Racism

Introduction Racial disparity and discrimination is not a new concept to any nation. In fact, many were built on the back of slave labor, whether the slaves were indigenous peoples or imported bodies. While many nations have undertaken measures to overcome racial disparity, others have encouraged racial democracy. Brazil, a modern and industrialized nation, suffers from racial discrimination based on their position in the world economy and built on the Ideology of the past.

History Brazier’s history is rife with racism and slavery, dating back to Its discovery by Pedro Allover Cabal In 1500. Brazil was originally settled with the Intention of harvesting Broadloom. However, over time the profits from that were supplanted by sugar, Brazil became the leading producer of sugar In the Atlantic world. The production of all these exports meant cheap labor was needed. During this time, the Portuguese were sending between 4,000 and 5,000 slaves per year to Brazil from Angola and West Africa: by the 18th century, one million slaves had been imported (117).

The continually shifting landscape meant that Brazier’s exports continued to shift. By the time the 1 9th century came around, Brazier’s major export was coffee as sugar reduction had shifted to the Caribbean Islands. The continued influx of European slaves and citizens resulted in an uneven population. European labor was generally more skilled and slowly began to overtake slave labor. Around this same time, the abolition of slavery happened in 1888, resulting in a decline in the slave population.

By 1888, it was estimated that only a half-million people were slaves, compared to the one-and-a-half million slaves in 1872 (117). This is in part due to the fact that the coffee production process became more and more elaborate, requiring those with pesticides skills to take over. Coffee production soon fell into the hands of a wave of European immigrants, not freed slaves (122). The slaves that were freed often became vagrants, homeless, Jobless and penniless (Roach, “Analysis: Brazier’s ‘racial democracy”). The history of Brazil continues to inform the current day Brazil.

The current day population of Brazil tops 160 million, with about half of that being black. Yet, the black population is nearly absent from all levels of power, meaning “government, congress, senate, the Judiciary, the higher ranks of the civil service and he armed forces” (Roach, “Analysis: Brazier’s ‘racial democracy”). In 1999, the Minority Rights Group International reported that “black and mixed race Brazilian still have higher Infant mortality rates, fewer years of schooling, higher rates of unemployment, and earn less for the same work.

Black men are more likely to be shot or arrested as crime suspects, and when found guilty, get longer sentences” (Roach, “Analysis: Brazier’s ‘racial democracy”). Racism Persists There are many theories as to why racism continues to persist In modern day Brazil. One thing to look at Is their placement wealth the greater world economy. 22). When the Portuguese settled Brazil, they created a line of trade that focused on Portuguese and the plantation owners became very wealthy, all at the expense of the nearly three million black and mulatto slaves.

A truly capitalist world is one that where each countries worth is weighed in terms of their strengths (military, trade, financial, production) and what they can contribute. A superpower such as the United States is naturally more diverse, which means that tolerance and racism are not tolerated as easily in modern day society. Core countries are those that have the retreat strengths and the peripheral countries are the ones that are expendable. Phillips says “the peripheral countries were exploited by the core, and ‘semi peripheral’ countries were exploited by the core and exploited peripheral countries.

The relations between these three geopolitical units are ones built on inequality’ (122). Phillips goes on to say that “similar to the inequality that can be seen in a class system within a country, this template is now spread around the globe to view inequality on a world scale” (122). In other words, Brazil is treated with discrimination based on their trade abilities and overall contribution. This has trickled down so that individuals are also being treated with the same discrimination.

It is also important to note that “racism is fundamentally rooted in processors class structures, historically shifting modes of production, distribution, and consumption, and increasingly, in the unequal exchanges that tie local political economies to the global processes of capitalism” (Phillips 122). Brazier’s history of racial prejudice and discrimination has established a mode of living and ideology that persists to this day. It would be too easy to blame slavery on the world economy, but it is safe to say that he capitalist world economy has helped perpetuate racial prejudice and discrimination.

Slavery existed long before profit was exchanged for labor. As Brazil has grown, “the means to social mobility after emancipation was closely guarded by the Brazilian white ruling class, who allowed for a pool of relatively less expensive labor consisting mainly of Brazilian natives and other European immigrants” (122). The influx of cheap European labor resulted in the black and mulatto population being pushed aside. After Brazil abolished slavery, the ex-slaves were left with two hoicks: work under the same conditions as when they were slaves or Join the masses of unemployed (Phillips 122).

They had additional challenges; they were competing with native Brazilian and European immigrants for a limited number of jobs where the new economic order was wage labor (122). Racism played a major role after the emancipation of the slaves as many of the ex-slaves were discriminated against in the free Job market. While the shift has been to the detriment of blacks and mulattos, racism has not helped the white population of Brazil (123). Despite the racism running rampant, there is no black movement in Brazil. There is seemingly no racial tension or conflict.

Blacks that live in Salvador, who make up 80% of the population, say they feel safer in that environment than they do in the US (Roach, “Analysis: Brazier’s ‘racial democracy’). It is speculated that this is because appearances matter more in Brazil than heritage. In the US, one drop of black ancestry means you are black, while in Brazil, if you appear white, you are perceived as white (Roach, “Analysis: Brazier’s ‘racial democracy’). It can also be noted that the US has a history of violent racism where oppressed populations were treated harshly. Those past grievances have not been forgotten, and in some cases, not forgiven freedom.

It would seem as though the US operates under a shadow of racism, attempting to sweep it under the rug and pretend that equality is real. Brazil does not operate under such false pretenses. Racism is alive and acknowledged. As of the 2010 census, 51% of Brazil identifies itself as black or brown. The government estimates that the income of white Brazilian is more than double that of black or brown Brazilian and that blacks are at a distinct disadvantage in relation to education and access to healthcare (“Brazilian 2010 Census Highlights Racism Problem”). The racial divide in Brazil is based on a social pyramid.

Many will argue that the black community is poor because class, not race, stratifies their society. However, there are many that would disagree. According to Mario Theodore, an activist for social equality believes that “slavery legacy of injustice and inequality can only be reversed by affirmative action policies, of the kind found in the United States” (“Race in Brazil: Affirming a Divide”). Yet, it is also fair to note that in the US, there are many of different races that are in positions of great power and that social class is often dictated by wealth.

The history of the US supports the advancement of the white race, but progress is showing that race is beginning to take a backseat to skill set and overall acumen. In Brazil, the race line is well drawn. Most of those in the public eye, such as TV news anchors, doctors, dentists, fashion models, and lawyers are all white. The majority of black and mulatto’s are working in the “blue collar” trade, often deemed the unskilled labor pool. The salary disparity is even more telling. By 2011, the average black or brown worker was earning of what the average white worker made (“Brazilian 2010 Census Highlights Racism Problem”).

Statistics do not differentiate between gender, only race, though it can be assumed that the same problem occurs between gender lines. Affirmative Action Brazil, once considered a “racial democracy’ is fighting hard to shed that moniker. Racial democracy, in relation to Brazil, is defined as the thought that compared to other nations; racism was actually very minimal in Brazil (Tells, “Discrimination and Affirmative Action in Brazil”). However, today, most Brazilian concur that Brazil is victim to racial prejudice and discrimination.

Blacks and mulattos are the major cities of widespread police violence and often earn half the income of their white counterparts. In addition, television and advertising portray Brazilian society as one that is almost entirely white (Tells, “Discrimination and Affirmative Action in Brazil”). This is because the working class and elite are almost entirely white, so the melting pot of races exists only in the working class and poor. According to Antonio Riser’s, a sociologist, “It’s clear that racism exists in the US. It’s clear that racism exists in Brazil.

But they are different kinds of racism” (“Race in Brazil: Affirming a Divide”). He continues to argue that the racism itself is nefarious and veiled, unlike the racism that used to run rampant in the US. In Brazil, there was never a UK Klux Klan or enforced segregation or even a ban on interracial marriage (“Race in Brazil: Affirming a Divide”). Affirmative action is often put into place to attempt to create a racially diverse atmosphere. Most often this is in correlation to the workplace where employers do not discriminate based on race, gender, or religious affiliation.

In Brazil, the new affirmative action can be most notably seen in the university setting. By 2008 almost 50% of Brazilian universities have a race-based affirmative action attend a university, students were required to pass a standardized test. Now, leading universities are mandated to allow a fixed percentage of nonwhite students to attend. In addition, they have quotas for indigenous peoples and for the disabled (Tells, “Discrimination and Affirmative Action in Brazil”). Even though affirmative action was put in place to help, it is not without controversy.

Those that oppose the policies include “much of the media, private school students, their parents and the schools themselves, scholars and artists who alee the racial democracy ideal and even black students who believe in meritocracy’ (Tells, “Discrimination and Affirmative Action in Brazil”). They maintain that affirmative action does nothing to further racial equality; instead, it merely promotes racial equality without any substance. In addition, many academics are fighting against affirmative action in schools and campaigning against quotas.

They argue that enforcing affirmative action is, in itself, inherently an act of racism. It divides people into arbitrary color categories; a feat, which is not as easy as it seems nice much of Brazil, is a country of mixed race (“Race in Brazil: Affirming a Divide”). They also argue that it undermines the equality of the admissions process, even though in the past, nepotism and whom you know have been the quickest routes to advancement (“Race in Brazil: Affirming a Divide”).

Despite these arguments, studies have shown that many of the “quota” students are performing academically as well or better than their white counterparts. This can be attributed to the fact that many of those white students were admitted because they had the means and money to prepare for the entrance exam (“Race in Brazil: Affirming a Divide”). The next target is the labor market, a place where affirmative action could show positive benefits. In the United States, only 12% of the population is black, yet we have a black president, numerous black politicians and millionaires.

In contrast, Brazil has a limited number of black people in positions of power. Because of this, some private sector companies are making racial diversity a requirement in their recruiting process (“Race in Brazil: Affirming a Divide”). But again, the same problem occurs that showed up in the university setting. Just because a person is off different race does not mean they are qualified for the Job at hand. It often follows that work production and quality decline because employers are hiring based on color, not skill level.

Unlike the US, affirmative action in Brazil is being done in a very Brazilian way. There is little to no government interference or enforcement. Universities and private companies are making their own policies. The Supreme Court is involved, but is slow to act in hopes that society will figure out their own issues (“Race in Brazil: Affirming a Divide”). Society is moving fast though. Businesses and advertisers are now targeting black populations, but changing the minds of the consumer sector is n easy task compared to changing the mindset of racism ingrained after years and years of overt racism.

Many Brazilian assume that blacks and browns belong on the bottom of the social ladder, making the push for proactive change difficult (“Race in Brazil: Affirming a Divide”). Solution? In order for Brazil to pull down the racial divide and move beyond racial democracy, the boundaries between black and white need to be weakened. There is but despite this, the racial division is not nearly as rigid as they are in the US. An interesting note is that most Brazilian perceive their culture to be an example how ace and culture can coexist peacefully.

Despite this somewhat astonishing claim, it is still believed that 90% of the white population is prejudiced against the black and mulatto population. However, their idea of racism differs greatly from person to person so it is difficult to Judge what this really means. In a recent event in Brazil, a six-year-old boy was kicked out of a pizza polar supposedly for the color of his skin. According to the restaurant manager, he mistook the young boy as a local street boy. The boys parents have since then filed a complaint with the local police department ND are also considering taking legal actions.

This story launched a huge race-debate in Brazil (Phillips “Does Brazil Have a Race Problem”). While stories like this continue to gain traction, it is hard to figure out where Brazil goes from here. Affirmative action plans seem like a step in the right direction, but that will not be enough to change 500 years in ingrained behavior. Brazil will need a complete economic and social shift if it wishes to eradicate racism. If the US is a learning curve, Brazil has a lot of work to do, and so does the US when it comes down to reality. Conclusion

Many people around the world see Brazil as a country full of racial diversity where racism Just simply does not exist, where as others claims Brazil suffers from invisible racism where blacks earn less, live less, and are educated less. Although blacks make up for most of the population in Brazil they are still grossly under-represented in higher education, media, and politics. The continued racial divide will only be removed when government and individuals work together to not only acknowledge the problem, but find a way to move above and beyond racism and look at the individual for the value, not their skin color.

Racism is the belief that a race is superior to all other races and has the right to manage all other races. This term emphasizes the superiority In terms of the biological differences, such as color and gender. In the history, although racism was used to organize daily life in clans, with Greeks it gained its negative meaning. With the Renaissance and the Reform, Europeans discovered new nations and places. However, according to Europeans’ understanding, these new people can only be slaves. Therefore, racism has actually begun. The first modern fascist leader of

European, Mussolini had a strong belief about being racist. He did not give right to live to any thought but his thought. He killed many people. In Dalton, Hitler was another fascist leader who murdered millions of people because of their races. Thus racism has become known. Basically, as both Connelly (2004, p. 72) and Shah (2010, Para. L) say that people have tendency to be superior to others. Shah adds that racism has been used as weapons. As it was in the past, racism still exists all over the world. Proponents of the idea that racism still exist claim that due to laws, racism Anton exist.

They also mention that according to the universal Declaration of Human Rights, all humans are equal. They may have a point but laws cannot prevent racism and racists. Laws are valid only racists are caught. In the united States for example, although punishment is serious, racism exists in the aspect of black and white. Blacks have separate neighborhood from whites, they do not like whites’ thoughts or they do not have a white person in their environment. The reason for this is that in the past, whites saw and used blacks as slaves. In today, there is not a comprehension about Ewing slave but whites still humiliates blacks.

This causes white racism. Moreover, racists do not have to show how they believe or they do not have to discriminate. They can only have thoughts of being racist and laws cannot catch or prevent this kind of thoughts. The reason why racism still exists is the human nature regarding inferior and superior. First, in the aspect of superior, they are naturally arrogant people. This class thinks that they are superior to everyone in everything. Therefore, they humiliate other races. Due to physical characteristic of other races, they make a trooper for specific races and they become prejudice.

Europeans prejudice about Arabians can be given as an example. They think that Arabians are dirty and they smell bad. This situation causes racism today. Moreover, superior race thinks that they have the right to determine other races’ rights, such as how they think, where they can live or whether they can live or not. Hitler for example, had a great power to take lives of Jewish people. Today, similarly to Hitter’s reason, there is a problem called smuggling of people. Generally, people who are smuggled are from either Africa or Middle East, they were never European.

Smuggling soul exists because superior races think that they can employ them illegally. Second, in aspect of inferior people, there is a fear of superior ones. Being a criminal race produces that kind of fear. As Russell (1 998, p. 124) mentions Willow’s thesis about black crime causes white fear, white racism caused by Black and Latino men. If they did not have this high rate of crime, there would not be white fear. Furthermore, another kind of fear from superior happens as action and reaction. If Europeans are racists to Arabians, then stay away from Europeans because they feel inferior.

Another reason why racism still exists is what happened in history. They may have not happened because of racism but they trigger racism today. First, events about economy have really changed the world. After the Reform and the Renaissance, colonialism came into the world. India was one of the countries colonized by England. As Marvin states, “At any rate, no serious effort has ever been made to colonize the country, and the English who go to India think only of acquiring the largest amount of money in the shortest possible time, and returning home to enjoy it in their beloved fatherland” (2006, p. ). Thus, today racism still exists between India and England. Second, political history caused racism today as well. In the history, states struggled for independence. In Ottoman Empire, for example, there were many nations who live peacefully. However, when the Ottoman Empire started to fall down, Armenian rebelled. They wanted to have their own country in the soil that they live in but it belonged to the Ottoman Empire. Because of this situation, Ottomans and Armenian had disagreement. Then that disagreement cause today the so-called Armenian genocide. Now, Turkey and

Armenian are prejudiced to each other because of what happened in history. Bad treatment to Armenian or reverse produces racism in both countries. All in all, racism still exists in our world. People should remember that as world and politic changes, terms meanings will either be change or be broaden. While the term racism was used for people who support his race, then it is used for humiliation. In our world, it almost lost its meaning because today anything can be racism, such as prejudice or difference of thoughts among nations. Racism is not biological differences anymore.

Racism has predominately focused itself around the African American population, however, has not been associated with “white” individuals. There has always been a racial divide between the two groups and this Is evident In bell hooks’ article, which illustrates how “whites” have made their Identity as fear, power and terrorism. This chapter also goes on to discuss how the “blacks” have experienced different aspects of terrorism by the dominant white society. Due to both white supremacy and white privilege, African Americans were treated extremely poorly as slaves instead of unmans.

There was the belief that “whites” were misusing the power they had, and the misuse of power would lead to negative impacts on the black community. Although the black community adapted to the values and the habits of the “whites,” they were hoping for the “whites” to finally get over the need to terrorize their people. In the article, Hooks discusses that even though times have changed, the black population still feels as if they are being terrorized and are rarely close to the “whites. Through the misuse of power due to the “whites,” which led to the rejection f the black community by society, it has made the “blacks” feel the need to give up their Identity and try to fit In with the white society. Hooks goes on to describe a situation that she had encountered when she went to a cultural studies conference. She felt that there was white dominance In the way everything was organized. Wealth her article, Hooks tries to educate people more about the whiteness, so that individuals can move away from the typical race that exists and recognize the confrontation that still exists in order to identify the other skin color.

The way whiteness is designed; it brings up different types of stereotypes in the mind of other people in society and gives it a lot of different meanings. She argues that stereotyping is a way of talking negatively about other races and not being racist at the same time. The differences between the “whites” and “blacks” is not something that black Individuals have always created but things such as domination, imperialism, colonialism and racist are the many reasons why black Individuals have felt contrary about their own race. Whiteness” to the black community appears to be better than their own color and race.

At the beginning of the article, hooks talks about some of the discussions that students were having in the classroom. When these discussions took place, it amazed the “whites” as they were listening to how the “blacks” noticed whiteness. The shock after listening to these comments that black individuals were saying goes to show that white students at the time were uneducated about the other races that existed around them. There was also the mint that hooks made stating that whiteness is present without the awareness of blackness.

She uses Baldwin notion to support this argument in which he stated that wherever white men go, they take control. The experiences that Hooks encountered herself are outlined within her article The article, Representing Whiteness In the Black Imagination, gives a better understanding of what people thought about the whiteness issue that “blacks” were facing during the 19th century. Bell hooks has also demonstrated that an Image of white people has been created In he black community because of the things that have happened in the past.

This domestic servants, working in white homes, acting as informants, brought knowledge back to segregated communities – details, facts, observations, and psychoanalytic readings of the white other. ” The imagination of “whiteness” has also affected Hooks as an African American. This article targets many of the arguments that have been discussed within the course. Hooks describes how black females had been differentiated in comparison to white females, from the point of view of a young black male who grew up in a community where black people had been the victim of racism.

Even though this article was predominantly about the black community, it also narrows the focus on how females are viewed and essentially victimized. As presented in Frankness’s article, there is the understanding that while females had also been victimized due to white racism. Her article mainly focuses on how black and white females are observed in society and how racism shapes white females. Both of the articles have given a distinct and clear understanding of what occurred in the 19th century. Kooks portrays how white people dominated the black community in America. The stereotypes against the “blacks” can still be seen in our society and Hooks use of personal experiences gives the reader enhanced knowledge about the prejudice they had to go through. Brandenburg being a white feminist also shares her experiences of racism that has helped shape the life of a white woman. Therefore, the power that the white society had certainly made a negative impact on the lives of several “blacks” and has made it harder for them to accept themselves for whom they are.

The cultural differences and many races and ethnicities make this community what it is. Henderson is second largest itty in Nevada with over a quarter of a million inhabitants, second only to Alas Vegas, Nevada. Henderson population is made up of four different races making the total 267,270 people. There are over 210,000 Caucasians, over 15,000 African Americans and more than 35,000 Hipics. As in many US cities, the gender balance Is fairly even at 49. 1% male and 50. 9 % female community members. (icosahedrons. Mom) I have noticed that members throughout my local community generally are Caucasian and look Like me, this Is because my race and my skin color make up over 70% of the entire population of Henderson. I have not experienced the leaders of my community treating people differently based on race, ethnicity or cultural differences but I imagine it happens. In researching where to rent an apartment I looked for a location that was near my work and college and was in an area where people were most like me. That doesn’t mean I am biased in my opinion due to the population facts of Henderson.

I do not feel I would be comfortable living in an area where I was completely different in cultural background. I would be able to adjust to living in areas where there were many races and ethnicities represented but I like to be rarest to people who share my same cultural background and my religious beliefs. This has been true throughout my life as I am originally from the Midwest, in particular – Dimension, Iowa. There are some things that are very different about Iowa and Nevada, yet some things that are very much the same.

The population make up of my hometown in Iowa is much the same with 70% of the population being Caucasian, although vast majority of the remaining 30% of the population are of Hipic descent. There are a few African Americans and Asian Americans in my hometown as well, much like here n my new local community of Henderson. The major difference is only in the quantity of people as there are only 12,000 people living in Dimension, Iowa. That is a huge difference for me to adjust to culturally but I feel I have adjusted well to my new setting.

One cultural concern I had was finding a Christian church that met my needs and expectations after living in the Midwest and attending a parochial school for part of my education and attending Christian churches all my life. I did find a church I Like very much In Alas Vegas not too far from where I live. This church fits the need of Christian but It sure was a cultural shock to go to a church with ten to fifteen times more attendees than my hometown church but I do believe that is representative of the community with nearly 80% being Caucasian in our city.

The Council has 4 member, two females and two males, which is also representative of the gender make-up of Henderson. I think that my local media represents everyone pretty equally. For example: if a person commits or is involved in any way of a crime, the local media is going to broadcast the story whether or not the criminal is Caucasian like me or any other race/ethnicity. When I watch the local news as I do most days, I see the broadcasters representing different races and ethnicities as well.

This is also much the same as my hometown City Council which is made up of Caucasians and one Hipic member and representatives of the news media in the cities of Omaha, Nebraska; Sioux City, Iowa; and Des Monies, Iowa are all much the same with various races/ethnicities represented. In my larger community of the United States I see the demographics of the governmental agencies and news media much more broadly representing the many races that make up our nation. I do feel very strongly that all minority groups throughout my community are represented in some way or another.

There are a lot of activist group activities and mission statements that have successfully been completed and a lot, if not all, have been continuing to proceed over the years. Block parties for example, is a personal favorite on encouraging neighbors to interact and be comfortable regardless if another person in the community or neighborhood is a different race. I knew my neighbors in Dimension, Iowa, quite well and sharing food and fun is one way to bridge cultural gaps as we did with our Hipic neighbors.

Another personal favorite of mine is Joining the program called Henderson Shines. I could resolve some and if not all inequalities within my community by taking part and encouraging others to participate in Henderson Shines. The 2013 Henderson Shines program allowed over 600 people to drop off unwanted items that could contaminate our environment if left to rot, things that could be recycled, or Just get rid of what would be an eye-sore in the community. This information is also from the Henderson website at icosahedrons. Mom: “The Our Henderson Sustainability Program encompasses a variety of efforts to conserve energy and water, promote cycling, enhance the built environment, reduce air pollution, and increase transportation options. In all of these efforts, the City of Henderson is working together with our residents and businesses to ensure a high quality of life in our community. Our Henderson. Our home. My responsibility. ” I think this is a great motto to live by in any community.

This encourages us to take a personal stake in our surroundings and helps to create collaboration with neighbors. I would be able to help resolve any differences in my community by bringing everyone together to help in the Neighborhood Cleanup Program too. I think that this would help other members see that we are not all that different from each other. I can show everyone that no matter what race someone is, we all have trash that needs taken out, we all need to eat, and we all need to give back to our community.

This could be an opportunity for myself and people within my community to see past the skin color and see that there are things in common between numerous cultures. (A Place to Call Home, 2013) When I was a student at Dimension Middle School we had a Spring Clean Up each year in which all 350 students were split up into groups to go out into the his project I do feel that it helped build a sense of civic responsibility and community service to build pride in my surroundings as it did for most of my fellow students and friends.

The month before I moved to Nevada I was part of a church event called Love Dimension that did much of the same things as Spring Clean Up except we also had groups visit nursing homes and decorate doors, groups passed out business appreciation bags of snacks to business owners along Highway 30, and painted all the structures at the baseball fields for youth programs. These opportunities in my past have helped me become a much stronger volunteer and immunity activist. Most recently I was part of the Life is Beautiful festival near Fremont Street in Alas Vegas which is part of the Downtown Renovation.

I got to work alongside other volunteers to complete a mural that represents the cultural differences coming together for a common goal. I enjoy seeing that mural and I hope it gives everyone a sense of pride in that area as well. I want members of my community to grasp the idea that two or more people are always going to be stronger and more efficient than one person who refuses to see past another member’s skin color. One of the main concepts in our text that relate to race is Chapter One: Exploring Race and Ethnicity.

In this chapter I learned about unequal treatment towards minority groups. Also stated in Chapter One is “Minority women are more likely to be poor. ” (Schaefer, 2010) I am Caucasian and I am not the wealthiest in my community. I believe that I can get whatever I set my mind too and so can everyone else regardless of race, ethnicity, or cultural beliefs. If one person could start a small neighborhood activity to bring everyone together and then if another would do the same thing inside the same neighborhood as the first, slowly the entire community would come together.

The Reconstruction Era Jessica Onken American History Since 1865 Professor Tim Johnston August 2, 2010 Reconstruction 2 The Reconstruction Era The reconstruction era was a difficult time for the African American slaves from 1865 to 1877 because the slaves were freed and there were no jobs for them, had very little or no education, and had very limited opportunity in the south. Reconstruction was one of the most critical periods in American History. The Civil War changed the nation tremendously, and most importantly by bringing an end to slavery.

Reconstruction was a period of great promise, hope, and progress for African Americans, and a period of resentment and resistance for many white southerners. The time period for the Reconstruction era was in 1865 to 1877, when the United States was rebuilding and reuniting after the Civil War. In 1865, four years of brutal deconstruction in the Civil War came to an end, 600,000 American soldiers lost their lives. Four million enslaved African Americans were emancipated. The south was laid to waste; railroads, factories, farms, and cities were destroyed.

Abraham Lincoln was elected president during that time. Abraham Lincoln knew once the states confederacy were restored to the union, the Republicans would be weakened unless they put an end to being a sectional party. Lincoln hoped for peace and to attract people of the former south who supported the Republicans’ economic policies. During the Era of Reconstruction, it was highly unstable because while many Northerners saw this as a chance to completely end slavery and have the south merged back into the United States, many in the south saw this as an insult and another injury of the loss of the Civil War.

Lincoln’s plans during this time were to free more slaves and grant freedom. At the end of the Reconstruction Era, freedoms were granted under the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments, but were not completely effective. The moral views through religions before and after the war of the north and south Reconstruction 3 were different. With different opinions flowing, the Presbyterian and Methodist churches split into Northern and Southern functions. The Southern churches supported slavery and believed that it was also supported by the Bible.

The north believed that no man should be held in captivity or confinement by another man. The north wanted to end slavery but still most of the Northerner did not consider the black man to be equal to them. There were some Northerners that did believe all men are created equal. Some Northerners showed strong emotions about the eradication of slavery that they became violent. Most of the Northerners did not change after the war, which caused the segregation that continued until the 1960’s.

In 1865, the Ku Klux Klan was started in Tennessee to stop blacks from taking advantage of their new rights. Members from the Ku Klux Klan would beat and murder blacks to keep them from having rights. Northern soldiers were stationed in the south to enforce the Reconstruction laws. The soldiers made sure blacks could vote in elections, be treated just like the white people, go to school, and they were also there to prevent any attacks from happening by the southern whites. In 1869, the Southern governments started to end control by the North in Tennessee and Virginia.

Some of the power of the Southerners was regained to run their own state governments, which made the Northerners have less influence on the southern governments. The reason for the southerners joining the Ku Klux Klan was because they did not want blacks to have rights such as voting, owning land, freedom, be treated fairly at jobs, participate in court trials, run for office, etc.. Southern white people were not for reconstructing governments. They would not accept the black men that were once slaves as free black men who now had the right to Reconstruction 4 vote and participate in state government.

As the nation started to celebrate the end of the war in April 1865, president Lincoln was shot and killed After Lincoln was assassinated, Andrew Johnson took over the process of the reconstruction. Johnson made the reconstruction less efficient. He forgave some ex-confederates and didn’t take the same steady approaches as Lincoln did. Johnson was a southerner, and like Lincoln, a self educated man who climbed up the ladder from an inferior decent. Southerners were now making new laws called black codes, which meant it made blacks’ lives harder and to prevent them from using their new rights.

Some codes forced blacks to work for a year, and if they didn’t, they were thrown in jail for being unemployed, and also let them be whipped by their bosses. By enforcing labor contracts, and laws, the strict black codes kept freedmen tied to the plantation. This period was described as violence, revenge, retaliation, and eye for an eye against African Americans. The justice system of the south provided no refuge or assistance. The all white police force frequently terrorized African Americans, and the judges and other officials rarely prosecuted crimes against blacks.

When the news of the black code laws and the violence against the freedmen spread to the North, it created outrage and fury. When the Northern soldiers were not positioned in the south to enforce Reconstruction laws, blacks had to live under the unpleasant, cruel, and unfair conditions caused by the black code laws. Johnson allowed the black codes to be passed which imposed heavy restrictions on freed African American slaves. Johnson was against the passage of a renewal of a new Freeman’s Bureau, which served as a positive organization for African Americans,

Reconstruction 5 which would have allowed the black war veteran’s the right to vote. In 1867, Congress passed a new Reconstruction Act, that threw out the state governments of states that refused to ratify the 14th amendment. The 15th amendment was ratified in 1870, providing a constitutional guarantee of voting rights for African American males. By 1870, the Northerner lost interest in reconstructing the south. The north tried to reconstruct the south and change southerners attitudes about black people.

Although they failed at this because many southerners were still racists and believed that the white race was superior to others, blacks were not as good as southern white men. To add to that, the Northerners lost interest in the reconstruction, which gave southerners a chance to gain control of their state governments again. The main complaints against the Presidential Reconstruction were the Radical Republicans of Congress. New political forces in the South gave way for new changes. During reconstruction, African Americans made huge political gains.

They voted in large numbers and were also elected to political office. African Americans were elected as sheriffs, mayors, legislators, Congressmen, and Senators. Even thought their participation was significant, it was exaggerated by white southerners angry at the Black Republicans governments. Reconstruction governments built public schools for both black and white children. They also rebuilt and added more railroads, telegraph lines, bridges, and railroads. These costly efforts led to tax increases that made the southern whites more angry, which was why the Ku Klux Klan was created.

By the mid 1870’s, the Republicans were losing power, and the Northerners were tired of trying to reform the south. In 1872, Congress passed the Amnesty Act, which reinstated voting rights to almost all white southerners. By 1876, almost all southern s Reconstruction 6 states were back under the control of the Democrats. When Rutherford B. Hayes was elected president in 1877, the reconstruction came to an end. He removed the remaining federal troops from the south. With no one left to enforce the reconstruction reforms, the Reconstruction was over. White Democrats remained in control of southern governments.

Southern states denied African Americans from voting through voting restrictions such as the poll tax, grandfather clause, and the literacy test. Jim Crow Laws separated blacks and whites in restaurants, schools, theaters, railroads, hospitals, and all other public places. The Jim Crow Laws were clearly passed to ensure that black people could not dot eh same things as white people. Such laws encouraged and promoted racial segregation and varied from district to district. Some required black people to drink at separate fountains and use separate bathrooms than white people.

Others required black people to give up seats on public buses if a white person wanted their sear, and still others prohibited black people from attending the same schools as white people African Americans continued to be looked at as “bad”or not “equal” as the white Americans. They were still victims of violence and intimidation. In the 1960’s, with the Civil Rights movement, the African Americans were granted full protection of the 14th and 15th amendments. The period of the Reconstruction was one of great promise for the United States and for African Americans.

During this period, African Americans continued to struggle for freedom and worked to improve their communities. Institutions of the African American community like the churches and schools were strengthened over time. Though there were long term consequences of Reconstruction failures, the Reconstruction era provided a Constitutional basis for later attempts to end discrimination. Reconstruction 7 Although the Reconstruction era was a difficult time for the African Americans’, with several failed attempts, in the end, the African Americans did finally get freedom and were allowed the same rights as the white Americans.

References Carter, Hodding. (1959). The Angry Scar: The Story of Reconstruction. New York: Doubleday. Davidson, J. , Delay, B. , Heyrman, C. , Lytle, M. , ; Stoff, M. (2008). Nation of Nations. (vol. 2, 6th ed. ) New York: McGraw-Hill. Dubowski, C. (1991). Andrew Johnson: Rebuilding the Union. New Jersey: Silver Burdett. Foner, Eric. (1988). Reconstruction: America’s Unfinished Revolution 1863-1877. New York: Harper & Row. Litwack, L. , (1979). Been in the Storm so Long. New York: Random House.