Plants

Plants begin their lives in the form of seeds. The embryo inside the seed is considered as the next sexual generation of plants. Seed germination is an important phase in plant’s life. Successful seed germination is vital in every reproducing species in order to perpetuate itself. By definition seed germination is when the dry seeds shed from its parent plant, takes up water and is completed when the embryonic root visibly emerges through the outer structure of the seed (seed coat) (Hasanuzzaman et., al. 2013).

Bewley (1997) described that it includes different events that commence with the uptake of water by the quiescent dry seed and terminate with the elongation of the embryonic axis. The visible sign that germination is complete is usually the penetration of the structures surrounding the embryo by the radicle (radicle protrusion). Several authors had reported the importance of germination in the life cycle of plant.

According to Hubbard et., al (2012) this stage in the life cycle of the plant is considered as a critical event as germination is the first step in determining the survival rate of the crop thereby affecting its productivity. Meanwhile Donohue et., al. (2010) reported that seed germination is an important developmental phase change in the plant life cycle, which plays critical roles in seedlings establishment and consequently in environmental adaptation.

The process of seed germination involves several complex processes and activation of the seeds metabolic pathways which eventually leads to the emergence of newly grown generation of plants. Many of the specific biochemical and physiological processes which characterize germinating seeds, particularly those occurring in storage organs, are special during this stage (Bewley and Black 1994). Knowledge of the germination process and of the seedling establishment and development, involving morphological, physiological, biochemical as well as molecular mechanisms and features is of essential importance for taxonomic, ecological and agronomic studies of certain plants.

There are several different gene expression that underlies plant development, the relative specificity of these processes suggests that distinct gene sets are activated and repressed during this stage. The reaction between activation of essential enzymes, sequential release of hormones and the energy relations of the process during seed germination are very significant in understanding the appropriate establishment of plant for its adaptation.

Identifying these genes and defining mechanisms involved in regulating their expression will aid in understanding the control of germination-specific mechanisms.
This review will provide an overview on the mechanism of gene expression in mainly in angiosperm plant. The different genes expressed in embryos and seedlings will also be tackled A brief description of on the hormonal changes and hormonal balance that triggers or promotes gene expression during germination is also discussed in this paper.

Philip Creightonl, Michael O’Donovan2 and Laurence Sha11002 Grassland Science Research Department Animal ; Grassland Research and Innovation Centre Teagasc Athenry and Moorepark2 Introduction Grassland in Ireland including rough grazing accounts for over 90% of agricultural land use. Lolium perenne (Perennial ryegrass) is by far the most widely sown grass species accounting for over 95% of forage grass seed sold each year. It produces a dense sward, highly acceptable to livestock with the ability to produce high dry atter yields, especially in spring and autumn reducing the seasonality of production.

Achieving good performance from grass is dependent on having high quality perennial ryegrass/clover swards. This paper will outline the important aspects of reseeding pasture, what’s happening at farm level, why and when reseeding should be completed, its benefits and costs. What is happening at farm level? A recent survey of a proportion of co-op suppliers from Kerry, Connaught Gold and Glanbia (Creighton et al. , 2011) found a number of significant findings from a eseeding perspective, these are listed below. i. v’. ‘x.

Regular reseeding took place on 50% of participants farms, 25% reseed infrequently, 25% never reseed. Of those reseeding, 50% of participants reseed 2-4ha/year, 20% 8. 0 Soil K Index 2 3 4 Soil K ranges (mg/ 0-50 51-100 101-150 > 150 K application rate (kg/ha) 110 75 50 Slurry is a good option to maintain nutrient status. With the increased cost of compounds (P and K) slurry should be used in reseeding, 1000 gallons of slurry at 7% DM is equivalent to 4kg N, 3kg P and 19. 5kg K. At soil index 3, slurry (3000gals/ac) is sufficient to supply the P and K nutrients.

Weed control The best time to control docks and all other weeds is after reseeding. By using a post emergence spray seedling weeds can be destroyed before they properly develop and establish root stocks. Established weeds can seriously reduce the yield potential and economic lifetime of the reseeded sward. From the survey information it is clear that only 50% of farmers are applying a post emergence spray, resulting in over 90% of surveyed farms having problems with dock infestations.

To ensure that a post emergence spray can be applied reseeding should be targeted for the spring or early autumn when establishment conditions are much more suitable and the opportunity for weed control is guaranteed. The post emergence spray should be applied approximately 6 weeks after establishment Just before the first grazing takes place. With weed control it pays to be proactive, spraying when grass is at the two leaf stage works well. Grazing management of reseeded swards Care needs to be taken when grazing newly reseeded swards.

The sward should be razed as soon as the new grass plants roots are strong enough to withstand grazing (root stays anchored in the ground when pulled). Early grazing is important to allow light to the base of the plant to encourage tillering. Light grazing by animals such as calves, weanlings or sheep is preferred as ground conditions may still be somewhat fragile depending on establishment method used. Grazing new reseeds with larger animals can create high levels of tiller pulling. The first grazing of a new reseed can be completed at pre grazing yields of 600-1000kg DM/ha. Frequent grazing of the reseeds at light covers (

Background of the Study Radish is a Eurasian plant (Orphan’s assists) having a fleshy edible root and white to purple flowers clustered in a terminal raceme. Every part of the root or the plant can be useful in different ways. The pungent root of this plant can be eaten raw as an appetizer and in salads. Also, it can be cooked or mixed with eat to attain its delicious taste. Radishes originated in China, and in China, today, truly wild forms of the radish can till be found.

The radish was one of the first vegetables introduced into the New World. Radishes were already under cultivation in Mexico in 1500 and in Haiti in 1565. The radish quickly caught on in the Americas and by 1848, the Landlers catalogue listed 8 different varieties. Radishes are used in very different ways around the world. In China and Japan, most of the radish crop is pickled in brine, similar to the way we pickle cucumbers. In China some large radishes are grown for the oil in the seeds.

In India, the rat-tailed radish is grown for its fleshy edible seed pods which reach a length of 8-12 inches, and in Egypt, one type of radish is grown for its top greens only. Radishes grow quickly, some maturing in 3 weeks from seed, in cool weather. Radishes should always be planted in succession plantings every 10 days to 2 weeks from the earliest possible time in the spring when the ground can be worked until early summer. For a fall crop start 6-8 weeks before the first frost date. Plant deeds for small radishes h inch deep in rows 6-8 inches apart.

Thin seedlings to 2-3 inches apart. Plant seeds for large radishes 2 inches apart in rows 18 inches apart. Thin seedlings to 4-6 inches apart. Harvest small, round radishes when they are the size of large marbles. Do not leave radishes in the ground because they will quickly become woody and tough. Radishes can be harvested and stored in plastic bags in the refrigerator and will keep their flavor and crispness for weeks. Large radishes should be harvested before the first hard frost. By Kemp

Some people, when they think of germination, think of a seed sprouting. Very plain, simple image in their mind, especially since there is so much more going on in the small seed. New Life is growing. Germination is the sprouting of a seed, through which a lot of plants reproduce, though not all. Water is a major trigger in the germination stage, playing a major role also later in the plant’s life. Though seeds are not the only way for plants to reproduce, it is one of the easiest to guarantee that the seed will sprout in the right environment. Germination is triggered by water, and the baby plant begins to grow.

Germination is highly important because it is during this time that seeds begin to develop their own means to supply food for them, thus allowing the plant to survive. Without plants, humans would not have a lot of things plants provide. Humans would not have things like certain medicines, teas, spices, and basic food items like apples or lettuce to use without the survival of that species. Although people think you need seeds, plants do manage to reproduce without the use of seeds. Some use a process called runners, when a new plant splits off the parent plant.

However, in a typical plant (called Angiosperms, meaning any flowering plants), seeds are created during fertilization. This happens when two parent plants are pollinated. Once the eggs have been fertilized, the parent plant dies as it releases its seeds. Seeds come with a pre-prepared energy supply, protective coat (provided from maternal plant), and an embryo; the actual baby plant. Each part of the new creation has its own special function that helps maintain the young plant alive. There are many more parts to a seed that are not a major concern, but each does serve a purpose.

There, also, the main ones that have many smaller pieces that are part of the whole. For example, the embryo includes many small details of the baby plant. Things like an axis, where the cotyledons (seed leaves) are attached, epicotyl (above the cotyledons), hypocotyl (below the cotyledons), and a radicle (the lower portion of the hypocotyl). A seed is germinating now has its sprout growing, the radicle become the roots, and epicotyl becomes the stem and first leaves. The life cycle of this plant has begun. Of course, certain parts of the seed grow during germination.

It is part of the whole growing process. The baby roots (the radicle), for example, come pre-prepared in the seed, just waiting to start its growth. When a seed finally finds a suitable environment to sprout, usually the first thing seen is the former-radicle breaking the outer shell. Roots tend to be one of the very first things developed in a plant. This is because they are so essential to get nutrients and water for photosynthesis. “The first visible sign of germination is the emergence of the radicle, or embryonic root” (Hopkins, William G. “seeds. ” Science Online.

Facts on File, Inc. Web. 24 Oct. 2012. ). The epicotyl usually tends to grow next, becoming the new plant’s stem. The stem is highly important for the plant’s survival all throughout its life (for trees, the equivalent would be the trunk). The stem is used to carry water, minerals, and other such supplies up and down the plant. The epicotyl, as mentioned before, has several other parts. It also becomes the sprout’s first leaves. Leaves are also another vital part of the plant. The leaf’s job is to exchange gases and collect sunlight for the plant’s process of collecting energy.

The epicotyl is the part that for both major plant groups (Gymnosperms (non-flowering plants), and Angiosperms) that most often shoots up above ground. The epicotyl is a very essential part to the plant and its survival. The seed’s parts, at this stage in life, have now grown and developed. The plant now has gone from a seed that had its food provided into a plant that has functional roots, stem, and leaves. Roots suck in minerals and water from the soil, as well as keeping the plant in its place, rooted firmly to the ground in order not to be blown away with the wind. The leaves begin to respire and take in the bright sunlight.

All of these gathered materials travel up and down the stem until they turn into a sugar-like substance that is the plant’s food, its energy and lifeline. In the end, germination was just a starting point in the plant’s recently begun life. The plant now has another objective, to create new seeds so the cycle begins again. Plants have stages in their life. Germination is, as stated, a stage in plant life. Another one is called dormancy (inactivity). It occurs before the germination of the seed has begun. The seed is ‘sleeping’ during dormancy, and it doesn’t appear to show any signs of life.

It remains inactive during this stage in a plant’s life. Dormancy is another highly appreciated part of a plant’s life. This is because it does not allow the seed to go into germination stage until the seed is placed in right environment to start growing. The environment include the temperature, weather, soil, and, in most cases, the amount of water. Seeds may remain dormant for as long as they need. Dormancy may last hours, days, or even years. It all depends whether the seeds deems living in that area livable or deathly. Right after the dormancy stage is germination. Water is highly needed during the beginning of germination.

Water is needed in order for the plant to sprout, since “Mature plants that may be 75% or 80%water …”(Hopkins). However, seeds are about 5% water from lack of activity during dormancy. The first thing a ‘waking’ seed does is soak up a lot of water because of its dehydration during dormancy. “Absorbing water is a seed’s first activity” (“Germination. ” Experiment central. U*X*L, 2008. Gale Student Resources in Context. Web. 25 Oct. 2012. ). Apart from keeping the plant alive, “The absorption of water causes the embryo to swell and split open the see coat” (Keating, Richard C. “Germination. ” World Book Advanced. World Book, 2012. Web. 6 Oct. 2012. ). So, basically, water triggers growth within the seed by causing the embryo to start its growth process.

This sets all the other parts of a seed into a growth spurt. But even after germination is complete, the plant still needs water to support its life. Water is needed for any plant, even ones that reproduce without a seed and therefore skip the dormancy stage. As previously noted, some plants do not even use a seed in order to reproduce. There are many different ways for a plant to reproduce asexually. One example of reproduction without a seed is runners. This is where a parent plant starts another plant from itself.

The offspring uses its dying parent as a food supply until it can produce its own food. This time in the new plant’s life could be considered its germination stage. Even in this method, both of the plants still do need water, because there is no life without water. Even though water is really appreciated in an environment for seeds and most plants, a steady supply is not always required. For instance, Cacti seem to live fine in a desert, even though there is not really a lot of constant water there. So now that germination is over, the seed has grown; it has effectively done its job, ensuring the survival of its species.

In the end, seeds pretty much sleep until it finds itself in special circumstances that allow it to grow, mainly needing water in typical plants. It’s still a baby plant until it actually starts making its own food, kind-of like when kids move out, when they start producing money for their own meals. Germination is pretty important part of a plant’s life since they are easily adaptable during this stage. They can learn how to survive harsh circumstances and therefor prolong their own survival. There are thousands of plant species on the verge of extinction- and one may very well be a cure for cancer and other major diseases today.

Agriculture, also called farming or husbandry, is the cultivation of animals, plants, fungi, and other life forms for food, fiber, biofuel,drugs and other products used to sustain and enhance human life. [1] Agriculture was the key development in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created food surpluses that nurtured the development of civilization. The study of agriculture is known as agricultural science.

The history of agriculture dates back thousands of years, and its development has been driven and defined by greatly different climates, cultures, and technologies. However, all farming generally relies on techniques to expand and maintain the lands that are suitable for raising domesticated species. For plants, this usually requires some form ofirrigation, although there are methods of dryland farming; pastoral herding on rangeland is still the most common means of raising livestock.

In the developed world, industrial agriculture based on large-scale monoculture has become the dominant system of modern farming, although there is growing support for sustainable agriculture (e. g. permaculture or organic agriculture). Until the Industrial Revolution, the vast majority of the human population labored in agriculture. Pre-industrial agriculture was typicallysubsistence agriculture in which farmers raised most of their crops for their own consumption instead of for trade.

A remarkable shift in agricultural practices has occurred over the past century in response to new technologies, and the development of world markets. This also led to technological improvements in agricultural techniques, such as the Haber-Bosch method for synthesizing ammonium nitratewhich made the traditional practice of recycling nutrients with crop rotation and animal manure less necessary. Historical Development of Crop Production Early man lived on wild game, leaves, roots, seeds, berries, and fruits.

As the population increased, the food supply was not always sufficiently stable or plentiful to supply his needs. This probably led to the practice of crop production. Therefore, crop production began at least nine thousand (9000) years ago when domestication of plants became essential to supplement natural supplies in certain localities. The art of crop production is older than civilization, and its essential features have remained almost unchanged since the dawn of history. These features are: 1. Gathering and preservation of seeds of the desired crop plants 2.

Destroying other kinds of vegetation growing on the land 3. Stirring the soil to form a seedbed 4. Planting when the season and weather are right as shown by past experience 5. Destroying weeds 6. Protecting the crop from natural enemies 7. Gathering, processing and storing the product Origin of Cultivated Crops All cultivated plants were domesticated from their wild species. However, the exact time and place of origin and the true ancestry of many crops are still as highly speculative as the origin of man. Man has domesticated some crop species that met his needs before the dawn of recorded history.

Most of the domesticated crops were introduced into new areas far from their centre of origin by migrating human populations in prehistoric as well as in recorded times. As a result, both indigenous and introduced crops are grown everywhere in the world. Bikolandia – Rice, corn, coconut, abaca, rootcrops, copra, and banana CLASSIFICATION OF CROPS A new crop classification, the Indicative Crop Classification (ICC) has been developed for the 2010 round of agricultural censuses, and is given at the end of this appendix.

The crop classification used in the 2000 agricultural census programme reflected various elements related to crops, including the growing cycle (temporary/permanent), crop species, crop variety (for example, hybrid/ordinary maize), season (for example, winter/spring wheat), land type (for example, wetland/dryland rice), crop use (for example, pumpkin for food/fodder), type of product (for example, fresh/dried beans), how the crop is processed (for example, industrial crops), and cultivation methods (for example, crops grown under protective cover).

ICC has been developed based on the Central Product Classification (CPC) (UN, 2004a). CPC classifies goods and services into categories based on the nature of the product and industry of origin. Crop products are classified mainly according to the type of crop. CPC itself is based on the Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System (HS), a classification of the World Customs Organization. CPC is also broadly compatible with ISIC, in that the industry of origin is related to ISIC. ICC is also consistent with the classification of commodities used in FAO’s on-line database, FAOSTAT.

From a statistical point of view, the crop classification should be closely related to the product classification, and to some extent to the economic activity classification (ISIC). The crop classification refers to which crops are grown, whereas the product classification refers to the product(s) generated from that crop. Thus, “mustard” is an oilseed crop, whereas “mustard seed” is the oilseed product. There is not always a one-to-one correspondence between a crop and a product. The same crop may yield two products – for example, cotton may yield cotton fibre and cotton seed. Philippines – Crop production index

Crop production index (2004-2006 = 100) The latest value for Crop production index (2004-2006 = 100) in Philippines was 111. 00 as of 2009. Over the past 48 years, the value for this indicator has fluctuated between 113. 00 in 2008 and 29. 00 in 1961. Definition: Crop production index shows agricultural production for each year relative to the base period 2004-2006. It includes all crops except fodder crops. Regional and income group aggregates for the FAO’s production indexes are calculated from the underlying values in international dollars, normalized to the base period 2004-2006.

Negative and positive feedback processes both occurs in the enzyme pathways. The difference between positive and negative feedback is that in negative feedback, the protein being produced by the enzyme or the protein produced as a result of a chain of proteins becomes very much concentrated. Consequently, the protein then inhibits the enzyme through placing themselves at the start of the chain. The protein attachment places itself in an allotter site thereby changing the shape of the enzyme instead of changing the functional site where the protein would prevent the enzyme from including some other proteins (Werner, 1999).

In the positive feedback, instead of inhibiting the reactions, it accelerates them. Positive feedback occurs when a certain enzyme is created and this particular enzyme signals the body to continue producing lots of that enzyme. Through this signals, the enzyme becomes its own catalyst in the process. When the loop begins, it moves with an accelerating speed until a larger feedback stops it. The greatest difference between the two is that, negative feedback manages to inhibit a reaction after the creation of a lot of products while positive feedback accelerates the process which produces the product (Werner, 1999).

(b) Biological definition of a flower A flower is also referred to as bloom (blossom). This is the reproductive part located in the flowering plants. It can also be defined as a modified stem with reduced internodes and bearings. At the nodes, it has parts which may be highly modified leaves. Actually, the flower forms at the axis with an apical meristem that has its growth determinate. There are some biological means by which flowers attach themselves to the plants. The sessile flower is a term referred to those types of flowers that form at the axil of the leaf, but they do not have stems.

The penduncle is the stem that holds one flower when it is produced. Incase of groups of flowers held by the penduncle, each stem holding the different flowers is referred to as the pedicel. The flowering stem forms the receptacle (torus). This is the terminal end of the stem (Stewart, 2004). The flower parts are arranged in four main parts or whorls. These parts are arranged in whorls on the torus. Flowering plants are classified under the division Magnoliophyta also referred as Angiosperms.

Flowering plants are heterosporangiate meaning that they can produce both the female and the male reproductive spores. The male reproductive spores are referred as pollen and the female reproductive spores are called ovules. Both of these spores are produced by different organs although a typical flower (bisporangiate strobilus) contains both the organs. The flower performs the function of mediation between the male and female ovum. It allows the union of both ovums which leads to the production of seeds. The process commences with pollination and then fertilization.

This processes lead to the formation and dispersal of seeds. Each flower is specifically designed to provide for effective transfer of pollen. For the higher plants, the dispersed seeds are the next generation. They are the primary source by which species of other generation could be dispersed to many different landscapes. Inflorescence refers to the process of grouping flowers. The Crateva religiosa is a very good example of a perfect flower. It has both the outer ring referred to as the stamen and the center referred to as the pistil (Stewart, 2004).

Biology Investigation Aim: to investigate the effects of light and gravity on the growth of sunflower seeds. Background Info: Tropism is directional movement in response to a directional stimulus eg light or gravity. Plants are not able to relocate if they happen to start growing where conditions are nor perfect but they can alter their growth towards more favorable conditions. Plants respond to light (phototropism) where the stems grow towards the light and the roots grow away from the light. They also respond to gravity (geotropism) where the stems grow away from the ground and the roots grow towards the ground.

Tropisms are controlled by auxins – a family of hormones that promote (and sometimes inhibit) growth. Sunflower seeds need regular watering in order to provide sufficient nutrients and ensure healthy and efficient growth. Hypothesis: I hypothesise that whatever orientation the seed is placed in, the shoot will always be positively phototropic and the root will always be positively geotropic, due to the basic laws of tropism. Risk Assessment: Hazard| Risk| Precautions/Disposal| Test tube breakage| Glass may cause injury to eyes or skin. | Be cautious when handling test tube; wear safety equipment such as safety glasses and gloves.

Place in glass bin. | Puncturing boxes with scissors| Scissors may injure someone if there is an accident. | Assign somebody to hold the box steadily while they are being punctured. | Using forceps| May injure skin. | Hold forceps steady and try to avoid contact with skin. | Equipment: Geotropism * 4x large test tube * 4x filter paper * 4x sunflower seed * 1x test tube rack Phototropism * 1x cardboard box * 4x sunflower seed * 1x pair of scissors * 1x forceps * 4x test tube * 4x filter paper * 1x test tube rack Variables: Geotropism * Independent variable: orientation of sunflower seed Dependant variable: direction of growth of sunflower seed shoot and root * Constant variables: the test tube in which the seeds are kept, the place the test tube rack sits, the orientation of each seed Phototropism * Independent variable: orientation of sunflower seed, place of light source * Dependant variable: direction of growth of sunflower seed shoot and root * Constant variables: the box in which the seeds are kept, the place the box sits, the orientation of each seed, the materials used (filter paper, large test tube, test tube rack) Experimental Control: Geotropism

One of the test tubes was set up with a sunflower seed and the shoot facing up, the natural orientation. Phototropism A cardboard box was set up with hole punctures in the top and sides to allow light to get to the plants from all directions. Method: Geotropism * Collect equipment * Set up 4 large test tubes in a test tube rack and label them A, B, C and D. * Soak the 4 filter papers under water * Roll up one filter paper and place in test tube A, along with the sunflower seed shoot facing up to be the control. * Repeat step 4 but with test tube B, with the sunflower seed shoot facing down. Repeat step 4 but with test tube C, with the sunflower seed shoot facing right. * Repeat step 4 but with test tube D, with the sunflower seed shoot facing left. 1. Place in an area with adequate natural light 2. Water every day for 5 days, taking observations on the direction and length of growth on the seeds. Phototropism 1. Collect equipment 1. Set up 4 large test tubes in a test tube rack 1. Soak the 4 filter papers in water 1. Roll up filter paper and place in test tubes, along with the sunflower seeds with all shoots facing upward. 1. Label 3 cardboard boxes as 1. control, 2. eft, 3. right 1. Puncture 10 holes in both sides and the top of box 1 2. Puncture 10 holes in the left side of box 2 3. Puncture 10 holes in the right side of box3 4. Place a test tube rack in each box 5. Place in an area with adequate natural light 6. Water every day for 5 days, taking observations on the direction and length of growth on the seeds. Discussion During the experiment, it was observed that sunflower seed shoots, regardless of their orientation, will almost always grow towards the light. Likewise, the root of the seeds will almost always grow towards the ground.

This trend is due to the auxins in the plant, hormones that promote growth. When a seed is placed sideways, unnaturally, the auxins in the plant stimulate growth in the shoot to still curve upward towards the light, and in the root to curve downward towards the ground. The accuracy of this experiment was sound. The equipment used was the same for all groups and was reasonably suitable to the experiment as it allowed easily observable results, for example the glass test tubes allowed us to watch our seeds grow each day. However, watering the plants was not undertaken every day, affecting the overall accuracy.

Having a specific required amount of water to water the plants each day would have been beneficial to the accuracy of the experiment. The reliability of this experiment was poor. Most observations were not consistent. In many geotropism experiments, there were shoots that did not curve all the way down to the ground. This could have been due to the limited space they had between the glass of the test tube and the filter paper. The validity of this experiment was also poor. The constant variables were not very well controlled; the place in which the apparatus was set up changed, which meant different environmental conditions for the plants.

The weather also changed every day, especially on Saturday when it was 41 degrees. This would have had an impact on the growth of the plants, and a burnt filter paper was observed, which could have been a result of the hot weather. The significant rise in temperature should have been predicted prior to the end of the school week so a more controlled environment could be created for the plants to have a consistent area to thrive in. To improve the accuracy and reliability of this experiment, a clearer and more specific method should be undertaken and a better set up of apparatus should be hought up to give the seeds more room to grow. However, the aim of investigating the effects of light and gravity on the growth of sunflower seeds was answered. This experiment is beneficial to society as it may assist gardeners, florists, other biologists etc in growing plants efficiently. Conclusion: Based on observations, our hypothesis of the shoot always being positively phototropic and the root being positively geotropic was supported, bringing us to the conclusion that light and gravity have a major impact on the growth of sunflower seeds no matter what the orientation.

This is controlled by the auxins that respond to the light and gravity, promoting growth in the shoot of the seed to grow toward the light, and the root of the seed to grow toward the ground. Bibliography: Kimball, J W 2011, Tropisms, viewed 27 November, 2012, <http://users. rcn. com/jkimball. ma. ultranet/BiologyPages/T/Tropisms. html >. Unknown, 2001, Plant Hormones, viewed 27 November, 2012, <http://www. biology-online. org/3/5_plant_hormones. htm> >.