Psychoanalysis

Born in Vienna about 129 years ago on the 27th of July August Aichhorn was to change the face of Special Education forever in the years to come. Of course, no one in his family or amongst his friends or neighbors could have predicted his illustrious future since he was, like most kids, little more than a gawky bespectacled studious little thing while in school.

There was little to be noticed about him except that he had a twin brother. This twin brother he lost at the age of 20. Heartbroken and a little frazzled (since he had after all been close to his sibling) he began teaching at a school in Vienna. He seemed to have had his career pretty clearly etched out in his mind.

And a pretty predictable path it followed too. Teaching was a respectable profession those days and young respectable young men from well-established families (like him) jumped at the chance to pursue it. Only problem was that in those days once you chose a career for yourself you were expected to stick to it until you were too old to continue with it and had to retire with a pension.

The hop-skip and jump routine we are so used to performing in the job market today was an absolute no-no then. Unfortunately Aichhorn soon discovered that conventional rules such as these did not matter much to him.

In 1907 when the Boy’s military settlement was introduced in Vienna Aichhorn, then an enthusiastic 27 year old, opposed it vehemently and finally managed to outdo the system with his exuberance. Soon after, in 1908 he assumed the role of the chairman of a brand new board designed only to organize boys’ settlements.

By means of his rather effective and well-directed activism he therefore managed to keep he education system, a system he had now grown to love and honor, from being maligned by the now growing ‘military spirit’.

With great determination he now endeavored to take his devotion to the system to the next logical level, the institution he organized in Oberhollabrunn for delinquent boys was an outcome of this very attempt. (Dollard, 2006)

In Oberhollabrunn Aichhorn managed the unthinkable by creating out of the dilapidated remains of a refugee camp what was later considered to be one the most sensitive, touching and humanitarian studies of human behavior. This was a period of flux for what had once been a great and much respected monarchy in Austria.

Old Austrian traditions were now being dragged into the street and left ankle deep in poverty and shame. Austrians were striving to keep themselves afloat despite the tremendous inflation and revolution brewed. Amongst it all Aichhorn chose to, characteristically, stay away from all the humdrum and surrender himself completely to work.

As in every other state of chaos Austria was now becoming a cauldron for trouble, crime and delinquency was frothing up and societal pressures were getting harder to bear than ever before. Amidst it all Aichhorn dreamed of a way to bring back hope to crime doers. Of course he was not original in his subject choice.

Dozens before him had meddled with the same topic rather unsuccessfully. Many of Aichhorn predecessors had advocated some old school mercy and ‘understanding, while others had strongly recommended a good dose of thrashing all in order to bring wrongdoers to their senses and recuperate them.

Aichhorn however was not a big fan of either approach. In Oberhollabrunn he had the opportunity to put into practical use the sort of methods he considered truly effective to deal with crime and delinquency. What he saw and understood he finally put down in the form of a book, now the ‘Bible’ in the field – Wayward Youth. (Lamb, 2004)

It is perhaps a little difficult to really grasp the importance of the door Aichhorn managed to open up to the public and academicians by suggesting that psychoanalytic principles be applied to the study of delinquent behavior today in 2007, when much has been said and done in this direction.

Despite the progress we have made in the field however Aichhorn’s work, the Wayward Youth still continues to be a supremely important resource book simply because of its pioneering nature. In the field of crime and delinquent psychology Aichhorn’s work still continue to provide the basic fundamentals even when we have walked far enough to form complex sentences with these letters we will still have to turn to Aichhorn for support.

What makes Wayward Youth such a complete pioneer is the fact that it distinguishes between what it terms the ‘latent’ and the ‘manifest’ delinquents. Further, it suggests that an arrested development inclines a person towards ‘antisocial’ behavior.

Hence, a troubled child-parent relationship in the early years of the infant might be the primary reason behind his/her delinquent actions in later life.

Aichhorn’s capacity to deal with delinquents is often been described as ‘instinctive’ or ‘intuitive’. After having discovered his talent in dealing with antisocial behavior Aichhron was further influenced and encouraged to train himself in the field of psychoanalysis by none other than Anna Freud, daughter of the man who began it all Sigmund Freud, who was herself engaged in some remarkable studies of the human mind.

Aichhorn joined the Vienna Psychoanalytic Institute at the ripe age or 44, in 1922. He would later organize a special service for child guidance in the same institution.

Aichhorn remained in Austria even during the tumultuous 1930’s, thanks to his non-Jew background and the utter ease with which he handled the Nazis.

He worked quietly during the war years and waited patiently for the storm to pass and a new day for psychoanalysis to begin in the post-war era once the war ended Aichhorn enthusiastically reopened the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, only now it was to be called August Aichhorn Gesellschaft. (King, 2000)

It was also a regeneration time. Ideological conflicts and military interests were shaking civilization right up to its foundations. The doubts, dilemmas and confusions were gradually, quite slowly indeed, giving way to a new and unique cultural revolution. It was happening all across the Western world.

People suddenly seemed to realize that there was enough of political warfare to disgrace humanity. (Fletcher, 2005)The prevailing standards suddenly seemed to be meaningless, and the insurgent youths wanted something different to happen and Aichhorn was one of the characters of the era that found himself into his own elements in such a situation.

He never lost hope and continued to proceed in the direction he was meant to be. It is certain he never became frustrated like many of the individuals of the post war period and stood firm on his ground rather that drift away. (Kar, 2006)

Many think Aichhorn’s tryst with delinquents began early even while he struggled as a grade school teacher in the city of Vienna. He hankered for a theoretical base which would be able to support and expand his understanding of the world of these crime doers and help him set them right again.

Hungry to fulfill this desire he studied neuropathology, like many his age during that period unfortunately neuropathology did little to quench his question, instead it only made him wonder further.

Desperate he now tried his hands at experimental psychology, which too failed to satisfy him. It was only when he would finally discover psycho-analysis that he would finally find all the missing pieces to his puzzle. (Edelman, 2001)

Jokes are a part of culture that tries to bring about laughter in words that appears to be humorous. As the saying goes “jokes are half meant “, there are implications of jokes to the human person.

Simply put, jokes that are often said in a casual conversation are means for a repressed expression or feeling of a person to come out in the open. Kind of like a “slip of the tongue” situation. To establish the link of jokes in relation to the subconscious, let us take a look at this hypothetical example.A guy who jokes his friends about how his friends are being too childlike because of their parents’ 24/7 cared which according to Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytic theory could mean that he has a pathological need for the care of his own parents or at least someone to take care of him. The key concept in this example is that the ability of the guy to ask for love from his parents is repressed because probably he cannot say it blatantly then that desire for that care was voiced out through other means such as a joke. Driving the point of the connection between the jokes and the subconscious level, let us take a look at jokes in a community.Basing from the degree of the laughter that it had brought assuming that the delivery was good and other factors was alright, if we take a look at it, we see that some jokes are funny to others and to others not funny.

It could be said that the jokes are funny because they are true to life (in most cases) leading to the point that some people laugh at jokes and others don’t is because the joke is funny up to how other people could relate to the joke. So we could actually say that the culture of joke is rooted on the similarities of the people when it comes to experiences and if not experiences then feelings or sentiments.Freud argued that jokes is in relation with dreams is that jokes are the manifestation of desires that are contained inside the persons behavior. So jokes in the individual entities aspect is rooted on the history of the person mainly on his or her childhood. What is good about jokes is that not only that it gives off humor at the right place and time but also jokes in society acts as an outlet of desires or needs that people cannot actually ask for it directly maybe because of the fear of being subjected or compared to the rigid structure of what most people call as the social norm.Since jokes serves as an outlet to personal needs and desires that is concealed it actually helps the person from being sane and not accumulating these desires and let them burst in one blow and easily releases the tension from the persons consciousness. So addressing the question of psychoanalysis.

“What are the underlying cause of culture that is rooted in the biological entity or instinct? ” The culture of jokes may it be knock – knock to lawyer jokes and to any other types of jokes it is rooted on the need to bring about a feeling or desire that people cannot blatantly say or ask for.

Over history, literature has impacted the approach and understanding of multimedia, pop entertainment. Furthermore, it has shaped our social ideologies, contesting current norms, and furthering our own examination of societal approaches and schools of thought. Much of the narrative and film techniques have incorporated a psychological and psychoanalytic examination of human nature and how it impacts everyday life. David Lynch’s film, Blue Velvet is one of the most influential films, pushing the world of entertainment into new perspectives, reshaping much of the technique producers undertake.

Blue Velvet served as a major catalyst for independent filmmaking, which largely reshaped multimedia entertainment. Throughout this film, Lynch heavily relies on Freudian theories, specifically revolving about the Oedipal complex/conflict, sadism, masochism, and fetishism as a connecting point between the characters. Throughout this paper, I apply these Freudian techniques on the psychoanalytic level by examining and analyzing various characters. This will further illustrate how Blue Velvet as well as other works that are heavily based on psychology, impact our society.

Lynch’s film was particularly influential because of his incorporation of darker topics, as well as the connection between his film and Franz Kafka’s work in terms of grotesque themes. Lynch helped to shape literature as well, during the tone of this period of darker themes in creative works, because authors began to incorporate darker themes in their own work. The Gothic is a particular genre that Blue Velvet helped to shape. Not only did the film address psychological levels and theories that had yet to be fully represented in pop-media film, but it also utilized a popular Freudian theory called the uncanny. Lynch achieves this because, throughout the film, people are often unable to describe what they’ve seen.

Lynch focuses on the opening setting of Blue Velvet in a small town, encapsulating an idealistic All-American image. The audience is given a picture-perfect neighborhood where children cross the street with the help of a crossing guard in uniform, surrounded by a scene of blue skies, white picket fences, and colorful tulips in blossom. These images force viewers to think about how we collectively define the American Dream, as well as what the “perfect life” is. By doing so, Lynch is able to tap into our psyche; this storybook beginning allows him to go deeper, behind the fences and smiling children, into a world of anything but perfection.

Lynch’s influence on society’s perception of the “American Dream,” adds to the importance of his film. Irena Makarushka’s article, “Subverting Eden: Ambiguity of Evil and the American Dream in Blue Velvet.” Religion and American Culture: A Journal of Interpretation, enhanced the reshaping of our psychological perception of the American Dream, through her examination of life and society.

She utilized Blue Velvet to further her notions through varying ideas and contexts. Furthermore, she examined Lynch’s film, because it encapsulated the concept that life is not as it always seems; the “American Dream” often serves as a façade, blinding society to the darker, perhaps more realistic, side of life.

When the film begins to shift into scenes of hungry black insects, the tone and ideas within viewers’ minds begin to shift. The contrast between the insects and the happy children at play reveals a struggle between what Freud referred to as the Id and the Superego:

“Professor Freud came to the very significant conclusion that the neurosis represents a conflict between the ego and the id (the instinctive needs); the psychosis between the ego and the outer world; and the narcissistic neurosis a struggle between the ego and super-ego. The differentiation of the mental apparatus into an id, ego, and super-ego thus resulted in a clearer understanding of the dynamic relations within the mind” (Alexander 176).

This quote allows us to understand that the children at play are representative of the Id because of our instinctive needs, such as protection, which in this case was provided by the crossing guard; the black insects are representative of our Superego because they focus on “the part of a person’s mind that acts as a self-critical conscience, reflecting social standards learned from parents and teachers,” which correlates to the darker side of society.

Lynch’s psychologically metaphorical tactic essentially forces viewers to understand that life is not as perfect as it may appear to be, and evil often occurs behind the closed doors of the “cookie cutter” house. His use of aesthetically pleasing scenery in the beginning, however, is important to remember:

It is only rarely that a psychoanalyst feels impelled to in-vestigate the subject of aesthetics even when aesthetics is understood to mean not merely the theory of beauty, but the theory of the qualities of feeling. He works in other planes of mental life and has little to do with those sub-dued emotional activities which, inhibited in their aims and dependent upon a multitude of concurrent factors, usually furnish the material for the study of aesthetics.

But it does occasionally happen that he has to interest himself in some particular province of that subject, and then it usu-ally proves to be a rather remote region of it and one that has been neglected in standard works. (Freud 1)

Freud is essentially saying that aesthetics often impact the feelings one feels. This being said, Lynch needed to provoke a feeling of peace and happiness at the beginning of Blue Velvet in order to emphasize the shift of these emotions, into those of fear, terror, and confusion. This tactic allowed Lynch to augment the correlation between emotions towards perceived cultural images, and feelings when people recognize that life is not always as perfect as it seems in the “American Dream.” This point will be examined at length throughout this paper.

Blue Velvet serves as a pivotal film because of the psychoanalytic components, particularly in terms of the characters. Each character is symbolic of varying psychological theories. Furthermore, the way Lynch introduces characters contains several Freudian theories. The first character viewers were introduced to was Jeffrey Beaumont. Beaumont came upon an ear while walking near his home. Psychologically speaking, the Freudian theory has noted that when someone dreams about dethatched body parts, it is symbolizing male castration.

This is important to note when analyzing Blue Velvet. Before applying this theory to Blue Velvet, the concept of dreams is important to understand in terms of its applicability to the film. Dreams are heavily influenced by the image of our culture, and how we construct it. Lynch undertook this influence, applying it to Blue Velvet, by reconstructing our understanding of the American Dream through tropes of mystery revealed when viewers are introduced to the darker truth behind the beginning of the film’s portrayal of the American Dream.

The dreamlike imagery he used, relating back to the uncanny, begins with the main character, Jeffrey’s discovery of the severed ear. The uncanny focuses on the human mind and mindperecpeiotion in correlation to creative works such as Blue Velvet. Just as Freud noted that detached body parts were subconscious thoughts of male castration, Jeffrey’s finding was representative of the general unconscious of society.

When Beaumont brought the severed ear to the police department, the detective, Detective Williams, urged Jeff to let the incident go, because there were darker problems occurring in town. As expected, Jeff ignored Williams’ comment, deciding to pursue the matter himself, receiving help from his girlfriend, Detective Williams’ daughter.

Relating back to the detached ear, it largely foreshadowed the upcoming events. As noted above, a severed body part often resembles male castration on the psychoanalytic level. When Jeff began to investigate the case, he soon found himself encountering a nightclub singer and her sadistic male abuser. This singer, Dorothy, and her abuser, Frank encapsulate the Freudian definition of sadism and masochism.

Due to the looming issue of male castration, one could assume that Frank was possibly interested in sexual dominance, power, and pain in order to compensate his own sexual insecurities. Freud heavily believed that sadism and masochism, which is a form of sexual pleasure derived from inflicting pain upon others or receiving sexual pleasure from receiving pain, was associated with innate male sexuality (Freud 1). Viewers watch as Frank belittles, insults, and beats Dorothy, but soon discover that she gains pleasure and arousal from the abuse.

Here, Lynch is exposing society to the darker side of sexuality, utilizing psychological theories, and forcing viewers to think about their own sexuality. Furthermore, he is allowing several people to act on their own fantasies as an outsider in a fantastical world. This greatly relates to the purpose of the Gothic genre, which is to expose and allow people to process and cope with difficult issues without actually having to endure the pain in reality.

When examining Dorothy and Frank on the psychoanalytic level, the Oedipal complex is also seen. Freud believed that the Oedipal complex was a child’s internal desire to have sexual relations with their parent of the opposite sex (Klein 12). Applying this theory to the characters, Frank largely represents the child, while Dorothy represents the mother, in a dysfunctional mother-son relationship. Interestingly, despite Frank’s aggression, he referred to himself as a baby, illustrating his oedipal fantasy.

It Is heavily illustrated, here that Lynch wanted to confront the less than comfortable theories and fantasies that many people truly have. Essentially, Lynch is supporting the notion of “forbidden emotions in powerful but carefully distinguished forms” (Johnson 522). By this, he means that often times repressed, and or, unconscious emotions that are ignored due to stigma, are expressed in other ways. Lynch was able to depict this through the characters throughout Blue Velvet and their sexual tendencies and personas.

Jeffrey represents the Oedipal complex even more. When Jeffrey’s father was stung by a bee in his garden, he is brought to the hospital. During this time, Jeffrey stayed home, tending to domestic duties and obligations. His father’s incapacity and helplessness forces Jeffrey to go to his father’s home and hardware store.

Fittingly, it was around this time that Jeffrey found the ear. This discovery could be representative and symbolic of his own feelings of castration because of the domestic duties he began to take on. Generally speaking, the ear is representative of male’s anxiety and shame towards their Oedipal fantasies. Lynch was able to depict this anxiety-provoking journey through Jeffrey’s own investigation of the severed ear.

Jeffrey’s anxiety and tension were, not surprisingly, further exasperated by Dorothy. His sexual attraction and longing for a desirable, yet perverse female, relates back to the Oedipal complex. It is more important to focus on Dorothy, because of her perverse sexual nature, and how it impacts the men around her.

Moreover, the psychological reasoning behind these fetishes and tendencies forces readers and viewers to think about themselves, and possible pervasions, allowing them to gain a deeper understanding of themselves and society. It particularly addresses inner conflict and tensions. Some of these inner tensions can be seen in Dorothy though her fetishes. In terms of fetishism, Freud also heavily studied this psychological phenomenon. Fetishism relates to sexuality, especially in terms of children’s sexual fantasies towards their parents.

The author’s claim that we must question of our own perception of reality, as well as the issue of good versus evil, was precisely what Lynch forced his viewers to do throughout Blue Velvet. Makarushka tended to use the term “illusion” quite often, which was interesting, because Lynch’s film had a strong illusionary tone to it, tracing back to the uncanny, and the dreamlike imagery and emotions throughout his film.

Her article was complementary to Blue Velvet because she was able to pose the mysterious and often unsettling aspect of reality versus illusionary life in the supernatural sense throughout the film. Furthermore, it did force readers to question how realistic the perfect, “cookie cutter,” image of the American Dream is, ultimately redefining its meaning.

When thinking about the “American Dream,” society has always seen it as the ultimate standard of successful, happy living. This very point was denounced by Lynch through Blue Velvet. Just as Makarushka brings into play the idea that this concept is too good to be true, “However, closer scrutiny reveals that things are not what they seem.

The slick, picture-perfect surface of the American Dream lacks substance and depth,” Lynch applies this idea to Blue Velvet (Makarushka 33). The idea that things are not as always as they seem pushes readers of Makarushka’s article, and viewers of Lynch’s film, to think about their lives and purpose beyond materialistic, professional, and superficial levels.

This essential argument, encapsulating her entire article, reiterating that there is more than meets the eye, is emphasized through Lynch’s character depictions throughout the movie. Jeffrey and his girlfriend seem to have the looks, charisma, and typical life that anyone would strive for, but as the movie progresses, characters such as Dorothy illustrate the darker side of life, involving heavy issues such as drugs, which subsequently make viewers think about life on a deeper level.

Difficult topics such as drugs and abuse are not often talked about, or even thought about, in families living the American Dream, which says a lot. Psychologically speaking, the avoidance and ignorance of realizations and discourses about topics such as these can heavily influence people’s psychological state. By forcing viewers to reflect on our own lives, past the jobs, kids, home, etcetera, Blue Velvet makes us begin to think about ourselves and identity on authentic levels.

This makes Lynch’s work particularly influential on the psychoanalytic level, because by Makrushka arguing that we as individuals, must view life through multilateral lenses, as opposed to the unilateral lens we lean towards, in this case, the unilateral lens being the American Dream, people can begin to address their unconscious and subconscious mind, resulting in a fuller understanding of themselves and others.

Essentially, both Makarushka and Lynch show us that we must look past the American Dream, into the painful reality of life occurring outside of the protected bubble we place ourselves in. As a result, we become more aware and self-understanding, making us more organic and insightful individuals of society.

Another philosopher that attests to Lynch’s psychological notions within Blue Velvet is Louis Althusser. His observations of ideology, throughout Ideological State Apparatuses, are particularly seen in terms of his repressive and ideological state. Lynch’s depiction of the crossing guards, fireman, and detectives relates back to the repressive state because it is one in which cooperation from the public is achieved through physical coercion by means such as the police.

Blue Velvet illustrates what happens when these authoritative figures dissipate, “The loss of an authoritative interpretative frame of reference results in a cultural disequilibrium. For Lynch, this decenteredness is affirmed in the experience of the ambiguity of evil which ultimately subverts the unambiguous claim of the American Dream” (Makarushka 32). Althusser’s ideological state resembles more of a soft power that is sustained by cultural institutions such as church, family, and culture.

It also values a sense of choice of what reality is imposed. This state specifically correlates to the reshaping of the American Dream throughout Blue Velvet because it questions what life is like beyond the perfect image, and what reality really is. By seeing what happens when the repressive state fails, we can see how softer figures can reshape people’s understanding of life, reality, and deeper meaning.

The American Dream must be redefined, and the psychological impact of the human mind must be addressed, according to Lynch. His film, Blue Velvet essentially allows us to understand that the true American Dream is one in which we are self-understanding, multilateral, and questioning of who we are beyond the image we portray, through its psychologically dynamic characters. Through his focus on Freudian theory, human understanding is better emphasized, increasing our own understanding of the self and others.

Introduction

‘It is widely felt that female characters in film have been restricted to the easy categories that classical narratives and familiar genres demand of them (the typical complaint is that women in films are either ‘virgins, mothers or whores’).’ (Cardwell)In this essay I will be discussing how useful psychoanalysis is in understanding cinematic representation of women. I will be focusing on key influential psychoanalysts from the beginning through to the modern representations of psychoanalysis, beginning with the founder Sigmund Freud but also mentioning more modern theories, such as those of Melanie Klien, Heinz Kohut and Jacques Lacan.

Psychoanalysis is a theory founded by Sigmund Freud (born 1856) in the 1890’s. It is possible to define psychoanalysis in three aspects. The first of these aspects being a method of mind investigation: concentrating on the investigation of the unconscious mind. The second being a method of therapy (psychotherapeutic) that derived from the type of investigation mentioned above. The final aspect can be defined as a group of theories based on the knowledge and data that is provided by the above investigation and treatment of the mind. The themes of psychoanalysis are power, ambition, insecurity, attachment, isolation and longing.

It is a tool for understanding how the human mind works and it contributes insight into whatever the mind produces. Therefore it has a profound influence on many aspects of twenty first century culture, including cinema. Many of Freud’s key terms have become commonplace in modern society such as repression, libido, superego and fetishism. Freud believed in the Oedipus complex and that the individual who is unable to come to terms with their gender (activity for boys, passivity for girls) may become an hysteric and may display symptoms such as paralysis or amnesia. Alfred Hitchcock’s Psycho (1960) and Marnie (1964) show examples of the Oedipus complex. Jacques Lacan (1901-1981) was a French psychoanalyst that made huge contributions to the world of psychoanalysis and ‘extend psychoanalytical thought in several directions’ (Holcombe, 2007) . Lacan’s ideas have impacted greatly on feminist theory and also film theory. ‘Some aspects of Lacan have been useful in film theory because he combined Freudian psychoanalysis with semiology, thus offering a means for linking semiotic and psychoanalytic readings of films’ (Kaplan 1983:19). Karen Horney (1885–1952) was one of the first generation of women to be admitted to the study of medicine, she then undertook training in analysis and gained her M.D degree. Horney’s theories questioned many of Freud’s traditional views, especially the male-based view of the psychology of women and argued that the source of ‘female neurosis’ was due to male dominated culture. Her writings had a major impact on the beginnings of Feminist theory in the 1970’s.

As the position of women in society has progressed through time it is clear that the representation of women in film has developed alongside it. The male dominated society of the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century is reflected in cinema and film. Women were portrayed in film often in a sexist way, in order to satisfy the male gaze. Out Of The Past (1947) is a classic example of Film-Noir written by Daniel Mainwaring and directed by Jacques Tourneur, which portrays two women from opposite ends of the spectrum. The character of Kathie is represented as the ultimate femme fatale as she attempts to manipulate men as opposed to the men manipulating and controlling the women. Women of this nature during this period were viewed (largely by men) as dangerous and irrational. This is because the femme fatale woman was rebelling against the conventions of traditional society. ‘As soon as the relation between vision and knowledge becomes unstable or deceptive, the potential for a disruption of a given sexual logic appears. Perhaps the disruptiveness can define, for feminist theory, the deadliness of femme fatale.’ (Doane, 1991: 14) However Ann, a character of the same film, is perceived as the traditional woman of the 1940’s who remains loyal to her man despite his disrespect and ill treatment towards her. A more recent example of a dangerous femme fatale character in film is Mia Wallace (Uma Thurman) in the film Pulp Fiction (1994) directed by Quentin Tarantino, who is regarded as untrustworthy by her husband, Marsellus. ‘Marsellus cannot successfully or completely hold on to his beautiful Caucasian wife Mia (Uma Thurman), and unwisely has his lieutenants attending to her while he is out of town.’ (Hauke, 2001:58)

Women were often portrayed as victims in past films however; it is not unusual for women to be portrayed as victims (in some cases) to this day. East is East (1999) directed by Damien O’Donnell serves as a prime example of women in film being portrayed as victims, in this case a victim in her own home. Ella Khan (Linda Bassett) is subject to violence from her husband, yet she remains loyal to his wishes. Films portray the character of a woman in similar situations as fearful of the males. The progress regarding the position of women in society, their rights and the move towards gender equality has led to a more proportioned representation of women in modern cinema. However, many female characters are still portrayed as inferior to males and still perhaps as a ‘stereotypical’ woman. Laura Mulvey (Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema) argues that in the majority of cinema and film the Male Gaze (the perspective of a heterosexual man) outweighs that of the Female Gaze.

‘In a world ordered by sexual imbalance, pleasure in looking has been split between active/male and passive/female. The deter-mining male gaze projects its phantasy on to the female figure, which is styled accordingly. In their traditional exhibitionist role women are simultaneously looked at and displayed, with their appearance coded for strong visual and erotic impact so that they can be said to connote to-be-looked-at-ness. Women displayed as sexual object is the leit-motif of erotic spectacle: from pin-ups to strip-tease, from Zeigfeld to Busby Berkeley, she holds the look, plays to and signifies male desire.’ (Mulvey)

Considering the above argument it is suggested that psychoanalysis is useful in understanding the general cinematic portrayal of women, being that they are in fact ineffectively represented due to the power of the male gaze on both sides of the camera.

Since the late nineteenth century women have played a key role in influencing the developments in the film industry. Females’ appearing in films was essential for the progress of the industry despite them being recognized more for their appearance than for their ability. The roles that women played were most likely to be that of the stereotypical gender roles of the time. Female actresses proved to be extremely popular with audiences and thus were an essential to the rise of and popularity of the film industry. As women had an increased role in society and they were able to earn their own income they began to take part in leisure activities associating outside the household with men. One of these leisure activities being the Cinema, and in effect it was in fact the women that were funding the industry. Middle class women began to re-shape the cinema experience for those of the lower classes and film producers focused and relied upon these women in order to promote the industry and help it thrive. Melodrama is something concerned primarily with the domestic and feminine themes, with melodramatic films often including a central female character.

Melodrama is a genre that relied upon the interest of female audiences and the ability of female actors for its success. “So why is it that women are drawn to melodramaWhy do we find our objectification and surrender pleasurableThis is precisely an issue that psychoanalysis can help explain: for such pleasure is not surprising if we consider the shape of the girl’s Oedipal crisis. Following Lacan for a moment, we see that the girl is forced to turn away from the illusory unity with the mother in the prelinguistic realm and has to enter the symbolic world which involves subject and object. Assigned the place of object (lack), she is the recipient of male desire, passively appearing rather than acting.” (Kaplan, 1983:26).

As the theories of psychoanalysis have developed from Freud to Lacan and many more it has become apparent as to how cinema and psychoanalysis go hand in hand in understanding the complicated workings of the human mind. “Cinema allows the inner world to be represented through moving pictures – and some of our most vivid modes of “thinking” or “dreaming” occur in pictorial form” (Brearley, 2009). Psychoanalysts and Film Theorists, through their writings and investigations, have helped unveil the links between psychoanalysis and understanding the minds of not only real life characters but also those in film. Ideas derived from psychoanalysis help not only audiences but also many within the film industry understand the behavior of characters on screen and the reasons behind this behavior.

Therefore it becomes clear that psychoanalysis has assisted the growth and understanding of the film industry, and thus theoretically it aids film theorists and others in understanding the cinematic representation of women. This is because the women presented to an audience on screen are fictional characters (although sometimes based or modeled on real people) and are being presented in a way that the person/people behind the lens of the camera interpret women. Although the cinematic representation of women does not always reflect todays society, psychoanalysis is useful in film in helping us understand the film industry’s interpretation: “Psychoanalytic ideas help make sense of characters’ behavior, though unlike in real life we don’t have the characters responding to help deepen, modify or falsify our interpretations. Instead, we try to make objective appraisals of what the director presents to us.” (Brearley, 2009).

The Feminist film theory derived from the 1970’s feminist movement where women demanded change in gender equality and representation. Laura Mulvey (1914) is a Feminist film theorist whose work and ideas helped move the orientation of film theory towards a psychoanalytic structure heavily influenced by Freud and Lacan. Mulvey’s intention was to combine film theory, psychoanalysis and feminism. Mulvey argues that most films present women in a way that is intended for male viewers, focusing on the sexualized appearance of women. Mulvey viewed Hollywood Cinema as something that used women as ‘erotic objects’.

Voyeurism in film is something that links highly with psychoanalytical theories, and has become a popular topic of debate since the 1970’s around the time of the feminist movement. Its straightforward meaning is the pleasurable observation of someone else’s intimate acts, usually (not always) sexual. The fact that the person/persons are unaware they are being observed is key to the thrill, and thus huge links can be made between audience and film/cinema. “Psychoanalysis has been activated in feminist film theory primarily in order to dissect and analyze the spectator’s physical investment in the film. But to accomplish this, theory had to posit a vast synchrony of the cinema – the cinema happens all at once (as, precisely, an apparatus) and its image of woman is always subservient to voyeuristic and fetishistic impulses.” (Kaplan, 1990:48). Taking into account the links between psychoanalysis and voyeurism its demonstrated that it assists us in understanding the cinematic representation of women and how they are presented to the viewers of film in order to satisfy certain desires, largely sexual.

‘Gaze’ is a common psychoanalytical term brought into awareness by Jacques Lacan and can offer a great deal of insight into the cinematic world, and particularly the cinematic representation of women. In short, ‘the gaze’ means the fear one feels after becoming aware that he/she is a visible object. In film there are numerous types of ‘gaze’, the view of the audience is called the spectators gaze. The objects (characters, setting etc.) the spectators are viewing has derived from the camera’s gaze, usually that of the film director. The gaze is a crucial aspect of psychoanalysis that contributes to understanding the cinematic representation of women as it has huge links with feminist film theory and particularly Laura Mulvey. As mentioned previously, Mulvey suggests that the male gaze often outweighs that of the female in film. Mulvey also argues that the ‘gaze’ belongs to a single gender.

Through assessing many aspects of psychoanalysis and film it seems that psychoanalysis is helpful in understanding the cinematic world as a whole. I consider psychoanalysis to be of great help in understanding the cinematic representation of women. That being how cinema, despite developments in recent years both socially and industry wise, ineffectively represents women as they are today and instead falls into stereotypical ideas and purely satisfies the male gaze. However, it is also arguable that film is often fictional and thus one may believe that in cinema and film a true reflection of society is not necessary. Psychoanalysis has assisted not only film theorists in understanding the industry but has also, through Melodrama and such, helped the industry thrive. It is possible to view psychoanalysis, as a gateway into the minds of those on both sides of the lens, but only vaguely as those in film are unable to widen or provide depth into to the interpretations of those spectating. “Throughout the 1970s, Screen was the most important testing ground for the methodologies that have shaped contemporary film theory: semiotics, Marxism, and psychoanalysis. Central to each is an issue of representation. According to the semioticians, film was to be understood as a systematic network of binary oppositions, organized metaphorically, if not literally, like language. (Carson, 1994:50).

Bibliography

1. Brearley, Michael. (2009) ‘So, tell me about your director’ – cinema and psychoanalysis. In: The Guardian [online] http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2009/oct/29/european-psychoanalytic-film-festival-psychoanalysis (Accessed on: 04/04/11)
2. Cardwell, Sarah. Female Protagonist. In: screenonline.org.uk [Online] http://www.screenonline.org.uk/film/id/824016/(Accessed On: 12/04/11)
3. Carson, Diane. (1994) Multiple voices in feminist film criticism. Minnesota: University of Minnesota Press.
4. Doane, Mary Anne. (1991) Femmes Fatales: feminism, Film Theory, Psychoanalysis. New York: Routledge.
5. Hauke, Christopher (2001) Jung And Film. East Sussex: Brunner-Routledge.
6. Holcombe, C. John (2007) Jacques Lacan. In: textetc.com [Online] http://www.textetc.com/theory/lacan.html (Accessed on: 28/03/11)
7. Kaplan, E. Anne (1983) Women & Film Both Sides Of The Camera. Great Britain: Methuen & Co.
8. Kaplan, E. Anne (1990) Psychoanalysis & Cinema. New York: Routledge.
9. Mulvey,Laura. (1975) Visual pleasure and narrative cinema. In: Screen [online] https://hypercontent.hull.ac.uk/short_loan_collection/Film_Studies/90102/Mulvey_90102_2620.pdf (Accessed on: 28/03/11)

Introduction

Recognition of the importance of evidence and theory-based practice in social work has grown in recent years (Webb, 2001). Their importance in this field of work should be encouraged as early as possible. Students of social work should be encouraged to explore theories that can not only help them to better understand and work with service users but also help them to handle personal issues that may arise through the course of their work (Trotter and Leech, 2003). This essay will explore the advantages and disadvantages of three theories that are currently applied to social work practice and use them in the assessment, planning and intervention of a case study.

Social Learning Theory

Social learning theory was first developed by Albert Bandura and colleagues (1961, 1963, 1977) after they observed that children had a strong tendency to imitate adult role models who exhibited either aggressive or non-aggressive behaviour toward a life-sized doll known as ‘Bobo’. Furthermore, this imitation behaviour was strengthened when the role model was the same sex as the child. Bandura et al. (1961, 1963) concluded that children learn behaviour through observing the behaviour of adults around them. Since these early studies, there have been numerous other papers supporting social learning theory, especially in the arenas of crime, violence and aggression (Akers et al., 1979; Foshee, Bauman and Linder, 1999; Pratt et al., 2010). Social learning theory is applicable to social work because it provides an easy to understand theory by which social workers can understand the behaviour of service users. It is a theory to which most people can relate and can provide a relatively easy basis on which to build suitable interventions. Nevertheless, there were some concerns about the methodology of the Bobo doll study. For example, the study lacked ecological validity because the target of aggression was a toy and children may have been far less likely to have imitated aggression toward another person or an animal.

Advantages

A strength of social learning theory is its high applicability to real life. It is an easy to understand theory and the concepts are clear, and it can therefore be applied by most people in a wide range of situations. It has also been found to be successful in accounting for and explaining a wide range of behaviours including binge drinking (Durkin, Wolfe and Clark, 2005), police misconduct (Chappell and Piquero, 2004) and even software piracy (Higgins, 2006). Therefore, another strength of social learning theory is that it can be tested empirically because it is possible to develop a study design that can demonstrate whether or not individuals learn behaviour through observing others carry out that behaviour. Social learning theory is able to account for the great variability of behaviour that individuals demonstrate and acknowledges that our reactions to different situations are likely to at least partly reflect the reactions displayed by significant others such as parents and friends.

Disadvantages

One criticism of social learning theory is that it focuses too heavily on social aspects. Our social environments and the behaviour of our role models do assert some degree of influence on our own behaviour. Despite this, there are numerous other influences that can serve to influence our behaviour and the way that we react to our surroundings. These may include genetics as well as the role of reinforcement (Skinner, 1948, 1958), by which some behaviours are repeated because they produce a positive outcome whereas others are ceased because they cause a negative outcome. Social learning theory also fails to adequately account for cultural influences on an individual’s learned behaviours. The theory also tends to downplay the cognitive processes of the child. It assumes that children will automatically copy any behaviour they have observed, without taking into account that the child may use other cognitive information to make a decision as to whether the behaviour should be copied or not. In the Bobo doll study by Bandura and his colleagues, children imitated aggressively toward the toy, but would have been likely to have used knowledge about wrong or right had they observed role models being aggressive to another person or an animal. Nor does the theory give an adequate explanation as to how social learning interacts with development. The theory cannot explain at which point in a child’s development social learning may become more or less influential on their behaviour. A final criticism of social learning theory is that it cannot explain behaviour demonstrated by children that they have not observed.

Social Learning Theory: Application to Case Study One

Assessment

According to the Community Care Act (1990), assessment by a social worker should be comprehensive, holistic, be needs led and include participation by both the service user and carer. Social learning theory can be applied to the assessment, planning and intervention for the family detailed in case study one in a number of different ways. The very early studies by Bandura and colleges applied social learning theory to aggression in particular. Case study one details that Jenny and Dave’s oldest child Sean exhibits aggressive behaviour at nursery. Assessment of this case using social learning theory would understand Sean’s behaviour to be a product of his environment and in particular, of the rocky and argumentative relationship that his parents have. In a study investigating the role of social learning on subsequent alcohol use and self-regulatory behaviours, Patock-Peckham et al. (2001) found that the parenting style and behaviours of the parent who is the same sex as a child, is significantly related to that child’s self-regulation skills, which are known to be protective against alcohol use and abuse. This suggests that Sean is likely to adopt his father’s maladaptive drinking behaviours through the process of social learning. The early studies by Bandura et al. (1961, 1963) also reflected this more powerful effect of same sex models.

The case study also details that Jenny was invited to attend a ‘Mother and Toddler’ group but did not take the offer up. It also appears as though neither Jenny nor Dave have integrated into their community and are not making the most of their social environment. Social learning theory can also be used to assess and understand the inharmonious relationship between Jenny and Dave, as the theory has been found to be useful in predicting intimate partner violence (Sellers, Cochran and Branch, 2005).

Planning and Intervention

A suitable intervention based on social learning theory would include educating both Jenny and Dave on the impact that their behaviour is likely to have on their children. Bearing in mind the finding that children tend to be more influenced by the behaviour of the parent of the same sex, Dave should be encouraged to model positive behaviours around Sean in particular and Jenny should be encouraged to attend the ‘Mother and Toddler’ group with Sarah to increase the number of positive interactions and behaviours Sarah is exposed to around other mothers and female role models. Secondly, Jenny and Dave must be encouraged to widen their social interactions in order to foster more positive social experiences, which in return should have a positive impact on their behaviours. Although her mother lives some miles away, Jenny should be encouraged to maintain contact with her in order maximise positive social interactions. It may also be advantageous to help Jenny and Dave explore how they may have learnt to deal with their marital problems using maladaptive behaviours such as verbal aggression, and to help them toward the realisation that although they may have observed significant others using these coping mechanisms, there are more adaptive techniques available to them.

Social Conflict Theory

Social conflict theory is based strongly on the philosophy of the famous communist Karl Marx and holds that inequality within society is the product of some individuals holding and actively defending a disproportionate share of society’s resources. As a result, those without many resources are controlled by those with the lion’s share. Therefore, social conflict theory sees society as greatly unequal and views social problems as the product of society’s issues, not the issues of the individual. One of the most famous empirical demonstrations of social conflict theory was by Sherif et al. (1961). A group of boys unknown to each other were randomly assigned to one of two groups and attended a summer camp. In the initial phase of the experiment, the two groups did not know of the others existence and were encouraged to bond as individual groups. Once an element of competition was introduced, each group became fiercely protective of their own group and both prejudiced and discriminatory behaviour was observed. The study demonstrated that when two groups are put in contest with each other over resources this can trigger negative behaviours and attempts by competing groups to sabotage each other.

Social conflict theory is applicable to social work because it captures the social injustices and inequalities that are often observed in this line of work. It can provide a framework for understanding why some individuals find themselves in constant financial and economic struggles and gives the social worker a better understanding of how they may change this and make a difference in people’s lives.

Advantages

Unlike many other theories, social conflict theory acknowledges the role of economics. This is especially useful for the field of social work because it avoids social workers from putting too much emphasis on the power held by the service user to make a change. It acknowledges that some elements cannot be controlled by the service user and may avoid frustration on behalf of the service user at the social worker not taking into that due to the social standing of the service user they will struggle to find employment opportunities that can change their financial situations.

Disadvantages

Social conflict theory is somewhat reductionist and does not account for the impact of individual thinking or behaviours. The theory sees individuals as a product of their socio-economic standing and cannot explain why many people from poor and deprived backgrounds go on to be successful and wealthy through hard work and determination, overcoming economic obstacles. There is empirical support for social conflict theory supporting its usefulness in aiding understanding of a number of different social constructs, including racial profiling by law-enforcement agencies (Petrocelli, Piquero and Smith, 2003). However, the theory is complex and is thus difficult to measure empirically. This is a key criticism of the theory because complexity adversely affects applicability in the real world.

Social Conflict Theory: Application to Case Study One

Assessment

Jenny and Dave’s situation can be assessed in the context of social conflict theory. Living in a housing estate, they are likely to be considered as belonging to the lower or working class. As a result, conflict theory would argue that their financial difficulties are due to only owning or having access to a small share of society’s resources. Dave’s employment status appears to be intermittent, which social conflict theory would argue is the result of opportunities being withheld from him by those higher up the economic ladder. The family’s lack of resources are clearly having a knock-on effect on the marriage, with Dave’s spending of the house money on gambling and drinking being a common source of arguments.

Social conflict theory can also be applied to understand internal as well as external conflict. For example, high levels of parent-child conflict have been associated with child behavioural problems (El-Sheikh and Flanagan, 2001; El-Sheikh and Elmore-Stanton, 2004). Therefore, Sean’s aggressive behaviour at nursery could be a product of a perceived conflict between himself and his parents. Although Sean is young, his parents’ preoccupation with trying to cope with their poor financial situation may be interpreted by Sean as a lack of attention. This could explain why he acts poorly at nursery.

Planning and Intervention

Bearing the principles of conflict theory in mind, intervention should take the form of enabling the family to increase their resources and the opportunities available to them. Dave should be encouraged to join some government funded courses to increase his skills and employability status. The family should be made aware of the huge number charities that offer free and impartial advice on both debt and rent arrears. The family’s social worker should be sensitive to their economic standing and take it into account when working with them.

Psychoanalytic Theory

Originally developed by the Austrian psychiatrist Sigmund Freud, psychoanalytic theory seeks to explain how external struggles can impact upon an individual or their family to such a degree that they become internalised (Bower, 2005). The theory focuses on uniting both the individual’s personality and available resources in order to optimise both their personal and interpersonal functioning (Hollis, 1977). Psychoanalytic theory can also be differentiated from other theories because of its inclusion of Freudian concepts such as the influence of unconscious mental processes and defence mechanisms (Brearley, 2007). One of the main principles of psychoanalytic theory is believing that our unconscious is largely responsible for our conscious actions, thought and feelings, and that awareness of these processes is rare (Greene and Uebel, 2008) Defence mechanisms can be either conscious or unconscious but are always deployed in order to help an individual avoid facing facts about themselves they perceive to be threatening (Jacobs, 2010). Contemporary psychoanalytic theory use in social work has tended to be based on ego psychology (Corey, 2000; Greene and Uebel, 2008), which emphasises the impact of our environment and the role of the ego’s problem-solving capacity in maximising adaptive behaviour.

Psychoanalytic theory is applicable to social work and the assessment of service users because it embraces the social work ideal of acknowledging that both individual differences and the environment can have a negative impact on the individual. It may also help social workers to cope with difficult to manage or difficult to understand behaviour by acknowledging that some processes are unconscious on behalf of the service user.

Advantages

Unlike conflict theory that focuses on economic influences and social learning theory that focuses on social influences, psychoanalytic theory is far less reductionist meaning that it can be applied to a wider range of situations and individuals. The theory is somewhat more holistic than both social learning and conflict theory because it emphasises the importance of both internal and external factors and the influence these have on an individual’s ability to cope with everyday stresses. Indeed, early theorists argued that ego psychology in particular struck an advantageous balance between acknowledging both individual and situational factors (Hamilton, 1958; Wood, 1971).

Psychoanalytical theory has been the root of many other useful and currently practised social work models, such as transactional analysis, group therapy and crisis intervention (Trevithick, 2012). Therefore, it has had positive real-world and social work applications.

Disadvantages

Psychoanalytic theory can be hard to test empirically, meaning that scientific evidence for both its validity and its effectiveness is lacking. However, it is not completely without evidence. For example, through observational methods, Beebe and Lachmann (2002) found that in support of psychoanalytic theory, infants learn much about their own emotional lives through empathically fuelled caregiver interactions. Nevertheless, Fonagy (2003) has argued that psychoanalytic theory has recently become too fragmented to be supported empirically and this fragmentation makes it a difficult theory to apply in a clinical or social work setting. This highlights another issue with psychoanalytic theory in that it is a complex theory, which limits both its applicability and usefulness. Psychoanalytic theory is also considered to be quite controversial, although it has come a long way since the overt sexual themes pioneered by Freud.

Despite being a more holistic theory, it could be argued that psychoanalytic theory does not adequately acknowledge the role of social influences in how individuals cope with their everyday life stresses.

Psychoanalytic Theory: Application to Case Study One

Assessment

There are a number of behaviours exhibited by Jenny and Dave that could be interpreted as defence mechanisms. Firstly, Dave both gambles and drinks, which causes friction between him and Jenny. Both of these behaviours could be interpreted as coping mechanisms that Dave uses to deal with the family’s financial and economic worries. Dave has said that the only thing wrong with their marriage is the “lack of intimacy” since their youngest was born. However, from an outside perspective, this is clearly an example of denial and a defence mechanism that Dave is using to avoid facing up to reality. Jenny’s spending of the household income on mail order catalogues is also a likely example of a maladaptive coping mechanism because the family cannot afford to spend money on luxuries.

Planning and Intervention

The helping of others through the use of psychoanalytic theory has been described as “a corrective emotional experience,” (Greene and Uebel, 2008, p. 64). Therefore, Jenny and Dave should be supported in developing adaptive emotional responses to the difficulties that their environment presents. They should be encouraged to externalise their financial troubles so that they do not control their emotions, which is likely to result in a continuation of negative behaviours, such as drinking, arguing and gambling.

Psychoanalytic theory could be applied to this case study by helping Dave to optimise internal and more adaptive external forces to help him cope with the family’s stresses rather than turning to maladaptive behaviours, such as drinking and gambling. Dave should be encouraged to face up to the reality of the family’s situation and to explore ways in which he can cope in healthier ways. If Dave feels the need to escape now and again, he may be encouraged to take up a hobby or sport, which will give him time away from the family but avoid isolation.

Conclusion

Jenny and Dave’s situation can be interpreted through the use of various theories. A holistic approach in which the most applicable elements of each theory are used to help the family improve their financial and emotional well-being is recommended.

References

Akers, R.L., Krohn, M.D., Lanza-Kaduce, L. and Radosevich, M. (1979) Social learning and deviant behaviour: A specific test of a general theory. American Sociological Review, 44, pp. 636-655.

Bandura, A., Ross, D. and Ross, S.A. (1961) Transmission of aggression through imitation of aggressive models. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63(3), pp. 575.

Bandura, A., Ross, D. and Ross, S.A. (1963) Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 66(1), pp. 3-11.

Beebe, B. and Lachmann, F.M. (2002) Infant research and adult treatment: Co-constructing interactions. Hillsdale, NJ: The Analytic Press.

Bower, M. (2005) Psychoanalytic Theory for Social Work Practice. Oxford, UK: Routledge.

Brearley, J. (2007) ‘A Psychoanalytic approach to social work,’ in: J. Lishman (ed.) Handbook of Theory for Practice Teachers, London, UK: Jessica Kingsley.

Chappell, A.T. and Piquero, A.R. (2004) Applying social learning theory to police misconduct. Deviant Behavior, 25(2), pp. 89-108.

Corey, G. (2000) Theory and Practice of Counseling and Psychotherapy. Monterey, CA: Thomson Brooks Cole.

Durkin, K.F., Wolfe, T.W. and Clark, G.A. (2005) College students and binge drinking: An evaluation of social learning theory. Sociological Spectrum, 25(3), pp. 255-272.

El-Sheikh, M. and Flanagan, E. (2001) Parental problem drinking and children’s adjustment: Family conflict and parental depression as mediators and moderators of risk. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29, pp. 417-432.

El-Sheikh, M. and Elmore-Stanton, L. (2004) The link between marital conflict and child-adjustment: Parent-child conflict and perceived attachments as mediators, potentiators, and mitigators of risk. Development and Psychopathology, 16, pp. 631-648.

Fonagy, P. (2033) Some complexities in the relationship of psychoanalytic theory to technique. Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 72(1), pp. 13-47.

Foshee, V.A., Bauman, K.E. and Linder, G.F. (1999) Family violence and the perpetration of adolescent dating violence: Examining social learning and social control processes. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 61(2), pp. 331-342.

Greene, R.R. and Uebel, M. (2008) ‘Classical psychoanalytic thought, contemporary developments, and clinical social work practice,’ in: R.R. Greene (ed.) Human Behavior Theory and Social Work Practice, Edison, NJ: Transaction Publishers.

Hamilton, G. (1958) ‘A theory of personality: Freud’s contribution to social work,’ in: H.J. Parad (ed.) Ego, Psychology and Casework Theory, New York, NY: Family Service of America.

Higgins, E. (2006) Gender differences in software piracy: The mediating roles of self-control theory and social learning theory. Journal of Economic Crime Management, 4(1), pp. 1-30.

Hollis, F. (1977) Social casework: the psychosocial approach. Encyclopedia of Social Work. Washington: National Association of Social Workers.

Jacobs, M. (2010) Psychodynamic Counselling in Action. London, UK: Sage.

Patock-Peckham, J.A., Cheong, J., Balhorn, M.E. and Nagoshi, C.T. (2001) Social learning perspective: A model of parenting styles, self-regulation, perceived drinking control, and alcohol use and problems. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research, 25(9), pp. 1284-1292.

Petrocelli, M., Piquero, A.R. and Smith, M.R. (2003) Conflict theory and racial profiling: An empirical analysis of police traffic stop data. Journal of Criminal Justice, 31, pp. 1-11.

Pratt, T.C., Cullen, F.T., Sellers, C.S., Winfree Jr., L.T., Madensen, T.D., Daigle, L.E., Fearn, N.E. and Gau, J.M. (2010) The empirical status of social learning theory: A meta-analysis. Justice Quarterly, 27(6), pp. 765-802.

Sellers, C.S., Cochran, J.K. and Branch, K.A. (2005) Social learning theory and partner violence. A research note. Deviant Behaviour, 26(4), pp. 379-395.

Sherif, M., Harvey, O.J., White, B.J., Hood, W.R. and Sherif, C.W. (1961) Intergroup conflict and cooperaton: The Robbers Cave experiment (Vol.10). Norman, OK: University Book Exchange.

Skinner, B.F. (1948) Superstition in the pigeon. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 38(2), pp. 168.

Skinner, B.F. (1958) Reinforcement today. American Psychologist, 13(3), pp. 94.

Trevithick, P. (2012) Social Work Skills and Knowledge: A Practice Handbook. Maidenhead, UK: Open University Press.

Trotter, J. and Leech, N. (2003) Linking research, theory and practice in personal and professional development: gender and sexuality issues in social work education. Social Work Education, 22(2), pp. 203-214.

Webb, S.A. (2001) Some considerations on the validity of evidence-based practice in social work. British Journal of Social Work, 31, pp. 57-79.

Wood, K.M. (1971) ‘The contribution to psychoanalysis and ego psychology,’ in: H.S. Strean (ed.) Social Casework Theory in Action, Metuchen, NJL Scarecrow.

Counseling as describe by Reform (2010) is a proactive, holistically oriented process for helping persons learn to cope with problems of living and for promoting healthy development. It is an interpersonal process Involving a professional with the requisite graduate education and experience In counseling (the counselor), using scientifically validated methods, working with an Individual, family, group, organizations or segment of a community that Is seeking assistance (the client).

Reform (2010) describe Psychotherapy as an assumed a medical model, meaning the arson receiving help was sick. The goal of psychotherapy was to alleviate the sickness, with therapist as expert using Information about the clients past to provide Insight Into thoughts previously kept out of awareness. A good understanding of counseling and psychotherapy will contribute to my development as a scholar-practitioner.

Walden offers courses that help their students to understand what counseling is about, the diversity of ways we can help clients and how to become a prepare counselor. Walden have the tools to help students to become good counselors and enable them to understand and use the psychotherapy theories as a guide in our Journey as scholar-practitioners; this will help me to help the people in my community. I believe that a good understanding of what is counseling and how to use the psychotherapy is going to help me to become agent of positive social change.

I’m interested in a few fields of counseling, but at this moment the one that have my attention is mental disorders. I believe that a mental disorder is an increasing illness in our communities; this is the area that I will like to focus on. I will like to help people with mental illnesses to become a successful part of our society. Reference Reform, B. T. 2010). Orientation to the Counseling Profession: Advocacy, Ethics, and Essential Professional Foundations. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.

Practitioner By gamekeeper development. It is an interpersonal process involving a professional with the requisite graduate education and experience in counseling (the counselor), using scientifically validated methods, working with an individual, family, group, organizations or segment of a community that is seeking assistance (the client). Sickness, with therapist as expert using information about the client’s past to provide insight into thoughts previously kept out of awareness.

The Comparison between Psychodynamic and Humanistic Theory There are very distinct differences between Psychodynamic and Humanistic Counselling but both ultimately offer the help and guidance to discover why we act the way we do and why we make certain choices in our lives. Throughout this essay, I will endeavour to explain those major differences and you will see that despite these completely different methods of therapy, depending on what the problem maybe, they can both work very effectively in their own way. Carl Rogers, born in 1902, was the originator of the Person Centred Approach or Humanistic Theory.

His work was influenced by his experience of being a client and a counsellor (Casemore, 2006) and he believed a trusting relationship was essential in helping the client to grow and develop in order that they could cope with difficulties in a more effective manner and to function more effectively. There is a strong emphasis of the need for counsellors to think of their clients as people rather than impersonal bodies. Characteristics important for effectiveness in the counsellor/client relationship are congruence, where the counsellor must be genuinely themselves, a complete and whole person.

Empathic, which is the ability to understand and appreciate the clients perspective. To ‘live’ in their world and accept who they are unconditionally and unconditional positive regard which involves accepting the client completely and in a non-judgemental way. Rogers believed that all humans have a natural desire for personal growth and potential so that they can take responsibility for their own actions and the way they live their lives. This view is called the Actualising Tendency. He believed that everybody had an inner need to wholeness.

The self-concept is also important in Person Centred Counselling. This relates to the individuals perception or the way in which they see themselves based on life experiences and attitudes from those important people around them when they were young. Abraham Maslow is another theorist whose contribution to the Person Centred Approach is very significant. He proposed a hierarchy of needs which he believed were responsible for human motivation and drive. They are as follows: Physiological Needs – These are biological needs.

They consist of needs for oxygen, food, and water. They are the strongest needs because if a person were deprived of all needs, the physiological ones would come first in the person’s search for satisfaction. Safety Needs – When all physiological needs are satisfied and are no longer controlling thoughts and behaviors, the needs for security can become active. Needs of Love, Affection and Belongingness – When the needs for safety and for physiological well-being are satisfied, the next class of needs for love, affection and belongingness can emerge.

Needs for Esteem – When the first three classes of needs are satisfied, the needs for esteem can become dominant. These involve needs for both self-esteem and for the esteem a person gets from others. Needs for Self-Actualization – When all of the foregoing needs are satisfied, then and only then are the needs for self-actualization activated. Maslow describes self-actualization as a person’s need to be and do that which the person was “born to do. ” According to Maslow it is possible for people to work towards self-actualisation by practising behaviours which encourage the development of confidence and openness.

These include; trying new experiences and to challenge oneself, to assume responsibility, strive to be honest and to develop a capacity to trust onself, Both Maslow and Rogers had very similar views. Maslow believed that the most basic drive was to become the person that one is capable of becoming and Rogers believed that the basic drive was to become the person that one truly is. Gestalt Therapy is a psychotherapy, based on the experiential ideal of “here and now”, and relationships with others and the world, and was co-founded by Fritz Perls, Laura Perls and Paul Goodman in the 1940s-1950s (Wikipidia 2004).

Perls did not belive in a single particular theory. He thought you should always just go with the flow and work with what you have and what is happening in the now. He placed great importance on the client becoming self aware and thus developed the Gestalt theory. This therapy focuses more on process (what is happening) than content (what is being discussed). The emphasis is on what is being done, thought and felt at the moment rather than on what was, might be, could be, or should be.

Perls believed in minipulating the client, bringing them out of their comfort zone and challenging them. To own what you say and do and to be aware of unconscious actions/words. In the 1950’s Eric Berne began to develop his theories of Transactional Analysis. He said that verbal communication, particularly face to face, is at the centre of human social relationships and psychoanalysis. His starting-point was that when two people encounter each other, one of them will speak to the other. This he called the Transaction Stimulus.

The reaction from the other person he called the Transaction Response. The person sending the Stimulus is called the Agent. The person who responds is called the Respondent. Transactional Analysis became the method of examining the transaction wherein: ‘I do something to you, and you do something back’. Berne also said that each person is made up of three alter ego states: Parent – This is our ingrained voice of authority, absorbed conditioning, learning and attitudes from when we were young. Child – Our internal reaction and feelings to external events form the ‘Child’.

This is the seeing, hearing, feeling, and emotional body of data within each of us. When anger or despair dominates reason, the Child is in control. Adult – Our ‘Adult’ is our ability to think and determine action for ourselves, based on received data. The adult in us begins to form at around ten months old, and is the means by which we keep our Parent and Child under control. If we are to change our Parent or Child we must do so through our adult. Transactional Analysis is effectively a language within a language; a language of true meaning, feeling and motive.

It can help you in every situation, firstly through being able to understand more clearly what is going on, and secondly, by virtue of this knowledge, we give ourselves choices of what ego states to adopt, which signals to send, and where to send them. This enables us to make the most of all our communications and therefore create, develop and maintain better relationships (Businessballs. com) Looking at the Psychodynamic side, Freud took the view that human beings are never free from their behaviours, thoughts and feelings.

That we are governed by past events and reinact them in our present. Sigmund Freud is the father of the Psychodynamic Theory. This focuses on the unconscious aspects of personality. According to Freud the human mind is like an iceberg. It is mostly hidden in the unconscious. He believed that the conscious level of the mind was similar to the tip of the iceberg which could be seen, but the unconscious was mysterious and was hidden. The unconscious also consists of aspects of personality of which a person is unaware. The conscious on the other hand is that which is within our awareness.

The preconscious consists of that which is not in immediate awareness but is easily accessible (Himmat Rana 1997) Freud believed the personality is made up of three parts. They are: Id – the oldest part and present from birth and necessary for survival. The Ego – realistic awareness of self and of the world. Has evolved through contact with the external world and is determined by the individuals own experiences. Acts as mediator between the id and the superego and the Superego – parental and social influences. Moral judgement and conscience.

Main function is to curb he demands of the id. When anxiety occurs, the mind first responds by an increase in problem-solving thinking, seeking rational ways of escaping the situation. If this is not fruitful, a range of defence mechanisms may be triggered. In Freud’s language, these are tactics which the Ego develops to help deal with the Id and the Super Ego. Freud’s Defence Mechanisms include: ·Denial: claiming/believing that what is true to be actually false. ·Displacement: redirecting emotions to a substitute target. Intellectualization: taking an objective viewpoint. ·Projection: attributing uncomfortable feelings to others. ·Rationalization: creating false but credible justifications. ·Reaction Formation: overacting in the opposite way to the fear. ·Regression: going back to acting as a child. ·Repression: pushing uncomfortable thoughts into the subconscious. ·Sublimation: redirecting ‘wrong’ urges into socially acceptable actions. Carl Jung was an associate of Freud who disagreed on a number of issues and finally broke away from Freud with his own ideas.

He developed Analytical Psychology and it consists of the following; The collective unconscious – This is the deepest part of the psyche which contains all experiences that are inherited. The Personal Unconscious – This is material that was once conscious but has become forgotton or suppressed. Jung referred to the universal ideas and images of the collective unconscious as archetypes. These are original forms which all human beings in all societies recognise. Archetypes can also appear in shared emotional experience and these unconscious ideas and patterns of thought are likely to surface during momentous events such as birth and death.

This shared psychological experience was regarded by Jung as evidence of a collective unconscious. There are four major archetypes of the collective unconscious: The word “persona” means a mask and refers to the outward appearance which people use in everyday life. The word “anima” refers to the unconscious female quality in the male and the word “animus” refers to the unconscious male quality in the female. The shadow is the inferior being within us which is primitive and animal. It is also the personal unconscious is similar to Freuds concept of the id.

The term “self” describes a state of complete integration of all the separate elements of personality (Hough 1994) Alfred Adler broke away from Freuds school and set up his own called individual psychology. He believed that personality developed through sibling order and placed emphasis on the social development of man. He viewed people as mostly conscious rather than unconscious. For Adler, it was useless to focus on drives and impulses without giving attention to how the person creatively directs the drives. Adler believed that inferiority feelings are the source of all human striving.

All individual progress, growth and development result from the attempt to compensate for one’s inferiorities. Feeling unattractive, or don’t belong somewhere. Not strong enough or smart enough. So everyone is trying to overcome something that is hampering them from becoming what they want to become. The meaning of superiority is like self-realization. The striving for perfections is innate in the sense that it is a part of life. Throughout a person’s life, Adler believed, he or she is motivated by the need to overcome the sense of inferiority and strive for ever higher levels of development.

Everything Adler says ties into the lifestyle. For Adler, meanings are not determined by situation, but we are self-determined by the meaning we attribute to a situation. Melanie Klein had a significant impact on child psychology and contemporary psychoanalysis. She was a leading innovator in theorizing object relations theory. According to Klein, the infant’s world was threatened from the beginning by intolerable anxieties, whose source she believed to be the infant’s own death instinct.

These “persecutory” anxieties, which were felt in the infant’s own bodily needs as well as from the external frustrations to those needs, were overwhelming to the infant, and in order to combat them the infant resorted to defenses whose aim was to isolate her from them. Through these primitive defenses—projection, denial, splitting, withdrawal, and “omnipotent control” of these objects—the infant put threatening, “bad” objects, outside herself and into the external world; simultaneously, she preserved the “good” objects, both within herself and externally, by splitting them off from their malevolent counterparts.

Perhaps the most fundamental of these processes were projection and introjection, which described the infant’s first, primitive attempts to differentiate himself from the world, inside from outside, self from other, based on the prototype of oral incorporation (and spitting out) and the infant’s relation to his first, nurturing/frustrating object, the mother’s breast. In Bowlby’s approach, the child is considered to have a need for a secure relationship with adult caregivers, without which normal social and emotional development will not occur.

However, different relationship experiences can lead to different developmental outcomes. A number of attachment styles in infants with distinct characteristics have been identified known as secure attachment, avoidant attachment, anxious attachment and disorganized attachment. These can be measured in both infants and adults Attachment is an affectional tie that one person forms between him/herself and another specific one (usually the parent) — a tie that binds them together in space and endures over time.

Attachment theory states that attachment is a developmental process based on the evolved adaptive tendency for young children to maintain proximity to a familiar person, called the attachment figure. Four different attachment styles have been identified in children: secure, anxious-ambivalent, anxious-avoidant, and disorganized. Secure Attachment – The child protests the mother’s departure and quiets promptly on the mother’s return, accepting comfort from her and returning to exploration.

Avoidant Attachment – The child shows little to no signs of distress at the mother’s departure, a willingness to explore the toys, and little to no visible response to the mother’s return. Ambivalent Attachment – The child shows sadness on the mother’s departure, ability to be picked up by the stranger and even ‘warm’ to the stranger, and on the mother’s return, some ambivalence, signs of anger, reluctance to ‘warm’ to her and return to play. Disorganized Attachment – The child presents stereotypes upon the mother’s return after separation, such as freezing for several seconds or rocking.

This appears to indicate the child’s lack of coherent coping strategy. Children who are classified as disorganized are also given a classification as secure, ambivalent or avoidant based on their overall reunion behavior. “The main differences between the two therapies are that the Psychodynamic Theory centres on the past experiences of the client. By using dream interpretation, free association and others, it concentrates on looking at childhood experiences and normal or abnormal development. Humanistic is based on the clients interpretation of what is happening in the here and now.

It allows the client to express himself without having to look in the past”. (Wiki. answers. com) Rogers believed that the counselling relationship was based on mutuality, in which both the client and the counsellor are of equal importance whereas in Psychodynamic Counselling the Counsellor is regarded as the expert. Bibliography Person Centred Counselling by Roger Casemore, 2006, Sage Publications A Practical Approach to Counselling by Margaret Hough, 1994, Pittman Publishing Sigmund Freud by Himmat Rana 1997 www. Wikipedia/Fritz_Perls Businessballs. com