under given flow rate and false speeds, we can cipher the pipe diameter utilizing continuity equation:

V=Q/A

Volt: Flow speed

Q: Volume flow rate

A: Cross sectional country

The flow rate is given as 109,000bbl/day or 7.1ft^3/s. The diameters are calculated at 3, 4, 5ft/s speeds and the several diameters are 20.83 ” , 18.04 ” and 16.14 ” .

Choice of Diameter

As mentioned above 5ft/s is selected as the recommended speed and the corresponding internal diameter ( ID ) is 16.14in.

Nominal Pipe Size

For the internal diameter later we have to cipher the nominal pipe size. To cipher the nominal diameter we refer to the “ Pipe Data ” provided for the Carbon Steel. From the tabular array shown in appendix B, it is found out that attendant nominal pipe size will be 18in.

Features of Flow

Different flow belongingss are calculated to find the government of flow, losingss in the pipes.

The nature of the flow can be laminal or turbulent.There are two types of the losingss. Major losingss include the losingss due to clash in consecutive pipes and minor losingss due to decompression sicknesss, valves, tees.

To cipher these we will be covering with Reynolds figure ( for nature of flow ) , Moody diagram ( for clash factor ) and head loss computations.

Losingss

As the fluid flows through the pipe there is clash at the pipe wall and unstable interface in the consecutive parts of the pipe due to interference between the fluid and the walls of the pipe. This clash consequences in consequences in the loss of energy in the lineat the disbursal of liquid force per unit area and the losingss are known as the major losingss.

Pipe systems consist of constituents in add-on to consecutive pipes. These include decompression sicknesss, valves, tees etc and add farther to the losingss in the line. These losingss are termed as minor losses.Experimental information is used to cipher these losingss as the theoretical anticipation is complex.

Major Losingss

The force per unit area bead due to clash in a grapevine depends on the flow rate, pipe diameter, pipe raggedness, liquid specific gravitation, and viscousness. In add-on, the frictional force per unit area bead depends on the Reynolds figure ( and therefore the flow government ) . Therefore, the fluid in the grapevine will undergo force per unit area losingss as it runs in the line and cut down the operating force per unit area. This loss needs to be recovered and to keep the force per unit area pumps are installed at specific locations harmonizing to the demand ( pumps are discussed in Chapter in front ) . These force per unit area losingss are calculated by utilizing the Darcy-Weisbach expression

a?†P = degree Fahrenheit ( L/D ) ( V^2/2 ) I?

Where,

f=Darcy clash factor, dimensionless, normally a figure between 0.008 and 0.10

L=Pipe length, foot

D=Pipe internal diameter, foot

The force per unit area loss for speed of 5ft/s comes out to be 9625.15psi. All the relevant computations are shown in appendix A.

Minor Losingss

Real grapevine systems largely consist of more than consecutive pipes. The extra constituents ( valves, tees and decompression sicknesss ) add to the overall loss of the system. These are termed as minor losingss. In instance of really long pipes, these losingss are normally undistinguished incomparison to theA unstable clash in the length considered. But in caseA of short pipes, these minor losingss may really be major losingss such as inA suction pipe of a pumpwith strainer and pes valves.These losingss represent extra energy dissipation in the flow, normally caused by secondary flows induced by curvature or recirculation.

Minor loss in diverging flow is much larger than thatA in meeting flow. Minor lossesgenerally increase with an addition in the geometric deformation of the flow. Thoughminor losingss are normally confined to a veryA short length of way, the effects mayA notdisappear for a considerable distance downstream. ItA is undistinguished in instance ofA laminar flow.

The force per unit area bead through valves and adjustments is generallyexpressed in footings of the liquid kinetic energy V2/2g multiplied by a head loss coefficient K. Comparing this with the Darcy-Weisbach equation for caput loss in a pipe, we can see the undermentioned analogy. For a consecutive pipe, the caput loss H is V2/2g multiplied by the factor ( fL/D ) . Therefore, the caput loss coefficient for a consecutive pipe is fL/D.

Therefore, the force per unit area bead in a valve or adjustment is calculated as follows:

h=K ( V^2 ) /2g

Where,

h=Head loss due to valve or suiting, foot

K=Head loss coefficient for the valve or adjustment, dimensionless

V=Velocity of liquid through valve or adjustment, ft/s

g=Acceleration due to gravitation, 32.2 ft/s2 in English units

The caput loss coefficient K is, for a given flow geometry, considered practically changeless at high Reynolds figure. K increases with pipe raggedness and with lower Reynolds Numberss. In general the value of K is determined chiefly by the flow geometry or by the form of the pressureloss device.

Minor loss is by and large expressed in one ofA the two ways

In footings of minor loss factor K.

In footings length, tantamount to aA certain length of consecutive pipe, usuallyexpressed in footings of figure of pipe diameter.

The minor losingss for our system are calculated and consequence in a really low value and can easy be neglected.

Reynolds Number

Flow in a liquid grapevine may be smooth, laminar flow, besides known as syrupy or streamline flow. In this type of flow the liquid flows in beds or laminations without doing Eddies or turbulency. But as the speed increases the flow alterations from laminar to turbulent with Eddies and turbulencies. The of import parametric quantity used in sorting the type of flow in the pipe is called Reynolds Number.

Reynolds figure gives us the ratio of inertial forces to syrupy forces and is used to find the nature of flow utilizing the recommended speed and the internal diameter. Reynolds figure is given by

Re = I?VD/Aµ

Flow through pipes is classified into three chief flow governments and depending upon the Reynolds figure, flow through pipes will fall in one of the undermentioned three flow governments.

1. Laminar flow: R & lt ; 2000

2. Critical flow: R & gt ; 2000 and R & lt ; 4000

3. Disruptive flow: R & gt ; 4000

Friction Factor

Friction Factor is a dimensionless figure required to cipher the force per unit area losingss in the pipe. Trials have shown that degree Fahrenheit is dependent upon Reynolds figure and comparative raggedness of the pipe. Relative raggedness is ratio of absolute pipe wall raggedness Iµ to the pipe diameter D.

For laminar flow, with Reynolds figure R & lt ; 2000, the Darcy clash factor degree Fahrenheit is calculated from the simple relationship

f=64/R

For laminar flow the clash factor depends merely on the Reynolds figure and is independent of the internal status of the pipe. Therefore, irrespective of whether the pipe is smooth or unsmooth, the clash factor for laminar flow is a figure that varies reciprocally with the Reynolds figure.

For turbulent flow, when the Reynolds figure R & gt ; 4000, the clash factor degree Fahrenheit depends non merely on R but besides on the internal raggedness of the pipe. As the pipe raggedness additions, so does the clash factor. Therefore, smooth pipes have a smaller clash factor compared with unsmooth pipes. More significantly, clash factor depends on the comparative raggedness ( Iµ/D ) instead than the absolute pipe raggedness Iµ .

In the disruptive part it can be calculated utilizing either the Colebrook-White equation or the Moody Diagram.

Colebrook-White Equation

The Colebrook equation is an inexplicit equation that combines experimental consequences of surveies of turbulent flow in smooth and unsmooth pipe The Colebrook equation is given as:

1/a?sf = -2log ( ( Iµ/3.7D ) + ( 2.51/Rea?sf ) )

But the turbulent flow part ( R & gt ; 4000 ) consists of three separate parts:

Turbulent flow in smooth pipes

Turbulent flow in to the full unsmooth pipes

Passage flow between smooth and unsmooth pipes

For disruptive flow in smooth pipes, pipe raggedness has a negligible consequence on the clash factor. Therefore, the clash factor in this part depends merely on the Reynolds figure as follows:

1/a?sf = -2log ( 2.51/Rea?sf )

For disruptive flow in to the full unsmooth pipes, the clash factor degree Fahrenheit appears to be less dependent on the Reynolds figure as the latter additions in magnitude. It depends merely on the pipe raggedness and diameter. It can be calculated from the undermentioned equation:

1/a?sf = -2log ( ( Iµ/3.7D )

For the passage part between turbulent flow in smooth pipes and turbulent flow in to the full unsmooth pipes, the clash factor degree Fahrenheit is calculated utilizing the Colebrook-White equation given above:

1/a?sf = -2log ( ( Iµ/3.7D ) + ( 2.51/Rea?sf ) )

Moody Diagram

The Colebrook equation is an inexplicit equation and requires test and mistake method to cipher f.To provide the easiness for ciphering f scientists and research workers developed a graphical method known as Moody diagram.The Moody chart or Moody diagramis a graph that relates the clash factor, Reynolds figure and comparative raggedness for to the full developed flow in a round pipe.In the diagram clash factor is plotted poetries Reynolds figure. The curves are plotted utilizing the experimental information. The Moody diagram represents the complete clash factor map for laminar and all disruptive parts of pipe flows.

To utilize the Moody diagram for finding the clash factor degree Fahrenheit we foremost calculate the Reynolds figure R for the flow. Following, we find the location on the horizontal axis of Reynolds figure for the value of R and pull a perpendicular line that intersects with the appropriate comparative raggedness ( e/D ) curve. From this point of intersection on the ( e/D ) curve, we read the value of the clash factor degree Fahrenheit on the perpendicular axis on the left.

Other Pressure Drop Relations

Hazen-Williams Equation

The Hazen-Williams equation is normally used in the design of waterdistribution lines and in the computation of frictional force per unit area bead inrefined crude oil merchandises such as gasolene and Diesel. This methodinvolves the usage of the Hazen-Williams C-factor alternatively of pipe roughnessor liquid viscousness. The force per unit area bead computation utilizing the Hazen-Williams equation takes into history flow rate, pipe diameter, and specificgravity as follows:

h=4.73L ( Q/C ) 1.852/D4.87

Where,

h=Head loss due to clash, foot

L=Pipe length, foot

D=Pipe internal diameter, foot

Q=Flow rate, ft3/s

C=Hazen-Williams coefficient or C-factor, dimensionless

In customary grapevine units, the Hazen-Williams equation can berewritten as follows in English units:

Q=0.1482 ( C ) ( D ) 2.63 ( Pm/Sg ) 0.54

Where,

Q=Flow rate, bbl/day

D=Pipe internal diameter, in.

Pm=Frictional force per unit area bead, psi/mile

Sg=Liquid specific gravitation

Another signifier of Hazen-Williams equation, when the flow rate is in gal/ min and caput loss is measured in pess of liquid per thousand pess of pipe is as follows:

GPM=6.7547A-10-3 ( C ) ( D ) 2.63 ( HL ) 0.54

Where,

GPM=Flow rate, gal/min

HL=Friction loss, foot of liquid per 1000 foot of pipe

In SI units, the Hazen-Williams equation is as follows:

Q=9.0379A-10-8 ( C ) ( D ) 2.63 ( Pkm/Sg ) 0.54

Where,

Q=Flow rate, m3/hr

D=Pipe internal diameter, millimeter

Pkm=Frictional force per unit area bead, kPa/km

Sg=Liquid specific gravitation

Shell-MIT Equation

The Shell-MIT equation, sometimes called the MIT equation, is used in the computation of force per unit area bead in heavy petroleum oil and heated liquid grapevines. Using this method, a modified Reynolds figure Rm iscalculated foremost from the Reynolds figure as follows:

R=92.24 ( Q ) / ( DI? )

Rm=R/ ( 7742 )

Where,

R=Reynolds figure, dimensionless

Rm=Modified Reynolds figure, dimensionless

Q=Flow rate, bbl/day

D=Pipe internal diameter, in.

I?=Kinematic viscousness, Central Time

Than depending on the flow ( laminal or turbulent ) , the clash factor is calculated from one of the undermentioned equations:

f=0.00207/Rm ( laminal flow )

f=0.0018+0.00662 ( 1/Rm ) 0.355 ( disruptive flow )

Finally, the force per unit area bead due to clash is calculated utilizing theequation

Pm=0.241 ( f SgQ2 ) /D5

Where,

Pm=Frictional force per unit area bead, psi/mile

f=Friction factor, dimensionless

Sg=Liquid specific gravitation

Q=Flow rate, bbl/day

D=Pipe internal diameter, in.

In SI units the MIT equation is expressed as follows:

Pm=6.2191A-1010 ( f SgQ2 ) /D5

Where,

Pm=Frictional force per unit area bead, kPa/km

f=Friction factor, dimensionless

Sg=Liquid specific gravitation

Q=Flow rate, m3/hr

D=Pipe internal diameter, millimeter

Chromatography is a physical method used in lab for separation of a mixture of chemical substances into its individual components, so that the individual components can be thoroughly analyzed. it has numerous applications in biological and chemical fields. it is widely used in biochemical research for the separation and identification of chemical compounds of biological origin. Chromatography consists of two phase; a mobile phase (a liquid or a gas) , which  flows through the stationary  phase , and a stationary  phase (a solid) .the stationary phase has certain physical and chemical characteristic that allow it to interact in various ways with different compound .

A common types of  stationary  phase  are ;ion exchange chromatography, Affinity Chromatography, Gas Chromatography, liquid Chromatography etc.Gas ChromatographyGas Chromatography (GC) or, gas-liquid chromatography (GLC) is a useful tool technique that, allows us to separate and identify individual components in the mixture. also, Gas Chromatography can measure the concentration of various components in the mixture for samples that have volatile components and, separate mixture by adherence to a surface.

A gas chromatograph uses a flow-through narrow tube known as the column, through which different chemical constituents of a sample pass in a gas stream (carrier gas, mobile phase) at different rates depending on their various chemical and physical properties and their interaction with a specific column filling, called the stationary phase. As the chemicals exit the end of the column, they are detected and identified electronically.

The function of the stationary phase in the column is to separate different components, causing each one to exit the column at a different time (retention time). Other parameters that can be used to alter the order or time of retention are the carrier gas flow rate, For example, internal standards it is commonly used way in Gas Chromatography to calculate the concentration of an analyte. for any particular detector, the relative response factor for the analyte compared to the internal standards must be determined first. calibrating the linearity of the response factor for the analyte compared to the internal standards requires making a series of the solutions with the same concentration of the standards, and a varying concentration of analyte.

Plotting the response of the analyze relative to the standard (peak area of analyte/peak area of standards) versus the concentration of the analyte relative to the standard (analyte/  standard) should produce a straight -line graph whose slope in the response factor.C+O2? CO2 +heatThis is a fast reaction and there a lot of physical method to slow down and stop fast reactions for example:

1. Reducing the temperature at which a reaction occurs i.e. cool things down.
2. adding a reagent which will react with the remaining reactant
3. Using reagents that have a small surface area i.e. the substance is in large lumps.
4. Using a catalyst – the right catalyst can slow down the rate at which a chemical reaction occurs.

The rate of reaction for a concentrated strong acid with a concentrated strong base is most affected by what three things the use of a catalyst, a change in temperature, a change in reactant concentration.We are going to use temperature temperature normally speed the reaction and it also slow it down by lowering the it because the rate and the temperature has a Positive relationship so if temperature is high the reaction speed increase and if the temperature is low the reaction speed decrease and that is according to van’t Hoff’s law, an increase in temperature will cause an increase in the rate of an endothermic reaction.

The effect of the temperature can be explained by the fact that increasing temperature will move the particles at higher speeds and the impact of the collisions leading to the interaction is large, which increases the speed of the reactionand also, at higher temperatures, higher percentages of collisions produce a chemical reaction because higher percentages of molecules have greater velocity, and enough energy is available to react.

Explanatory examples tell the effect of temperature on the rate of chemical reaction rate

• Increased temperature helps to speed the maturity of food.
• Increasing the pressure in the pressure vessels leads to an increase in temperature inside the so the food is cooked very quickly.
• Keeping food in the refrigerator help not to spoil it because the temperature of the refrigerator is low, and this leads to a decrease in the speed of geochemical reactions that cause food corruption.

The temperature change in the chemical balanced reaction, leading to the interaction in the opposite direction, which cancels the effect of this change Interpretation In the case of heat-reactive reactionsI-Reduce the temperature The interaction is facilitated in the direction that reduces the effect of lowering the temperature (which reduces the effect of this effect), ie, the reaction in the direction that causes the increase in temperature is the random directionII-when raising the temperature.

The interaction in the direction that reduces the effect of raising the temperature (which reduces the effect of this effect) is facilitated by the interaction in the direction that causes the temperature reduction and is the reverse direction So, in the reaction I did chose it is a exothermic so when we raising the temperature it will slow down the reaction because it is exothermic and when it dose slow down the molecules in the reaction will be slower in moving and the collisions and if it was endo thermic the opposite will happen. And we cannot calculate the rate law because it is experimentally calculated so we can only write the rate low for the reaction C+O2? CO2 +heat Rate low.

References

1. Page 1^ “Gas Chromatography”. Linde AG. Archived from the original on 3 March 2012. Retrieved 11 March 2012.^ Jump up to: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Harris, Daniel C. (1999).
2. “24. Gas Chromatography”. Quantitative chemical analysis (Chapter) (Fifth ed.). W. H. Freeman and Company. pp. 675–712. ISBN 0-7167-2881-8.Page 2

Physics of a Light Bulb Catherine Bellet Lab Partners: Natalie Russell Alex Harris TA: Chad Lunceford PHY 114 TH @ 2:25pm Abstract: Ohm’s law states, via the equation V=I*R, that the voltage found across a piece of material is proportional to the current. If the temperature remains constant therefore the resistance is found to remain constant. Stefan-Boltzmann law states that when the temperature if above an average of 1000K, then the relationship of voltage and current should be found to be consistent with the formula AT4.

The experimental data found in this, Physics of a Light Bulb, experiment both correlates and verifies the Stefan-Boltzmann law. The voltage and current were found to be proportional to one another, verifying Ohm’s law. In addition, the fact that radiation away from the light bulb is indeed proportional to the fourth power of temperature was observed and again verified through a linear fit graph. The percent error found between the two experimental B values was found to be an average 6%. This showing proving that the experiment was decently accurate.

Objective: To measure the relation between voltage and current in a small flashlight bulb; to determine the temperature of the filament; to verify the Stefan-Boltzmann law of radiation. Procedure: Begin the experiment by correctly setting up the circuit. Using the DMM set, find the resistance of the cold filament of the bulb at room temperature. Open a pre-set experiment file, than connect the circuit to the bulb. Slowly increase the output signal from the power supply, as the voltage reaches 10V, immediately bring the power supply back down to zero.

There should be an observed recorded data and graph in the experimental file. From the recording, highlight the resistance of the cold filament from the data which corresponds to the current ? 0. 08A. Apply a linear fit which in return will give the slope, which represents the bulb resistance. Copy and paste the recorded data into Graphical Analysis, insert various calculated columns, in order to find the temperature of the hot filament and to test the relationship versus power and temperature. Repeat for a second set of data.

Use the graphs to conclude if the Stefan-Boltzmann law is obeyed. Experimental Data: See attached graphs. Results: Resistance of Cold Filament| Experimental Bulb Resistance| % Difference| B1 from Graph1(W/K)| B2 from Graph2(W/K)| % Difference| Theoretical B (W/K)| % Error of B1| % Error of B2| 2. 5? | 2. 46? | 1. 61%| 4. 26| 3. 76| 12. 5%| 4| 6. 19%| 6. 33%| Data Analysis: Discussion: The objective of the lab, Physics of a Light Bulb, was to measure the relationship between voltage and current in a small light bulb, be able to determine the temperature of the filament. nd to verify the Stefan-Boltzmann law of radiation. After completing the lab, the relationship between both the voltage and current was found to be linear, as long as the current is below or at 0. 08 A. This correlation proves Ohm’s law therefore current through a metal conductor is proportional to the applied voltage. Through measurement and observations of the printed graphs, the temperature of the filament of the light bulb was found to be around the value of 1300K.

Using the data supplied from the new calculated columns, the verification of the Stefan-Boltzmann law of radiation was proved to hold true. The law states that when the temperature is above an average value of 1000K, then the relationship between voltage and current is consistent with the formula AT4. When analyzing the curve fit of the power versus temperature graph, it is indeed observed that the experimental value given corresponds with the theoretical function that the power radiated away from the light bulb is surely proportional to the fourth power of temperature.

The percent error observed for both experimental B values, when compared to the theoretical value of 4, shows to be an average of 6%, not a large value of error present. Therefore, the overall system present in the experiment proved to be both precise and accurate. Considering the percent difference between the two experimental resistors was found to be a mere 1. 61%. The percent difference between the two experimental B values was that of a higher value, 12. 5%.

This may indeed have been caused by the fact that the sectioning of data for the second B value was less accurate than that of the first B value. Conclusion: At the conclusion of the experiment, Physics of a Light Bulb, the objective was surely met. The goal was to distinguish the relationship between voltage and current, as well as finding the temperature of the filament, and also to verify the Stefan-Boltzmann law of radiation. Through experimental values, it was observed that the relationship of voltage and current is found to be linear when the current is at or below 0. 8A. The temperature of the filament was also observed to be an average of about 1300K and greater. By taking the values of the Power versus Temperature graph, and creating a new Power versus Temperature raised to the fourth graph and thus applying a linear fit, the relationship of voltage and current was found to be consistent with AT4 and verifying Stefan-Boltzmann law of radiation. Current is indeed proportional to the applied voltage.

Among the components exposed to heat load, piston of internal combustion engine is subject to maximum thermal stress. The large temperature gradient the piston will cause structural deformation deterioration of lubricant and increase the clearance between the cylinder liner and piston there by causing more noise, vibration degrees in the engine service life, the non- uniform temperature gradient arise owing damage of piston especially crown region. Experimental study is conducted on single cylinder 5hp diesel engine in order to find the improved performance when a ceramic coating is given especially in the piston crown.

Among the ceramics, Yttria partially stabilized Zirconia (YPSZ) is being favoured for diesel engines since its co efficient of thermal expansion is close to those of metals used in piston. This avoids problems relating to difference in thermal expansion between metallic and thermal parts which also increases its durability. Compared to the conventional engine (without coating over the piston crown) the modified engine (with ceramic coating over the piston crown) did not produce any observable knock in the engine, no significant wear of piston crown.

Various graphs are drawn to check the improved performance of the engine when it is at with and without ceramic coating on the piston crown, and found that there is 5-6% decrease in SFC, 4-5% increase in brake thermal efficiency and 8-9% increase in mechanical efficiency.

Introduction

Thermal barrier coatings were originally developed for air craft engine applications in 1940; only recently have they been modified and tested for use in diesel engines.

Although diesel engines has greater compressive loads and more frequent thermal shocks, in additional, diesel TBC’s must cope with contaminants (Sodium, Vanadium, Sulphur ) often found in lower grade fuels. If these difference in engine operating conditions are ignored when choosing and applying a T. B. C premature failure of the coating can result. Diesel TBC’s are coating systems metallic bond coat and ceramic topcoat applied by the plasma thermal spray process; control of total coating thickness is critical. If not maintained within 0. 8mm, spallation of the coating can occur due to uneven heating and cooling of the process of the topcoats, Robotic thermal spraying provides the required thickness and compare values with established standards. Basically, there are three techniques of thermal spraying. The basic principle is the same for all (i. e. ) material is melted and propelled as finely atomized towards the target as the particle strike the surface they flatten and form thin platelets that conform and adhere to the irregularity of the prepared surface and to each other.

The three techniques differ essentially in the fuel and the method of heating/ melting used. These differences give to the advantage and limitations which to considerable extent govern their range of applications. Thermal spraying infact is a group of processes i. e. , 1. Surface preparation and 2. Thermal spraying Both are basically important as far as quantity of the coating is concern. Coating of a material on a substance is made to serve in the specific environment and service conditions.

It is possible only if the coating is adherent to the surface of the component, on which it is sprayed, tthroughout its useful life. If the coating flakes off or leaves the surface, the entire effort will go waste. The adhesion and other properties of the coating mainly depend on the surface condition of the substrate.

REPORT
Nobel Prize Winner’s Talk (A New Kilogram Next Year)

Main Speaker: Nobel Laureate Professor Klaus von Klitzing

Lecture Topic: “A New Kilogram Next Year – How my Nobel Prize Contributed to this Development
Date: Tuesday 2nd October, 2018
TIME: 6pm
VENUE: JFK Lecture Theatre, UWI

Immediately upon being invited to the event I was unbelievably excited. It made me feel like this vast world suddenly became smaller and things that seemed unreachable became all the more possible and all the dreams that could ever be dreamt could be truly actualized. Of course getting credit for attending was just a plus, but having such a once in a lifetime opportunity, to hear from one of the Rock stars of the scientific world definitely could not be missed. They say that great leaders once had great mentors and that to be the best, you have to learn from the best. As such, hearing from one of the greatest minds in the world could not be passed. I had to know the secrets of his lifetime adventure.

As I proceeded to the JFK Lecture Theatre, the surreal sunset and cool breezes brought an air of expectancy and anticipation. Located outside was a distribution table where we received additional reading resources. Upon receiving them, I walked inside not knowing what lay in the minutes ahead.

The seminar, I found out, was hosted by CARISCIENCE (The network of Research and Development Institutions in the Basic Sciences in the Caribbean), in conjunction with the German Alexander Von Humboldt Foundation, The Faculty of Science and Technology of the UWI, the University of Trinidad and Tobago and the University of the Southern Caribbean. This, I believed to be very commendable, having all the collegiate institutions coming together for a common purpose. This should be the goal of every individual, organization and the global community as a whole.

The event launched the annual CARISCIENCE Nobel Laureate Lecture Series and this year they invited Noble Laureate Professor Klaus von Klitzing, who was awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1985, for his discovery that under the appropriate conditions the resistance offered by an electrical conductor is quantized; that is, it varies by discrete steps rather than smoothly and continuously.

The lecture was moderated by Dr. Richard Taylor, while the opening remarks were given by Professor Dyer Narinesingh; the President of CARISCIENCE. He did elaborate on the goals and vision of the organization which included; a singular Caribbean intellectual space which encourages problem solving and converting knowledge into wealth creation. He also mentioned that they set out to foster collaboration with international affiliates which would expose stakeholders to relevant equipment, methods and technologies and henceforth be a voice for the Caribbean region. He also drew reference to Loreal’s vision :

Diversity + Inclusion = Innovation

The objectives of the organization seemed relevant and highly necessary to facilitate the ongoing progress being made within the region. To create a competitive, highly innovative, critically minded workforce to create a name and competitive edge for our Caribbean citizenry. He ended with the notion that “it cannot be business as usual” if we are to continue to harness the potential of young minds in this time.

The Welcome Address was then presented by Professor Indar Ramnarine, who encouraged “impactful research that should reshape the boundaries of your fields.” I found this highly motivating as we seek to be world changers in this age. Not only to occupy space but to make a distinct dent in our respective fields and make full use of the time allotted us, to better humanity. He also stated that, “It is not only possible to understand the intricacies of the world but also to improve it.” Ah yes, our vision should indeed be: to identify the problem, gauge the solution, implement the solution and continue to improve the solution.

The Introduction of the Speaker was performed by Dr. Brian Cockburn, who articulated a summary of the career paths and accomplishments of Professor Klitzing. This only sought to inspire me more on this journey to think bigger and dream larger.

As soon as the Nobel Laureate Professor Klaus von Klitzing commandeered the stage, instantly the fires of passion that burnt ever so brightly oh so many years ago, was distinctly evident, burning just as intensely even at this age. This jovial character, was clearly thrilled to be speaking about his life’s work and the opportunities it still presented him today, in being able to visit the Caribbean. I immediately could not help thinking, wow, I hope at the closing end of my life, I still feel such passion, fervor and irradiate such vibrancy about the things that excite my soul.

Not only was he surprisingly pleasant but his speaking skills were far from boring, as he carried us on the journey with him through the process of the discovery day, to giving us the information that we could indeed buy ourselves our own Noble Prize, however, in so doing not be privy to the elaborate “Hogwart-esque” feast they had to attend. It definitely seemed like something out of a storybook.
He also mentioned the ages of the new Noble Prize winners for Physics this year, with Arthur Ashkin being 97 years and Gérard Mourou being 76 years.

Absolutely incredible! This just proves that age is just a number and that we should never let something like age stop us from achieving our full potential. This is a continuous learning process and Life is indeed the teacher. It demonstrates perseverance, diligence and discipline to the highest degree and there is lot to be learnt from their immense persistence to the task. (#whatisretirement?)

As he proceeded to his topic “A New Kilogram Next Year – How My Noble Prize Contributed to this Development”, he explained how the initial constant was acquired. The Kilogram (kg), the basic unit off mass in the metric system and was considered equal to the mass of the international prototype of the kilogram, a platinum-iridium cylinder (Big K), kept at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures laboratory at Sèvres, France.

The accuracy of every measurement of mass or weight worldwide, whether in pounds and ounces or milligrams and metric tons, depends on how closely the reference masses used in those measurements can be linked to the mass of the International Prototype of the Kilogram (IPK). The most minuscule of accuracy discrepancies would have tremendous impact in fields such as medicine, engineering and electronics, which are dependent on precise measurements. Consequently, it effects other phenomena like force, energy and luminous energy, which use it as fundamental building blocks for measurement.

It has been identified that the cylinder is indeed changing in measurement due to gas initially used in its creation and is now slowly seeping out of the cylinder, consequently changing its dimensions making it an unreliable standard for measurement. To facilitate this, a drastic change had to be made and as such in November 2018, the international scientific community plans to redefine the kilogram by basing it instead on a constant of nature, making it a profound moment in the history of measurement.

Thus, since the kilogram remains the only SI unit represented by an unstable artifact, the redefinition included expressing the kilogram in terms of Planck’s constant, which would aid in avoiding future problems. Firstly, physicists required an accurate measure of Planck’s constant which is the quantum-mechanical number that relates how a particle’s energy relates to its frequency and through E = mc^2, to its mass. Thus once a fixed value is achieved to Planck’s constant, a new definition of the kilogram can be derived.

In order to measure Planck’s constant precisely, two experiments are being conducted. One known as the Avogadro Project, involves counting the number of atoms in two spheres of silicon that each have the same weight as the Big K. Having obtained this number, the precise number of atoms comprising a particular substance, researchers can calculate Avogadro’s constant, convert it for a value for Planck’s constant and relate the kilogram to atomic mass.

The second experiment uses an instrument called a watt (or Kibble) balance, which is a type of scale, that produces a value for Planck’s constant by measuring a one-kilogram test mass, which is calibrated by using Big K, against electromagnetic forces. Planck’s constant is proportional to the amount of electromagnetic energy required to balance the mass.

Two differing universal constants are used in order to calculate the current and voltage that make up the electromagnetic force. The Josephson constant and von Klitzing constant are used. (Yes I got to meet one of the only two living remaining constants!!! I felt truly blessed.) The discovery of the von Klitzing constant, is part of the Quantum Hall Effect, which earned Professor von Klitzing, his Nobel Prize.

While he worked at the Max Planck Institute for Solid State Research, experiments conducted led to observations of the effect of magnetic fields applied to semiconductors allowed to cool to extremely low temperatures. This led to the discovery that electrical resistance rose stepwise, rather than smoothly and continuously, indicating an integer fraction of a specific number, 25,812.807 ohms, now identified as the von Klitzing constant.

Thus, the Quantum Hall Effect is now used worldwide for calibrating electrical resistances and the von Klitzing constant is utilized by the scientific community to measure current in a watt balance. Essentially, the fundamental constants can aid in establishing possible units that can retain their significance for lifetimes and species to come, through the Quantum Hall Effect.

Additionally, we were rest assured that the new kilogram will be defined in such a way that nothing will change in our daily life. It will be indeed more stable and more universal. Granted that as Henry Marks stated, “Science is measurement. Everything you measure is expressed in units,” this was definitely a plus. He continued by explaining who decides the best definition of the SI Unit, which comprises of diplomats from sixty member states and forty-four associate states, at the General Conference on Weights and Measurements.

The most recent having occurred in August 2018, based discussions to adapt a resolution that would replace the current SI, with the revised SI, provided the amount of data uncertainties pertaining to the current standard. The precondition for the new kilogram must be reliable, as well as have an uncertainty smaller than fifty micrometers. This stipulation was fulfilled in July 2017, and as such would be finalized at the next conference which is to take place in November 2018.

Finally, he noted that the best values of fundamental constants, (h, e, c Kb, Na) creates the most stable basis for the new system of units and hopefully by the next General Conference on Weights and Measures in November 2018, will be the replacement for the present SI System.
The Professor, was also sure to reinforce the need as scientists to question continuously.

Question nature and the way things work. Question the problems posed to you. Question what you understand and what you want to solve. He emphasized the need to always stay curious and always gain inspiration from other subject matter, which would bring new perspectives and ideas to trains of thought. He also asked several questions that he left up to us to solve.

They included:

• Are fundamental constants really constant?
• How do they change due to cosmic radiation, global warming, with time?
• Are there other fundamental constants in the universe?
• What happens if you combine other fundamental constants? (with regard to velocity of sound/gases and temperature)
• What impact does the Quantum Hall Effect have on living cells?

Opinion of the role and future of physics in life

Physics is the cornerstone of life and everything surrounding it. Every basic principle rests on the foundation of Physics (of course this is me being highly biased). It involves the study of matter, energy and their interactions and other sciences are dependent on its theories to further develop their own and improve the quality of life.

I do believe we have the upper hand as physicists and a greater responsibility to society to find answers to the most fundamental questions in life. To explain why the world work as it does and to provide adequate, substantial, mathematically correct evidence to question the bases of such thought. Physicists perceive beyond the normal realm and consider factors outside regular streams of thinking and are then conditioned to think outside the non-existent box.

This will prove ideal to the future of Physics in this society, as we break down to the fundamental backbone of structures and understand how they function, how they can be improved and how they can be manipulated by variables. This skill is essential for countless applications and is necessary for continued development in any sector.

Technological advances can occur due to the discovery of new particles, forces and structures in the subatomic world. There would also be enhanced computational and calculation power causing extraordinary leaps and bounds unfathomable before. With this would also bring the onslaught of artificial intelligence integrated lifestyles to the common man, allowing multipurpose use.

Not to mention the development of quantum artificial intelligence if large-scale computing is actualized. Vast use of computers and electronics would lead to even more advanced medical breakthroughs with prosthetics, which would enhance the human experience and even possible come to define consciousness in terms of nature’s fundamental forces.

Additionally with the exponential advancement in space technology, conditioning for studying and visiting the cosmos would seem closer to realization, even as space transport is made more readily accessible. Physics is indeed a driving force into a very futuristic ideal, expanding space and time, and blazing the trail for the reorientation of the human mind.

Cheers to the future of Physics!

What massage is the poet trying to convey about “The Charge Of The Light Brigade”? In the poem “The Charge Of The Light Brigade” Alfred Tennyson tries to convey the readers to honor the qualities of the actual Light Brigade. With the use of figurative language, effective structure and techniques he achieve to show the determination and bravery of the six hundred soldiers that fought in the Brigade. Tennyson firstly introduce us to the heroes of the poem in the first stanza when he says “All in the valley of Death rode the six hundred”.

This metaphor show the bravery of the “six hundred” because they where riding towards their death. The personification of Death suggest that something terrible happened to the soldiers, and the phrase “valley of Death” helps the creation of an image of the setting,uncertain and terrible, which the six hundred where riding towards. Tennyson then decides to put a man shouting a military order, “Charge for the guns”. He leaves the person unknown to emphasize at the brave men and that they were following orders. The word “guns” confirms that the destination of the Brigade was towards their death.

The stanza ends with the repetition of the lines ” into the valley of death rode the six hundred” to emphasize more their fatal lost and their strength to face death. The message of the poem is described using a variety of techniques. The rhetorical question “Was there a man dismayed? ” Suggest that the soldiers didn’t lost their courage and they didn’t overcomes by terror while facing the death. This shows the loyalty and toughness of the heroes. The rhetorical question is contrasting with the following group of lines “Theirs not to make reply, theirs not to reason why, theirs but to do and die”.

There is alliteration being used. These lines sum up the heroism and nobility of the six hundred, which they did their job without reasoning, without replying even that their lives where based on that. Tennyson attempts to make us feel the way the soldiers did when they where surrounded, by using onomatopoeia through the lines “Cannon to right of them, Cannon to left of them, Cannon in front of them”. The use of senses(optic and hearing) successfully help the reader to feel the moment, the terror of the soldiers as well as understanding better the quality of heir pride and strength to keep fighting and not be overcome by their fears. Their bravery is being described by the phrase “Bodly they rode and well”. There is a powerful personification of “jaws of Death/mouth of Hell” which represent the battlefield and the dangers, which again emphasize how heroic the men fought but it contrasting again with their fatal lost. Tennyson tries to show the response of the world to this charge by saying ” charging an army while all the world wondered”. Tennyson imagines that the viewers of the battle are wondering with awe and amazement.

At the end of stanza four, the poet through the phrase “Then they rode back, but not, not the six hundred” shows that the charge has ended, the soldiers are turning back. The repetition of the word “not” shows the terrible casualties of the Light Brigade, the lost of many men out of the six hundred. Furthermore, Tennyson recognize the soldiers as heroes as he emphasizes to the lost of their life ” while horse and hero fell”. There is a vivid image been created of the horse and the hero fall to the ground dead. The poem last stanza begins with a rhetorical question “When can their glory fade?

The speaker tries to make the soldiers of the Light Brigade legends, to emphasize that their glory should never fade. Tennyson want us to remember the Light Brigade as a “wild charge” and repeats the line “all the world wondered” this time Tennyson is referring to us, to show that we should be amazed with the wild charge of the brave heroes and we should wonder for their strength and pride. The poem ends with some commands “Honour the charge they made! Honour the Light Brigade, Noble six hundred”. These commands summarize the purpose of the poem, to tell us, that we should remember and respect these noble war heroes, to honor their lives.

Aim

To determine the relationship between the length of eureka wire, and resistivity of the wire. Hypothesis: As the length of the wire increases, the resistance of the wire will increase. Background: Some materials have consistent resistance at the same temperature regardless of how much voltage is applied through them, these materials are known as ‘Ohmic’ resistors. This is because they are said to obey Ohm’s law, which states that if a voltmetre is used to measure the voltage (V) of an unknown resistance (R), and an ammetre is used to measure the current (i) through the same unknown resistance, then ‘R’ would be given by R = V/i .

The eureka wire used in this experiment is an ohmic resistor, so theoretically it can be used to measure the relationship between its length and resistance without other variables affecting it.

Equipment

1. Metre length of eureka wire
2. Power supply unit
3. Voltmetre
4. Ammetre
5. Rheostat
6. Connecting wires

Procedure

1. Measure and cut 1 metre of wire
2. Set up the electrical circuit as in the diagram
3. Set the rheostat at its furthest point on one end.

4. Connect the wire into the circuit at 10cm length

5. Turn the power supply on, and record the voltage and amp readings. Turn the power supply off immediately after to prevent temperature build up in the circuit.

6. Repeat step 5 twice, adjusting the rheostat to the middle position, and then the other end position.

7. Repeat steps 3-6 increasing the length of the wire 10cm at a time, up to 1 metre total length 

8. Divide the voltage by the amp readings to calculate the resistance

9. Plot the wire length against the resistance

Discussion

The results support the hypothesis, showing that as the length of the wire was increased, the resistance also increased. The voltage and current readings were taken over 3 trials at different settings on the rheostat. The plotted results do not all sit in a linear pattern as they should in theory, showing that the precision of the results is poor. For example, there is a comparatively large inconsistency which can be seen in the results at 80 and 90cm wire lengths, where the resistance remains the same at 2. ohms rather than increasing. Smaller deviations in the data can be seen at the 50, 60 and 70cm wire lengths, where the points are above and below the trendline. These inconsistencies suggest the presence of random errors, which may arise from poor resolution of the voltmetre and ammetre, and build-up of heat in the rheostat and the wire causing excess resistance. Accuracy of the results may have been affected by systematic error, which may have been caused by incorrect calibration of the voltmetre and ammetre.

Inconsistencies in the eureka wire’s structure such as curvature or bends in the wire may affect the actual length of the wire compared to the measured length, and inconsistencies in the compound makeup of the wire may have also affected the results, causing them to be all higher or lower than the true value. In the circuit setup, the ammetre is measuring current through both the wire and voltmetre. This could cause the measured current to be higher than the true value, and therefore the calculated resistance to be too low. To reduce the effect of random errors, digital multimetre’s could be used to provide more accurate readings.

Allowing time for the rheostat and wire to cool down after each trial, or using new sections of wire stored at room temperature in each trial would minimise the effect of heat on the wire’s resistance. To identify the presence of systematic error, the experiment should be repeated with a single multimetre rather than two separate volt and ammetres. The experiment should then be further repeated with new sections of wire to identify error caused by any inconsistencies in the wire.