We Should Really Start Protecting Our Ocean

Hey! Do you think that the beautiful ocean of ours should just go to waste? Me neither but if we don’t start protecting our ocean it will be filled with tons of oil and trash/plastic. Everyone has an opinion about something but it is important to know how to make YOUR opinion truly matter. My topic is protecting our oceans and I am for this because of all the things it provides for us and because of all the things it affects.

One reason we should really start protecting our ocean.I think this because of all the things it provides for us.”They flow over nearly three quarters off our planet, and hold 97% of the planets water.” In other words the ocean covers nearly over three fourths of the Earth. You know the oxygen you are breathing right now the ocean provides more than half of it in our atmosphere. Not only that but it absorbs most of the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. “Food is something that the ocean provides much more than just seafood.” Food is something that our ocean is very helpful with. It doesn’t just provide fish as what people may think but some of the ingredients found in for example carrageenan are found in ice cream. Medicine products can also come from our ocean that involve ingredients that go against cancer, arthritis, alzheimer and heart diseases.

Another reason we should start protecting our oceans is because of what it affects. Some of evidence i found was, “It provides over 70% of the oxygen we breathe and a little over 97% of the world’s water supply.” To me i think that is a very big impact and oxygen and water are something we need to survive. One of the problems iss pollution and all the bad stuff that the ocean is contaminated with. If humans are exposed to these chemicals for long periods of time it’s gonna add up and this starts to cause serious harm to humans health. Not only does it affect us but it affects some animals. Sometimes animals get caught on to plastic or have it mistaken for food which is really not good cause overtime they will start to die. From sources i found out that dolphins, fish, turtles, sharks ,crabs. seabirds, and crocodiles are most often the victims. Oil spills in the ocean are also very harmful cause it could get in to the gills and on to their feathers which can make it very hard to breathe or move.

On the other hand not everyone could agree with this because some people have different ideas. For example tourism and development are some things people do around the beach. Imagine this its a nice sunny day you feel relaxed drinking some soda and enjoying the waves. You look to your right and realize there is some construction of some sort going on along the coast line. You throw your soda that was in your hand on the ground not planning to drink it no more and say “whatever”. This idea came from a source i read saying “Coastlines have been steadily turned in tonew housing and tourist developments.” Most people just do these type of developmental things to get some money out of it.

Having your own opinion about various topics in society is important. I am for protecting our ocean because of two simple reasons: because of what it provides and what it affects. A reason against this is development point of views. No matter how you feel about my topic, understanding why people think a certain way, and trying to accept their views, makes society a better place. Thank you.

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Traffic Jam Essay

Table of contents

Traffic congestion is a condition caused by the increasing number of vehicles on the road resulting in congestion, road blockage, slower speed, longer route time and the loss of valuable time. Traffic jam occurs when the vehicles have to completely stop or move at a snail’s pace for a certain period of time. It is an issue of serious concern in every city these days. Traffic jam leads to sheer waste of productive time.

People get delayed for their offices, for important business meetings along with late delivery of business goods affecting the overall economy of a Nation. Occurrence of a traffic jam depends on several reasons – narrow road ahead, making it difficult for the vehicles to pass through simultaneously; a broken road, a fallen tree or some other impediment; an unexpected and sudden brawl between two commuters ahead of the road; a slow moving procession or an accident. Whatever the reason of the traffic jams maybe, it is must that we don’t lose our patience and deal with the situation composedly.

Long and Short Essay on Traffic Jam in English

Below we have provided Long and short Essay on Traffic Jam in English, of varying length for your knowledge.

These unique and simple Traffic Jam essay will widen your knowledge on the subject, giving you an insight of the causes, effects and solutions of Traffic Jam.

You can use the information gathered from these essays during your school or college essay writing/debate/group discussions on traffic jam, relevant issues or quiz competitions related on this topic.

We hope, you will enjoy reading these interesting essays:

Short Essay on Traffic Jam – Essay 1 (200 words)

Traffic jam occurs when movement of vehicles is hampered at a particular place for some reasons over a certain period of time. If the number of vehicles plying on a street or road is increased than the maximum capacity it is build to sustain, it results in traffic jams. Traffic jam or traffic congestion is an everyday affair in big cities. It is the result of growing population and the increase in use of personal, public as well as commercial transport vehicles.

The congestion mostly occurs on the main roads during peak hours when people commute to work or on their way back home. But there is no fix time and an unprecedented surge in the number of vehicles on roads have made traffic jams anytime affair. The Industrial development in the recent years has only aided to the problem of traffic jam by increasing number of on road transport vehicles.

The loss of the valuable time caused by the traffic jams is not at all good for a Nation’s economical growth. In addition, it results in more wastage of fuel by stationary vehicles only contributing more to the environmental pollution. There is also an increased possibility for road mishaps as the vehicles need to stand or move in close proximity to each other and also because of aggressive driving by frustrated drivers. Overall, the time wasted in traffic jams also leads to the economic loss of the country.

Various measures need to be taken to control the traffic congestion and further develop the public transport system. People should follow the traffic rules and use public transport when possible.


Essay on Problems of Traffic Jams – Essay 2 (300 words)

Introduction

Traffic jam is a condition in which the vehicles get stuck in a jam for a certain period of time. Traffic jams are frustrating and waste a lot of time causing unnecessary delays in reaching one’s destination. Traffic congestion is a problem that occurs with the increasing use of vehicles characterized by slower movement and increase in travel time leading to longer vehicle queues.

Traffic Problem in India

India is a country with second largest network of roads in the world, Out of 5.4 million km long network of road, 97,991 km is covered by national highways. It is a huge challenge for Indian government to provide high-class road transport networks due to steep increase in commercial vehicles.

There is increase in number of private vehicles and the roads are overburdened in almost all big cities of India. It is a day to day affair and pain to deal with traffic, pollution and aggressive drivers on the roads causing a major mental and physical stress for people these days. On an average, a person spends around 30 min to 2 hours in their day driving. Most of this time is spent in traffic jams. Indian cities still have poor public transport and a majority of people have to depend on private transport.

Increase in the Population density in cities is the major factor responsible for the pressure on street capacity. The overuse of urban roads also degrades the quality of roads. Increasing traffic hinders the development of new roads. In addition, air pollution and noise pollution has grown drastically due to traffic jams in the recent years. The recent pollution level in Delhi was an alarming incident for the country. The odd-even scheme was designed by the Delhi CM to deal with the issue.

Conclusion

Various measures need to be taken to improve the public transport network and infrastructure. Car pooling and bike pooling should be exercised more often by people. New plans and schemes should be devised and implemented effectively to solve the traffic issue.


Essay on Traffic Jam in Delhi – Essay 3 (400 words)

Introduction

One of the most common problems that one faces in Delhi is getting caught up in traffic jams. Commuting on the roads of Delhi is becoming more time consuming and exhausting day by day. Poor public transportation, infrastructure and increasing population in the city are the major reasons for traffic on Delhi roads. Our National Capital has become one of the top ten cities in the world for having worst traffic congestions.

Major Reasons of Traffic Jam in Delhi

Here are some of the major reasons for traffic jams in Delhi:

  • One of the chief reasons for traffic jam is the increasing number of vehicles on the roads. Poor infrastructure is not at par with the growing population. During peak hours there are longer queues and research shows that more than one lakh vehicles travel everyday on the busy roads of Delhi.
  • Another major reason is growing population in Delhi, which results in growing number of workforce.
  • Inadequate public transport network in Delhi is also one of the reasons for traffic jams. Transport system is unable to keep pace with the growing population which results in greater number of private vehicles on the roads that causes traffic congestion.
  • Another reason is mixed traffic which includes cars, buses, two-wheelers, pedestrians, etc which makes it difficult to manage traffic and leads to traffic congestion.

Problems Due to Traffic Jams

  • Traffic jam results in unnecessary delays that are not preferred by anyone. It results in non-productivity as people get caught up in traffic congestions.
  • Commuting on the roads of Delhi has become unsafe and has resulted in the increasing number of road fatalities. Traffic jams are known to increase these mishaps. Delhi is known for the highest number of road accidents in the country.
  • There is an increase in noise pollution and air pollution due to traffic jams.
  • The other problems caused due to traffic jams on Delhi roads are road rage, wastage of fuel, wear and tear on vehicles.
  • Emergency vehicles such as fire brigade and ambulance get stuck up due to traffic jams.

Conclusion

Effective implementation of intelligent transport system can bring about sustainable traffic solution. Proper implementation of ITS can lead to traffic efficiency, less traffic congestion, safety to drivers and improved energy efficiency. Other measures that need to be taken are to develop and improve public transport network, improve transport infrastructure, improve traffic safety, create awareness about and develop cost-effective public transport facilities. The effectiveness of such measures also depends on the people of Delhi and proper imposition of laws.


Essay on Traffic Problems in Big Cities – Essay 4 (500 words)

Introduction

Population in India is increasing day by day. More and more people are moving to urban areas. So, with the increase in population and urbanization the problem of traffic is becoming more severe in big cities. The pressure of traffic also results in increasing numbers of road accidents. In addition, there are people who have little road sense and often break the traffic rules. This too has resulted in road mishaps.

The major reason of traffic jams is obviously more private cars and vehicles on the road. Poor road management and lack of proper infrastructure also leads to traffic congestion. Besides, the work areas of people are often located far away from the residential areas, which is why they need to travel to work daily. These are the major factors responsible for traffic in big cities and cause several problems.

Problem Arising Due to Traffic in Big Cities

Let’s have a look at some major problems that arise due to traffic in big cities:    

  • Traffic is one of the major problems in big cities and has made the lives of people really difficult. It is an everyday problem people need to deal with. It wastes time of commuters and motorists. As it is a non productive activity, it also effects our economic growth negatively.
  • People experience delays which result in reaching late for meetings, work, schools and so on. This may even result in personal losses.
  • It also results in waste of fuels that causes air pollution and emission of green house gases.
  • It increases stress and frustration among the motorists and passengers encouraging aggressive driving and annoyed behavior resulting in reduced health of passengers. It may also include verbal insults and intentionally driving in an aggressive and unsafe manner that may lead to road mishaps which can cause injuries and deaths.
  • Traffic congestion may interfere with the route of emergency vehicles that need to move quickly.
  • It is usually not possible for the drivers to estimate the travel time. It takes more time to travel to the destination and results in less productive activities.
  • Traffic jams can also have psychological impact on the mind of a person. The traffic congestion and constant blowing of horns creates excessive noise pollution that leads to aggressive behavior. The delay in work performance and the sense of loss due to less productivity constantly hangs heavy on their heads.
  • Traffic jams hinder the progress of individuals, firms and the nation as a whole. These are not favored by anybody in this fast paced world. Not only do they impact people but also adversely affect our environment and overall economic growth and development.

Conclusion

Traffic problem is one of the major problems that need serious attention. There should be more public transport facility at affordable rates and better infrastructure to encourage people to use public transport. The citizens also need to act in a responsible manner and use public transport or share transport more often to reduce the traffic. Measures also need to be taken to control population which is the major cause of increasing number of vehicles on the roads.


Long Essay on Traffic Jams: Disadvantages – Essay 5 (600 words)

Introduction

Traffic jam is the condition when vehicles are stopped completely for some time period and have to wait for a long time to move out of the jam. Whereas traffic congestion refers to the condition of transport network that occurs due to increasing use of roads often attributed with slow speed, longer trip time and increased queues of vehicles. People are negatively affected due to traffic jams. Traffic jam and traffic congestion is a major issue mostly in big cities.

Traffic jams and congestion have tremendous impact on the life of people. It is one of the most serious problems in big cities that people have to deal with in their day to day life. This results in a lot of unproductive time. Since most of the people have to deal with it on daily basis they may psychologically get affected to some extent. It also affects work, education and personal life of people.

Disadvantages of Traffic Jams

Let us have a look at some chief disadvantages of traffic jams in detail below:

  • Unproductive time is the major disadvantage of traffic jam. People simply get stuck up in traffic jams and wait to go for work. People who have to travel long distance for work or the students who have to rush to school or college may get caught up in traffic jams. This impacts their productivity at work place/ school.
  • The other negative effect of population is the emission of green house gases in the atmosphere leading to the issue of global warming which has negative impact on the health of people and our environment.
  • The businesses nowadays provide home delivery services. This requires delivery boy to deliver products on time but if the delivery boy is stuck up in traffic jams the delivery will be delayed and this can lead to unsatisfied customers.
  • The other effect of traffic jams is inability to estimate travel time. Those who regularly travel through the traffic areas have an idea of approximately how long it usually takes to reach their particular destination. But in case, they get stuck in traffic jams more than the usual time, they get late to reach where they need to head.
  • The breaking and accelerating of the vehicles in traffic jams burns more fuel. More use of fuel costs more to the commuters. And the delay in productivity leads to additional loss.
  • Road rage is the absurd reaction of commuters that is common due to traffic jams. The constant thought of getting late and the loss due to waste of time annoy people. In such a situation if someone is driving slower and blocking the way of person behind him or if someone is overtaking the other driver, it results in aggressive behavior. People often use abusive language and drive aggressively that can lead to accidents. It is basically the outburst by the frustrated drivers stuck in traffic jams.
  • Emergency vehicles get stuck up in traffic jams that causes delay in reaching the location where they need to reach urgently. This may lead to serious loss for some people.

Conclusion

Thus, traffic jam is a serious issue in every big city that causes several problems for commuters on day to day basis. It consumes so much of time and energy unnecessarily and is not preferred by anyone. Serious measures need to be taken to control traffic and promote the use of public transport. Development of public transport network at economical rates is essential. Traffic safety rules should be effectively implemented for the safety of the commuters. People should drive more responsibly, use public transport and opt for car pool whenever possible.

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How Is Urbanization Affecting the Environment?

Cairo, in Egypt, is an urban area that has the problem of a rapid population causing for its economic, social and environmental systems.

Cairo’s population has grown by 10 million people in 30 years, causing multiple problems because of its rapid ness, due to rural-urban migration and natural increase. Because of large numbers of migrants entering the city from the countryside, housing became a large problem, as these people are too poor to afford housing on the outskirts. Instead, most move into the medieval parts of the city where blocks of cramped two-roomed apartments provide cheap housing.

However, this is often too expensive, especially for those that have only just become economically independent, therefore, extra storeys have been created on the flat roof tops in slums. It is because of this high-density housing, as well as pollution and sewerage systems and many other problems that have cause health hazards. With such a large city already, disease is prone to everyone and is likely to be airborne in most areas, with few doctors and a lack of medicines.

Because there are so many people in the city there are few job vacancies, especially for those lacking in simple skills other than farming. As a result, 35% of the population only work full-time, most working informally. Especially in the medieval areas, the streets are full of market stalls and informal businesses, for example, washing pots and selling jewellery. This could lead many of the people into a vicious cycle as in this line of work they may receive little work, therefore they could not afford anywhere to live, by they are not skilled enough to get a higher paid job.

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The problem with the jobs are that they are very labour intensive and in return you get a low and irregular wage because you may sell lots of products on one day and non on the other. However, the population is growing so rapidly that there is simple not enough housing and a job for everyone, and no one wants to live outside the city in the new developments.

The environmental problems caused by the rapid growth of the city are that a large amount of the pollution is created, whether it be industrial, caused by the waste from things dropped in the streets and the refuse tips used to burn anything that is not recyclable, whereby they are being overused because there is too much waste, or noise from the many motor cars that are not designed to fir in the narrow, unplanned streets. Another environmental problem is that there is a poor sewerage system.

There was a very small sewerage network built in the 20th Century which cannot cope with such a large amount of people now, therefore what systems there are, are breaking down, causing the streets to flood in dirty water, causing more disease. There is also a poor water system, with both poor quality and quantity. As the demand for water grows, the amount of it decreases, as it cannot be supplied as fast as it is needed.

Many problems have been caused by such a rapid population growth within Cairo, however, there are some solutions to help slow this down, for example, stopping rural-urban migration by providing better facilities in rural areas, like a clean water supply.

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Urbanisation In Medcs

A number of problems in Mexico City have been created by rapid urban growth, some of which are similar to those experienced by the UK in the 19th century, the period of the industrial revolution.

Mexico is situated between Belize and the USA; the capital is in the centre of the country and growth is constricted towards the south and west due to high rugged mountains. Mexico City is built on a series of old lakebeds almost 2400m above sea level; the majority of the lakes in the valley were drained by the late 18th century. Although the lakes were drained there is still a store of water underground, this means that the city is sinking by 5-40cm per year. Due to the city being built on relatively unstable grounds, the lake sediments amplify earthquakes experienced in the area. In September 1985 an earthquake caused a death toll of 10,000.

With an elevated mountain rimmed basin, Mexico City is prone to temperature inversions where pollutants, particularly from burning fossil fuels are trapped and cannot disperse, this creates a layer of smog over the city. This was a very common occurrence in UK cities of the industrial revolution, for example Manchester.

The industrial revolution started in the late 1700’s when Richard Arkwright introduced the first mechanical textile machines into factories. Factories were extremely polluting as the machines were run on coal burning fires but at the time this was not seen as a concern as it was a very profitable business making factory owners very wealthy just as landowners were in the rural areas of the UK. Growth of the cities followed the introduction of the factories; mechanisation of farming had caused large unemployment in rural areas. Factories needed a workforce and labourers were paid better in this industry than farming. Later came the introduction of the iron industry creating more work but also more pollution for the cities.

Mexico City is in a similar stage as this period of the industrial revolution; over 40,000 factories in the city provide jobs to the population whilst creating this environmental concern in the process. However if Mexico wants to become a stable country, which is sustainable, then it needs to go through this process. Unfortunately now that we no of the problems that pollutants cause it is difficult to watch Mexico do this to the environment.

Factors explaining growth of a city can be divided into five main reasons. Firstly economic influence, areas of a city will expand if attractions are in a central location and accessible for services, businesses and shops. The high demand for space in central areas pushes up property and land prices. As businesses increase in size and number the area covered by the CBD will expand, therefore causing residential areas to increase in size, as the workforce of these companies will live nearby.

Often people cannot afford to spend a lot of money on travel expenses and therefore will live close to where they work to reduce their costs. This means that you get a high concentration of people living in a specific area. Proximity to certain urban areas can affect where people live. For example, if a polluting factory is opened, it may deter people from living in that area and inadvertently cause an increase in the number of people living somewhere else. Making the problems being experienced here to perhaps become more severe.

Secondly, political control, restrictions may be in place to allow growth in some areas but not others, for example a green belt system. The purpose of a green belt is to stop building in that area. Private companies owning land can determine who they sell land to and who they refuse. Redlining areas can be instructed by political bodies to enforce that people do not live in specific areas. Redlining an area can simply be done by not allowing someone to borrow money to buy a house in that area.

Thirdly, socio-economic segregation, people often live in areas of similar ethnic groups, life style and family types. For example in Mexico City there are specific areas where the elite live and other areas where the poor live. The elite tend to be found in areas of wealthy suburbanites in the south west of the city where there is the least pollution, furthest from industries with the best commercial services, transport networks and medical and healthcare options. Where as the poorer population live in the northeast close to the industrial areas and CBD where there is the worst pollution and 40-66% live in informal settlements.

Fourthly, migration, there are a range of strong to Mexico City from rural areas in Mexico. Approximately 3000 people migrate to Mexico City each day from surrounding states, for example Hidalgo. The push and pull factors can be divided up into economic, political, social and environmental.

A political pull factor is that education is more available in the city and older children often can attend whilst younger ones work with parents in the informal sector. Political push factors are that there is a lack of basic services in rural areas, 80% without running water and poor communications and that there has been very little investment in projects benefiting subsistence farmers.

An example of an economic pull factor is that relatives already living in the city provide networks of information on employment and accommodation, 44% of migrants rely on help such as this to get them started. Some examples of economic push factors include, unemployment in rural areas, large landowners dominate the land and give few benefits to farmers, and rural farmers have variable yields and cannot afford pesticides.

Examples of social pull factors include, lower mortality rates in the city due to more services such as healthcare, glamorised perception of urban life, women are more able to migrate due to greater independence, more opportunities in the city. Social push factors are dominated by the rapid rate of natural increase, which causes stress on the food supplies.

There are no environmental pull factors; it is well known that Mexico City has one of the worst pollution records in the world however some rural areas are so dire that it is the only solution. For example 80% of soils are poor and subject to soil erosion and desertification.

Finally, natural increase, there is a reduction is the number of people dying and an increase in the number of births, approximately 30/1000 crude birth rate to 10/1000 crude death rate.

With the city growing exponentially, being ten times larger than it was in 1940 there are a range of problems that are difficult to avoid in an LEDC. There is no public transport in Mexico City meaning there is 3.5 million privately owned vehicles on the road, this creates congestion throughout the road networks and high levels of carbon monoxide and sulphur dioxide are released. With the addition of 40,000 factories producing 12,000 tonnes of gases per day, the mixture of pollutants and cool air from the surrounding mountains causes a temperature inversion creating a thick layer of smog over the city that is extremely bad for your health; there is a high incidence of respiratory problems.

Similar problems were seen in Manchester in the early 19th century where factory chimneys and domestic coal fires created a permanent blanket of smoke and acid rain creating numerous diseases including bronchitis, influenza, asthma and pneumonia. It has been said that breathing the air in Mexico City is the equivalent of smoking sixty cigarettes a day. In 1994 the World Health Organisation (WHO) declared that the quality of the air in Mexico City was only acceptable on twenty days of the year.

Due to the city being built on dried lakebeds where huge amounts of waste matter has been dumped over the years on open sites there are new problems of winds uplifting dust and spreading it over the south east and north east adding to the smog situation.

As 99% of lakes in Mexico have been drained it means that water has to be pumped from 150km to supply Mexico City with its requirements, 66,000 litres are consumed per second.

In the early 19th century Manchester experienced an extremely rapid increase in population size, while London’s population doubled, Manchester’s trebled. In 1811 Manchester had a population of 89,068 by 1851 the population had risen to 303,382 people. This created an extreme problem with availability of housing and quality of living standards. Population density was extremely high and many people shared poorly constructed houses with very little sanitation and no water supply. This can be seen in Mexico City today, here the population density has risen to 5487 persons per km2 due to the mass numbers migrating to the city on a daily basis and therefore there is not adequate housing available. This means that shanty towns have developed where people live in shacks constructed from corrugated iron and wood. Where people are living in proper houses it often overcrowded, this is 44% of houses in Mexico City.

With a large population comes a large waste disposal crisis; in Mexico City approximately 90% of hazardous waste is release into the sewage systems, which are contaminating the water supply. This has further affect on the population when the water is used on the growing crops. A result of the contamination is that fruit and vegetables contain a high level of lead. Many babies born suffer some problem caused by lead poisoning.

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The Costs of Congestion

Costs are divided into private costs and cost to third parities. The cost to the third party is called an externality. Private costs are costs that are personal to a person or company and so an example of that would be fuelling an airplane with petrol. Externalities occur when a person is doing something, but the full cost of doing the thing is not paid. An example of this is pollution, because no one actually pays for the damage caused. The most efficient outcome to society would be when marginal social cost and marginal social benefit equal each other.

The externalities that are caused have to be the main problem. The environment is greatly damaged because of this. The more vehicles driven, the more the pollution caused. 44% of nitrogen oxide emissions in the UK come from cars. Cars also contribute to 24% of carbon dioxide emissions. Both nitrogen oxide and carbon dioxide are big contributions to global warming. Because of global warming, the Earth’s average temperature rises which causes sea levels to also rise. Nitrogen oxide also harms the bodies respiratory and immune systems.

Carbon monoxide reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of the bloody and could prove to be fatal. The UK road traffic is responsible for 69% of Carbon monoxide emissions.

Another externality that is less obvious is noise pollution. This occurs because of vehicles. It causes a lot of disturbance to people. There are very few places left in England where noise pollution doesn’t affect anyone in anyway.

To reduce car congestion a number of ways have been developed to try and achieve the aim.

‘A new deal for transport’ was published which outlined policies to create a better public transport system. The increase use of public transport would mean that congestion would be cut enormously as cars won’t be in much usage.

The congestion charge in London that was introduced last February was developed to try and cut the congestion problem in the centre of London. This would be effective as people could be put off with the �5 charge and would rather use the public transport as it is cheaper. As this scheme is seen to be a long term success, other cities may well introduce them too. A criticism of the congestion in London however is that rich people would be able to pay and the people on lower incomes wouldn’t. Although the money gained from the charges would then be used to improve public transport.

To carry on using cars and not polluting the environment would be impossible, unless you switch to cars that run on hydrogen. This would be more environmentaly friendly as they emit less pollution than petrol. However the downside of this is that in current times, these cars are very expensive. In the future we may be able to see more of these cars being manufactured and slowly replacing the petrol-run cars.

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Atmospheric Pollution

Firstly, we must question: How does air pollution occur? To understand this, one is required to recognise the earth’s surroundings. Life is totally dependant upon the blanket of mixed gases referred to as ‘air’ surrounding our planet earth. This atmosphere is, approximately, a five hundred kilometre thick1 composite layer of colourless, odourless gasses that surrounds the earth kept in place by gravitational forces. Due to its intangible form, it is often ignored by man, making it vulnerable and easily damaged (this fact being highlighted by a large number of disasters caused, effectively, by man). The political and scientific debate on the so called ‘Greenhouse Effect’ is based on concern over increasing atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide resulting from combustion of fossil fuels and emissions of other ‘Greenhouse Gases’ – such as methane (from decomposing waste), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and nitrous oxides (NOx).

The activities of homo sapiens have introduced these new chemicals into the atmosphere and disturbed the distribution of its natural constituents. At first, this was limited to the effect of the fireplace, but later, with the greatly expanded usage of coal, these effects grew more acute. And, after the Industrial Revolution, these effects were compounded. As will be made clear, this revolution reached such a point that consequences began to be regarded more than just an inevitable residue of industrialisation and the struggle for economic growth.

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Secondly, in order to intertwine the above information with the issue at hand, it may be necessary to ask oneself, what is environmental law, who is using it and for what purposes? These questions are being posed, as it is imperative to understand the background of the subject, not just for this subtopic in environmental law, but any topic, before entering it in any depth. Environmental law is first and foremost, a combination of primary legislation2, secondary legislation3 (which will be explained in more depth throughout the project), judicial decisions, common law principles, European Community legislation4 – ‘which impose an obligation on members states to enact legislation to give effect to the terms of the Directive’5 which are transposed into national law (as regulations), European treaties and international law (found in treaties, conventions and protocols).

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The foremost function of environmental law is not, as many would imagine, to completely eliminate pollution altogether, but rather, to allow, or balance pollution levels with the gains we, as a society receive from economic growth. This phenomenon, known most frequently as ‘sustainable development’ is one that will be referred to time and time again in any environmental law topic. Sustainable development’s widely accepted definition is to be found in the 1987 Bruntland Report

– “Our Common Future” (the report for the World Commission on Environmental Development 1987). It states:

‘…development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs’.

In layman terms, what this report was recommending, or advising the inhabitants of this earth to do, was to use our resources on the planet in such a manner, so as not to jeopardise the way in which it can be used by others in those years after us. A classic example highlighting the necessity of sustainable development is that of the Communist regimes, such in Poland, in which they favoured production and economic development over protection of the environment. In brief, economic growth will lead to changes in the environment. If this growth is not controlled/governed, it can lead to an ugly and dangerous environment. One could be as bold as to say that obviously, the overriding consideration of any commercial enterprise is the maintenance and expansion of profit.

To achieve this, one tactic is to minimize costs and this can occur by reviewing methods of disposal of unwanted materials. If discharging these wastes into the atmosphere represents the cheapest way of accomplishing this, then the industry will have a strong inclination to adopt this strategy. The costs of disposal do not disappear when pollution is emitted into the atmosphere, and as has been discovered, the society will eventually end up paying far greater costs. Therefore, it is the governments of each nation must choose limits to benefit both the environment and economic growth. This is often referred to as ‘anthroprecantic’7 and most law is based on it.

As it was eventually assessed (with regards to the situation in Poland) that their lack of concern for the environment in which they inhabited was, in effect, the reason for their poor economic advancement. It was also noted that their Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was less than those countries who followed the anthroprecantic system. This perhaps is the most precise example of how the environment plays such a big factor on our lives, not just for our health, but also for the development of our respective countries. (After all, it is the aspiration of each and every governing nation to become wealthy and prosperous – economic development is at the heart of each nation). In working towards sustainable development, whether in broad terms or looking at one particular aspect such as air quality, a number of basic concepts must guide action. These concepts have been clearly outlined in a number of governmental papers8. Within the United Kingdom’s largely secular and pragmatic society, it seems inevitable that pollution is view in an economic context.

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The industrial revolution was the main cause of such concern over the environment. Before this time, ‘environmental law in England and Wales was characterised by a parochial focus on localised pollution problems’9. Such problems date back to the early uses of coal in domestic fires. The production of fumes and particulates from fires caused pulmonary infections and related lung diseases. Notwithstanding this effect, coal continued to be used. In 1661, John Evelyn

published his famous work on air pollution in city areas, Fumi Fugiumi, which not only outlined the problems that atmospheric pollution from smoke caused, but also, more importantly, tried to suggest methods by which the problem could be resolved.

After this period, much legislation was passed addressing specific problems in this area of law, for example, atmospheric pollution from chemical industries and ‘unclean’ modes of transport, water pollution and the regulation of statutory nuisance.

2.1

Very few areas of the United Kingdom are safe from air pollution. Pollution levels exceed Government health standards all over the country on many days every year, even in rural areas. It is difficult to assess exactly the impact of air pollution on public health. However the government itself stated that: “the Department of Health’s latest assessment is that air pollution is at present responsible each year for several thousand advanced deaths; for ten to twenty thousand hospital admissions, and for many thousands of instances of illness, reduced activity, distress and discomfort”10. It was also assessed that short-term episodes cause between 12,700 and 19,500 premature deaths in the UK a year11. And three years prior to this, it was estimated12 that short-term pollution episodes were responsible for between 12,000 and 24,000 deaths per year. These figures have put new pressure on the Government to fully support the Road Traffic Reduction Bill13, from Cynog Dafis MP.

Over 400 Members of Parliament are supporting the principles of the Bill, which requires the government to produce a national plan to cut road traffic from 1990 levels by 5% by the year 2005 and 10% by the year 2010. As can be imagined, road transport is a major source of air pollution in the UK. Five of the key pollutants are: particulates (fine dust and soot particles – PM), carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), benzene and hydrocarbons (HCs). ‘After more than half a century of under-investment in Britain, roads are the most congested in Europe’14. However, knowing that transport is the cornerstone of modern society, yet it is responsible for poor air quality in many urban centres around the world, what is there that can be done about its damaging effect on our environment?

There are increasing concerns about the impact of traffic exhaust emissions on the health of citizens who are exposed to the high concentrations of pollutants, plus the wider global implications. Legislation is helping clean up vehicles and fuel, but there is a significant time lag while the vehicle stock is being replaced. In the interim, mechanisms could to be introduced that accelerate the replacement of vehicles or improve the existing stock.

2.2

In the UK such a concept has taken the form of Low Emission Zones, which aim to restrict the use of the most polluting vehicles from specific areas in an urban environment. In Sweden, a similar concept has been in operation since 1996 whereby environmental standards are specified for heavy vehicles entering the central area of the main cities. The government has also recently set health standards for eight key pollutants. For these pollutants it has also set policy targets to be reached by the year 2005. Meeting these targets will need action locally, nationally and internationally. The Environment Act 1995 set up a system known as Local Air Quality Management through which local authorities will play a major part in reducing pollution levels.

2.3

If we are to meet the Government’s targets for air pollution, then pollution from traffic must be cut drastically. There are two main ways to do this: Traffic reduction: cutting the volume of traffic on the roads. A number of environmental organisations are supporting the Road Traffic Reduction Act (which is now law) and the Road Traffic Reduction (UK Targets) Bill. This Bill, which is currently in Parliament as a Private Members Bill, aims to cut traffic levels nationally by 5% by 2005 and 10% by 2010. Greener cars: making sure that cars pollute as little as is possible. This is achieved through tightening engine technology and fuel quality standards. These standards are set at a European level15.

2.4

Although the above issues are seemingly simple, everyone does not welcome the manner in which they will be implemented. For example, There are a huge number in opposition to the government increasing taxes on fuel, and in one particular instance, it was stated by a former chairman of a lobbying institution, that ‘if Gordon Brown increases his fuel taxes, he will see the same situation as he saw in Autumn 2000’ [where there was a great number of protests and havoc was caused around Britain]16 This threat was reinforced by a totally independent party, namely the Petrol Retailers Association, who warned ‘if taxes on motor fuels are increased, petrol forecourts will close’17. With statistics and threats such as those provided, it is difficult to advise what the government can do to aid the situation.

The Liberal Democrat party also showed its urgency when it released a statement highlighting its concern that the Chancellor of the Exchequer must freeze fuel taxes in real terms for the lifetime of this Parliament. The party also called for a ‘sliding scale’ of car tax emissions, so that consumers with polluting vehicles paying higher duties, and those with the most environmentally friendly, paying nothing18. And, in support of this plea, it was stated, by The Confederation of British Industry, that they would be ‘surprised and disappointed if there was a real increase in fuel duties’

2.5

The Mayor of London, Ken Livingstone, who is behind many of the more noticeable environmental issues with regards to London stated in his manifesto that he aims to ‘put the environment at the heart of London government and provide for comprehensive environmental assessment and monitoring of all strategies which the Mayor is required to produce’19. In addition to this, the Mayor said that he will ‘aim to reduce road traffic by 15% by 2010’20. In favour of this aim, recent figures suggest that the UK’s emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are being reduced21 and in addition, greenhouse gases are also being reduced. However, as stated previously, with the correction of specific pollution problems, comes an uplift of other hazards, such as in this case, the increase in carbon dioxide emissions and recent developments in the electricity market suggest problematic situations.

3.0

All aspects of environmental law have a domestic, European and international dimension to them. For example, if one lives in a country where there are dangerous waste materials being transported thorough, the government of transporting town will ensure that the standard of safety provided is of a standard expected on a international level. These precautions must be taken in any environmental situation as will be discovered through this assignment. The influence of international law on the regulation of air pollution has been significant. This may be in recognition of the fact that many of the problems caused by air pollution can have impacts across a large geographical area (and in many cases cause seriously global effects). There have been a number of areas where international law has helped to shape policies and rules on both a domestic and European level.

Therefore, with regards to our particular topic, atmospheric pollution in England is regulated, not only by domestic bodies, but moreover, on a European and global level. The problems related to air pollution are by no means a new phenomenon. The prohibitions on certain activities producing smoke are probably the first instances of environment pollution legislation in the United Kingdom, and legislation dates back to 1863 with the Alkali Act, Public Health Act 1875 and 1936, Public Health (Smoke Abatement) Act 1926 and the Clean Air Act (CAA) 1956. The first modern piece of legislation combating air pollution, namely the Alkali Act, represented the culmination of a long period of dissatisfaction with environmental conditions, especially in London. For example, in 1819, an M.P had written,

“[T]he volumes of smoke which issues from the furnaces on every side of the river Thames opposite my own house actually blacken every flower I have in my own garden in Whitehall”22

Until the CAA 1956 was introduced, the government of Britain has had a large amount of difficulty in tackling the problems of atmospheric pollution. Nowadays, the 3 main pollution controls in Britain (which will be clearly explained in detail in), are the Integrated Pollution Control (IPC)23 and Integrated Pollution and Control (IPPC), the Clean Air Act (CAA)24 1993 (a consolidation of the CAA 1956 and CAA 1968), and the controls relating to vehicle emissions. In addition to these, the Environmental Act 1995 25(EA 1995) naturally plays a large role, as it does in all environmental issues.

3.1

Having discussed the topic of environmental law, recapped on the history of atmospheric pollution, and established that there is a need for change, it is now necessary to discuss and evaluate the measures and changes which have been made, by domestic, European and international governments along with a vast number of very influential pressure groups. The main three are (mentioned in section ):

a) The Integrated Pollution Control (IPC)26 and Integrated Pollution and Control (IPPC) license based controls relating to a range of highly polluting industries detailed in part1 of the Environmental Protection Act (EPA) 1990 and the Pollution Prevention Act (PPA) 1999.

b) The criminal sanction based controls over the emission of smoke and other particulate matter from chimneys and furnaces detailed in the Clean Air Act (CAA) 1993.

c) Controls relating to vehicle emissions. These controls encompass engine efficiency standards, the chemical composition of fuels, the mandatory use of catalytic converters, eco-taxes, price differentials between different types of fuel and the use of traffic management powers.27. The aforementioned controls are an enhancement made by the Environmental Act 1995.

3.2

The CAA 1993 concentrates on the control of emissions on smoke, dust and grit by means of criminal offences. The main offences are, emissions of dark smoke – from a chimney or from industrial premises, emissions of dust and grit from non-domestic furnaces, emissions of smoke from a chimney in a ‘Smoke Control Area’ and various other offences relating to the installation of furnaces. Having stated earlier, atmospheric pollution is not merely a domestic issue, the involvement of Europe is particularly highlighted with the great many directives established. Since 1993, when the Maastricht Treaty on the European Union (EU) reformed the Treaty of Rome, Articles 130r – 130t of the EC Treaty have provided the legal basis for Community environmental law.

Specifically, under Article 130r (2), environmental policy is guided by four principles: the precautionary, the polluter-pays principle, the integration principle, and the source principle. Moreover, the aforementioned Article further provides that a directive or regulation may include a ‘safeguard clause’, which allows Member States to take any appropriate measure to protect the environment in case of emergency28.

European Community (EC) measures to curb air pollution can be divided into different categories. Emissions from industrial plants – whereby the most important directive is the Large Combustion Plant Directive (88/609/EEC). In addition to this, Directives 89/369/EEC (dealing with emissions from incineration plants, and Directive 96/61/EC (IPPC) which was implemented into national law in 1999 are the most important directives regarding Emissions from industrial plants. Another category is that of Air pollution affecting the ozone layer and global warming in which EC regulations 3322/88, 591/91 and 549/91 which have banned CFCs and hydro fluorocarbons (HFCs), respectively. Air quality standards have been inputted in Air Quality Framework Directives (96/62/EC) and 99/30/EC. As can be seen, the EC has implemented a large number of directives, however, what is not apparent from the information given, is which have been implemented in British national law. The EC also concentrates on vehicle emission standards, product quality standards and atmospheric pollution and waste reduction29.

4.0

As an evaluation, it is necessary to view the opinions and publications of specialised bodies that thrive to ever improve the environment, such as Green Peace and Friends of the Earth. However, when consulting such sources, one is required to acknowledging the great possibilities of biasness, in order to assess the contribution these measures and policies have made on the atmospheric pollution levels in Britain. Regarding one particular publication issued by Friends of the Earth, it was stated, that by using government data and methods to calculate an Air Quality Indicator for 1999 established that air quality is still ‘very poor’.

The calculation shows, for key monitoring sites around Britain, the average number of days on which air pollution levels were above the Government’s air quality standard. John Prescott called it a “key quality of life indicator”. It was also stated that road traffic is the major source of air pollution in the UK, which is responsible for 48% of UK emissions of nitrogen dioxide, 26% of particles, 2% of sulphur dioxide and 74% of carbon monoxide. Ozone is a secondary pollutant, produced by reactions between nitrogen dioxide and hydrocarbons. Road traffic is responsible for 38% of UK emissions of hydrocarbons. In this report, it was stated that the share of pollution produced by road traffic would be significantly higher in towns and cities.

4.1

The (New) Labour government took office in 1997 promising to be “the first truly green Government ever” and to put “concern for the environment at the heart of policy making”. There have been real achievements. In Labour’s first term, both Tony Blair and John Prescott led international efforts to agree the Kyoto treaty to fight climate change. Labour committed the UK to cut emissions of carbon dioxide, the most significant climate changing gas, by 20% by 2010. Despite Tony Blair’s very close relationship with the United States, he is still prepared to criticise President Bush for reneging on this treaty and attempting to undermine support for it from other states.

Gordon Brown overcame considerable hostility from the business lobby to introduce the Climate Levy, which has begun to give industry clear incentives to cut emissions. Unfortunately, this is where achievements tend to become more difficult to establish. Early in Labour’s first term, Chancellor Gordon Brown took important steps to implement the basic principle of green taxation, that tax should be raised on polluting and environmentally destructive behaviour, with the revenues used to pay for green initiatives and to cut taxes on employment. But New Labour has now simply surrendered to the fuel tax protestors, and abandoned the process of gradually raising fuel duty to ensure that the cost of motoring more accurately reflects the environmental damage it causes. And in his last Budget, Brown put employers’ National Insurance contributions back up again, increasing the cost of labour and discouraging job creation.30

4.2

Ultimately, it appears that any capitalist economy must face the full scale of any atmospheric pollution problem presented by their production. As stated in 1.2, a capitalist economy focuses on survival of the fittest to ensure its own self preservation. Eventually, if the exhaustion of natural resources is approached, a capitalist economy will have to modify it’s own behaviour to guarantee it’s own survival, for it requires these resources to continue it’s existence. It appears as though

we are, environmentally, living in a vicious circle, whereby our preventative measures are preventing one particular problem, but at the same time, causing a problem of a different nature. It is only when that problem becomes apparent to public knowledge that it begins to be tackled. It appears, from methods undertaken before, for the protection of the environment that we may be preventing the condition of our earth from deteriorating to such a dismal point. Our structural interventions in capitalist economy do not appear without merit, albeit sometimes unnoticeable.

4.3

It was stated by Al Gore31 in his book ‘ Earth in the Balance’: ”Modern industrial civilisation is colliding violently with our planet’s ecological system.’ We inherited Eden and are leaving our children a depleted rubbish tip’32. However, on a global scale, this appears not to be, in my opinion, the case. Having researched this project for a number of months, one can honestly believe that environmentally, things are getting better. Although issues are still to be found on a daily basis in any newspaper one picks up, the fact remains that things are getting better – or are getting worse, at a slower rate than they were previously.

4.3

‘Air pollution is not a new phenomenon that has been getting worse and worse, but an old phenomenon that has been getting better and better, leaving London cleaner than it has been since the Middle Ages.’33 Having evaluated governmental policies and researched air pollution, foremost in Britain, one would hope that this statement can now be conclusively agree, or disagreed with. Evidently, the system in which the British government takes actions often referred to as the ‘sectoral approach’34 means that whilst our nation is tackling one particular aspect of pollution, another problem would shift to another sector. ‘Britain has a problem with embarking upon the environmental issue on the whole’35.

Therefore, in a brief summary of the above conclusions, it can be said that the environmental issues themselves are not seemingly the problem. Moreover, it is the funding of the implementation that causes the problems. Environmental issues are being discovered and publicised weekly. If the nation were to consider only issues relating to the environment (which it seems the Green Party and other such organisation are aiming for), there would be no advancement in other fields. Therefore, the question of sustainable development is highlighted again. How much should a nation consider the state of the environment, when clearly it needs to concentrate on the economy? As everyone is aware, the government obtains most of it’s funding from taxes. If they were to continuously tax the nation, then no one would vote for them.

Therefore, they have to bind their policies with one another and establish a sustainable method in which to provide both for the present, and the growing nation. Consequently, on the whole, the implementation of policies and legislation appear to be having a generally good effect on the atmospheric pollution level in Britain. One question remains, however, and that is, for how long will the preventative principle prevail, and will be sufficient in curbing an environmental hazard?

In essence, it appears as though sustainable development is the mainframe of environmental and political ideology, and that government policy, and legislative implementation is delivering a sound task in the  field of atmospheric pollution in maintaining sustainable development. After all, it must be remembered, that no organisation in this world is flawless in its methods, and with it come faults, as is evident with the topic of atmospheric pollution. On the whole, policy and legislation appear to be achieving the ever fervent goal of sustainability.

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The Validity of the Environmental Kuznets Curve

The proper use of the environment has become a controversial topic in economics. In both of James Beseecher’s lectures during the module, he outlined a critique of mainstream economics currently governing all our policies, and presented several key thinkers In environmental economics. The huge potential for economic growth through the exploitation of the environment has been undeniable. Vital resources have forever been and continue to be a necessary component of economic growth.

But the environment also performs the essential function of supporting life. Needless to say, if humans impair the earth’s ability to sustain life the consequences would be dire. And unfortunately, the very same exploitation that provides us with crucial economic Inputs can also be the Instrument by which we impair the earth’s ability to support life. Beechen Insisted the world would have to shift Its focus too more sustainable branch of economics. One policy proposed by economists is to allow countries to economically grow out of environmentally damaging activity.

Looking at countries with already large economies, we see signs of environmental regulation such as emissions standards, extensive recycling programs, and limited timber harvesting. The economists supporting a policy that Initially allows for environmental degradation assert that If a country can achieve sufficient economic growth In a short period of time then perhaps environmental damage should be tolerated. A well-known hypothesis providing support for a policy that emphasizes economic growth at the expense of environmental protection is the environmental Sunset curve (EKE) hypothesis.

It posits that countries in the development process will see their levels of environmental degradation increase until some Income threshold Is met and then afterwards decrease. If true, economic polices should allow extensive, although not necessarily absolute, use of the environment for growth purposes. But carrying out such policies involves inherent dangers. If developing countries decide to overlook environmental protection by counting on rising incomes to abate environmental damage the consequences could be devastating.

The most pressing danger is that additional environmental degradation could cause some irreversible and significant harm. This could occur before the predicted Income threshold Is met. The other concern with counting on Incomes to reduce environmental damage Is that the EKE hypothesis could easily be incorrect and relying on its predictions would lead to consistently insufficient protection. This paper evaluates the validity of the EKE hypothesis and argues that it is not a sound basis for policy formation and Justification with so much at stake.

The plan of the paper is as follows. Section II examines the basis for the EKE hypothesis and conditions under which It may accurately predict a country’s future environmental at the findings of these studies. Section IV identifies the inherent dangers in determining environmental policy based upon the EKE hypothesis. Some concerns are relevant if the hypothesis does not hold and others are present even if it does prove a correct forecaster of environmental quality. Section V provides a conclusion.

Section II: The Concept of the Environmental Sunset Curve The EKE hypothesis asserts that countries will naturally move from relatively low environmentally degrading activity to highly degrading activity and then, once a certain income threshold is achieved, will proceed to less degrading activity once again. This assertion allows one to predict the relative level of environmental damage Ewing caused by a country by looking at GAP per capita. However, this prediction is relative to individual countries. In other words, each country has its own EKE, based upon resource endowment, social customs, etc. From which it progresses along relative to its GAP. A graphical model of the hypothesis helps illustrate the inverted “U” shape of the relationship: It is important to note that the theoretical EKE graph does not explicitly express time as a dimension and for this reason the use of the EKE hypothesis to Justify policy decision – an action that by definition incorporates time – would appear inadequate. Only by comparing two different countries can the inverted “U” shaped curve be derived as seen above. However each country possesses its own unique EKE and therefore each country’s policies should be organized accordingly.

In order for the graph to show an EKE, and thereby be valid as policy Justification, we must incorporate a time dimension. We find a time dimension along the x-axis. The EKE hypothesis assumes that changes in income per capita only occur over time. By including this supposition of changes in income inherently signifying time, the graph can now show an EKE for a specific country. The identification of a country’s particular EKE provides a basis for using it to influence policy. Possessing the theoretical model by which the EKE hypothesis is used for economic policy we turn our focus to explaining why the inverted “U” shape exists.

There are two primary explanations for the proposed shape of the EKE. The first examines the history of developed countries and the paths they took to achieve development. The second reflects the changing preference for environmental quality as incomes rise. Historically, all developed countries’ economies were originally based upon agriculture, a state that produced little environmental damage. Their economies later switched to a much more environmentally damaging state that focused on industry and manufacturing. Two main factors lead to environmental damage that occurs during industrialization.

First, the harmful by-products of production damage the environment. High levels of pollution and water contamination accompany the expansion of industry. The second factor is the increased consumption of natural resources. The extensive over-use of land, deforestation and mining of mountains is a form of environmental damage in and of itself. A common conclusion of this placement pattern is that Olds must pass through the same phases in order to regulations, Olds will be at an economic disadvantage compared to the already developed countries.

Many Olds point to this competitive disadvantage when rejecting global environmental standards. The next stage of development saw industrial nations switching to service-based economies, a trend that all global GAP leaders tend towards. During this phase the income threshold of the Ekes for certain polluting substances appear to have been reached. According to the hypothesis, service-based economies are said to be able to avoid many of the most environmentally damaging economic activities. In theory, environmental impacts also fall as a result of improved technology discovered in developed countries.

In some cases technology leads to a more efficient use of inputs. Other technological advancements make it possible to restrict the harmful effects that economic activity have on the environment. The second reason that a high-income level can reduce environmental damage is by altering the demand for environmental quality. Known as the “income effect”, sufficiently high GAP per capita often leads individuals to place environmental quality above additional economic growth. The aggregation of these individual preferences plays an integral role in determining the income threshold.

The EKE income threshold aggregates all environmentally damaging agents into a single numerical value. However, taken individually economists can place dollar values on the turning points of damaging agents. For example, in a 1997 paper by Cole, Earner and Bates, the authors found the turning point of CO and NON emissions to be around $9,900 and $14,700, respectively. Using environmental quality preference as an explanation, the income threshold represents the income level per pita at which the preference for environmental quality outweighs the preference for additional income.

This change in preference occurs on a public level, rather than a private one. Microeconomic decisions to support more environmentally friendly goods and services cannot account for the income effect. The issue is instead a matter of public policy. The changes in environmental standards reflect political pressure on governments. According to the EKE hypothesis, changes to evolving economies and the individual preference for environmental quality combine to determine the income threshold. However, whether or not an inverted “U” shaped curve exists at all is still up for debate.

Section Ill: Evidence For and Against the EKE Hypothesis Evidence regarding the EKE hypothesis is circumstantial and inconclusive. Most early studies that supported the hypothesis focused on a single damaging agent, such as a pollutant. Identifying key characteristics associated with agents that have been studied we find that only certain types of agents exhibit an EKE. Evidence supporting the EKE first began in 1994 when Selene and Song derived an EKE for SIS. A later test in 1995 by economists Grossman also found SIS emissions to follow n EKE. They found a turning point between $4,000 and $6,000.

Another early documentation of EKE support came from Theodore Pantaloon who found the turning point of deforestation to be $823. After the initial studies, other economists began to investigate the validity of the EKE hypothesis and found refuting evidence. In the 1997 paper by Cole, Earner and Bates, they found no EKE for traffic, nitrates or EKE; rather, energy use per capita rose steadily with increased income. Evidence appears to support the EKE hypothesis only for a limited type of damaging agents. The emission of SIS is found in urban waste areas and is thereby hardhearted by its locality.

Deforestation also reflects a situation involving a specific location. Damaging agents that affect only a particular site tend to show Ekes. However, a damaging agent such as traffic is plain to see and also affects certain areas heavily. In this case the agent is dominated by a scale effect – increased activity leads to increased environmental impact. While traffic-related pollution is generally iterated by population size, damaging agents such as energy production by-products increase with GAP per capita. Section lb. Dangers of the EKE Hypothesis in international development

There exist many dangers in allowing an economy to simply grow out of environmentally damaging activity. Some of these dangers arise because the EKE hypothesis does not hold true in all cases. Others exist even if we assume the hypothesis as an accurate predictor of environmental conditions. The following is a list of concerns regarding the EKE hypothesis: l. It remains inconclusive if most damaging agents follow the EKE. II. The threshold income may be irrelevantly high or the temporary period of increasing environmental damage too long. Ill.

Any decrease in environmental damage seen in developed countries may reflect the exportation of production abroad and subsequent importation. IV. The “absorptive capacity’ of our earth is unknown. V. Ekes may only exist in certain political atmospheres. A detailed examination of the above concerns illustrates the inherent dangers in accepting the EKE hypothesis and afterwards using it to Justify policy making. As discussed above, only local and regional damaging agents show signs of Ekes. Other “difficult to detect” agents seem to increase with GAP per capita.

This discovery leaves open to question whether more agents than not respond to income increases. If there exist more agents that do not respond then attempting to grow past these impacts would be impossible. Many damaging agents may respond to income levels, but not until GAP per capita approaches out-of-reach levels. If in a developed country, the turning point for a damaging agent is above, say, $50,000 then neglecting to react will create damage for a considerable amount of time. Over the time it takes to achieve the turning point, the environmental damage may become irreversible .

Obviously, in a OLD the turning point value needs only to be considerably lower and still have the same adverse effects. Using solely the EKE hypothesis to Justify unsustainable growth is unwise, as the outcome still remains unknown. Another consideration that challenges the EKE evidence is that wealthy countries are massively importing products manufactured in Olds, thereby contributing to environmental degradation; the only difference is that the degradation is not domestic. The first hypothesis to bring up this possibility was the Pollution Haven hypothesis.

It states that developed countries export their high polluting industries to Olds whose governments have more lax environmental standards. Many economists follow environmental regulations. However, this does not exclude the possibility of heavy industries existing in Olds and coincidently exporting their products to wealthy countries. In this case, wealthy countries only started along the downward slope on the EKE by domestically reducing environmental damage. When taken globally their increased consumption due to income may without doubt still be increasingly damaging.

Another danger is that leaving the quality of our environment subject to economic activity, even for only a short period, may well prove to be disastrous. The ability of the earth to absorb the damaging agents produced by economic activity, called “absorptive capacity,” is not yet known. A final concern is that even if countries can achieve high levels of income per capita they may not possess a political atmosphere conducive to environmental protection. Assuming that the aggregate turning point in a country is reached, that country is not necessarily going to enact environmental protection.

The most successful avenues for obtaining environmental quality, it seems, are lobbyists. Without a government that responds to political pressure by these public groups here is no reason to believe that its policies will reflect the demand for a cleaner environment, if such demand exists at all. Indeed, it also remains to be seen if all cultures place similar values on environmental quality. Section V: Conclusion The questions and concerns about the EKE hypothesis examined in this paper raise significant doubt as to the wisdom of adopting environmental policy based upon the EKE hypothesis.

Even assuming its validity, the EKE hypothesis generates considerable doubt as to its effectiveness at balancing economic growth with environmental protection. In order to effectively produce a critique of the EKE, the present paper assumes growth is still regarded as the sole goal of economic development. The hypothesis indeed uses rising incomes as a factor of time. Calls however have been growing stronger for a shift of focus from economic growth towards well-being, equality and sustainability.

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