Religion

Guru Nanak

The declaration meant that Guru Nanak did not recognize God to serve the Muslims or Hindus only. He embraced unity in God for all humankind. I think that Guru Nanak’s conception of the divine is unique. It is not easy for someone to accept God and considers Him to be non-specific. Religions can be useful when one accepts God as the universal Supreme Being and sees it as a unifying factor for all humankind and contributor to the development of neighborhoods. It is a barrier when different religious groups teach their followers that God is for them alone which results in enmity.

Sikhism

Sikhism is a fusion of other traditions as it was founded to try to synchronize Hinduism and Islamic. However, it cannot be seen as an absolute merger of the two traditions. The teachings and beliefs of Sikhism make it become a distinct faith with its unique features.

The uniqueness of this religion is that it transcends all existing religions. Its intellectual principles and teachings have no link with any other religion. Sikhs believe in the oneness in God, salvation through union with God and value love for every creation Follower’s faiths depend on his or her own inner connections with God and everything created in the whole world. What to incorporate:

• Values: loving all, living a family life, providing food and shelter for everyone, doing justice for everyone and walking through God’s paths.
• Beliefs: believing in one God and monotheism.
• Practices: Moral practices and specific ceremonies to bring followers together.

However, I would organize my community not conflict other religious movements, embrace the territorial form of organization as this would make my movement be more comprehensive in integrating the community members into the movement’s doctrines.

Revelation by Islam

Muslims perceive revelation to be communicated by a supernatural entity to the followers through words and letters. The first revelation was given to Muhammad in the form of Quran. Muslims believe that Allah speaks to people through direct or indirect revelation. The Muslims, therefore, hold the concept of revelation as the only way through which Allah speaks to them.

Muslims believe that Quran is the only holy book that authenticates all Divine Books used by other traditions, which should never be revoked. Concerning the books revealed to Christians and Jews, Muslims recognize that Quran addresses all the needs of humanity omitted by the respective religious groups. Therefore, they view the Jews and Christian books as false revelations.

Sikhs consider their unity and earthly authority to be the written word in that the foundation of the Sikh holy book as it can be traced from premier Sikh shrine, as hymns of the God’s favored saints. They incorporate the teachings from Quran and even consider teachings from the book to be rightful teachings.

Muhammad

Muhammad is considered a religious and social reformer who spearheaded the inheritance of prophetic traditions from Judaism and Christianity. He left his traditional religious roles bestowed upon him as well as social responsibilities, transformed to Islamic, and reformed many people subsequently.

The raising from a poor background, working as a trader or shepherd, and constant travels across the region also enabled him to understand the people who surrounded him. These experiences in life enabled him to gain courage and confidence of sharing his revelations with everyone. This converted many people to accept the Quran eventually.

Teachings and Unique qualities of Islam

Islam advocates general concepts as those of other preceding groups. This includes themes similar to other religious groups and stories from the Jewish and Christian scriptures. The Quran also builds on the teachings of oneness of God and humanity. However, Islam exhibits its unique qualities from the preceding books through its advocacy on its five pillars and factions.

Similar traits

• Monotheism
• Abraham as the common origin
• Existence of future life

Significant differences

• Islam accepts Jihad.
• Fundamentalism evident in Islamic.

Global Survival

• There should be an integrated advocacy for recognition of God for everyone.
• Religious groups to preach peace to everyone irrespective of religion.
• Common baselines are to be outlined for all religious groups to prevent Jihad.

Jew

A Jew refers to any member of the movement either by conversion or by birth, who believes in a common cultural heritage and religious beliefs whose origin is traced from the Jewish Kingdom.

Jewish identity. This can be traced from cultural, spiritual, and religious perspectives. Religiously, a Jew follows Judaism. Spiritually, a Jew lives by constant reference from their kingdom of life. Culturally, Jewish follows the Jewish practices and believes in the teachings of Judaism.

Branches

History and Judaism

History enables understanding of the origin of this religion, the rise of the divisions and predictions for the future of the Jewish theology and identity.

Events

• Population. The loss that occurred due to Holocaust lead reduction of the Jewish population in the West. This has affected the distribution of this religion to different parts of the world mostly the west.
• Politics. Influences economic and cultural differences. This affects the relation of the Jews to the rest of the world.
• Geography Diaspora. Immigration shapes the Jewish identity and theology as the religion is not seen as solely for the Israelites.
• Religion. Abolishment of the traditional Judaism and the consequent shift to modernity creates rift between the different Jewish groups. This leads to the inconsistent distribution on the religion to different parts of the world.

Introduction

Fenton and Moon argue that the Maori translation of the Waitangi Treaty by Anglican Missionary, Henry Williams is ambiguous and obscure. The translation was meant to deceive the Maori chiefs into signing the fake document by their colonials, the British Crown. The Maori who are the indigenous people of New Zealand thought that their colonialists are given them the independence to rule themselves and they saw a new birth for their nation.

After the signing of the treaty, there were doubts about the consequences that may come out of the treaty. The doubts led to the realization that there were some ambiguities in the Maori translation of the treaty. The Waitangi treaty disempowered the sovereignty of New Zealand and its citizens because the treaty continued to exert post-colonial effects long after independence. After more than one hundred years of post-colonial effects of the treaty, the Waitangi Tribunal was set up to readdress the past injustices resulting from the treaty and colonialism.

Main body

The main argument of Silverman is that the mistranslation of Christianity led to the mutual growth of religious beliefs. The element of various religions such as Christianity, traditional and other beliefs merge and grow together bringing a new form of religion. Thomas Mayhew translated the Christian teachings to suit the Wampanoags’ traditions and beliefs hoping to convert and purify them with time.

Due to the translation, the Wampanoags misunderstood Christianity and associated it with their traditional beliefs hence making them Christians in their own Indian way. Instead of covering to Christianity, the Wampanoags perceived that their traditions were consistent with the Christianity; hence, there was no need to convert. The Wampanoag Christianity was based on the Indian’s culture and traditions that drifted the Wampanoags from the Christian fundamental beliefs as taught by the missionaries. The lack of equivalent words in the translation of English words into Wampanoags’ language also contributed to their misunderstanding of Christianity.

Rafael’s main argument is that the Tagalogs contracted colonialism by the translation of their language and their conversion to Christianity. The Tagalog translations and conversions made them the subjects of the Spanish. The Spaniards utilized translations of the Tagalog language and conversion to Christianity in the establishment and development of their empire. The priests preached and subjected the Christians to the wishes and the interests of the Spanish because they justify the expansion of the Spanish empire.

Fenton and Moon argue that the Maori translation of the Waitangi treaty was very ambiguous. Henry Williams made deliberate mistranslations in order to deceive the Maori chiefs and the people of New Zealand into believing that the treaty was going to restore their independence from the colonial rule of the British Crown. Fen and Moon seem unfair and very biased in how they criticized the Anglican Missionary, Henry William.

They criticized Henry Williams that, “he had some previous experience in translation and was aware of the strategic goals of the colonization” (26). Fenton and Moon further depicted the interests of Henry William saying that “in order to secure Maori agreement, the wording he chose was obscure and ambiguous” (26). He was not the only one who had interests in New Zealand. The Maori chiefs are also to be blamed for their negligence and taking too long to realize that the treaty had some ambiguities.

Silverman argues that the mistranslation of Christianity by the missionaries led to the misinterpretation of Christianity by the Wampanoags. ”In partnership with their missionary, Thomas Mayhew Jr., they filtered Christian teachings through Wampanoag religious ideas and terminology—a process that one might call religious translation” (Silverman 3).

The religious translation was done on the assumption that the Wampanoag’s traditional beliefs were to be purified with time, but “it was, rather, an acknowledgment that Christian and native beliefs were analogous at several critical points” (Silverman 3). Thus, the Wampanoags did see the reason to convert since their traditional beliefs were analogous with the Christian values.

Similarly, the mistranslation of the Waitangi treaty by the missionary Henry William led to the signing of the false treaty by the Maori chiefs. According to Fenton and Moon, “although the treaty had seemingly brought together two distinct groups … the translation to a large extent has managed to destroy both and has become the cause of much confusion and bitterness” (25). In the article, Fenton and Moon are explaining “…why and how the translation came to disempower a free and sovereign nation” (26). Both problems were associated with Christianity and it involves mistranslation as a way to win people and colonize them. The citizens of New Zealand took a long time to resolve their case of the Waitangi treaty while the Wampanoags became confused and lost the real essence of Christianity.

Rafael argues that the Spanish spread their colonialism into Tagalogs by translating their language and converting them into Christianity. Rafael states that “…translation simulates conversion in the very process of subjecting or submitting oneself to external foreign systems in order to inoculate oneself against their possible threats” (227). He confirms that “for Spaniards, conversion and translation served the consolidation of the colonial power” (228). Hence, Tagalogs were colonized through the translation of their languages and conversion into Christianity.

Conclusion

This argument is similar to the Fenton and Moon mistranslation of the Waitangi treaty in that, both show ways in which the colonialists utilize in order to expand their colonies. They argue that “William was product of his time, his religion and the prevailing ideology … he firmly believed that Maori souls would be served under British rule and, just as he believed that Maori souls would be saved by faith in a Christian God” (41).

For William to serve and save the Maori, “he produced a translation that was successful in terms of getting the Maori chiefs to sign the document, but a true and faithful rendition of the English text was not” (26). Both show the indirect forms of colonization because, while the British Crown uses treaties to achieve their ends, the Spanish uses the translation of the languages and the conversion into Christianity to pursue their colonial interests.

Works Cited

Fenton, Sabine, & Moon, Paul. “The Translation of the Treaty of Waitangi: A Case of Disempowerment.” Translation and Power: New York: University of the Massachusetts Press, (2002): 25-43. Print.

Rafael, Vicente. “Selections from Contracting Colonialism: Translation and Christian Conversion in Tagalog Society under Early Spanish Rule.” London: Cornell University Press, 1988. 227-230.

Silverman, David. “Indians, Missionaries, and Religious Translation: Creating Wampanoag Christianity in Seventeenth-Century Martha’s Vineyard.” The William and Mary Quarterly 62.2 (2005): 1-23. Print.

Abstract

Nationalism refers to the sense of togetherness whereby certain people feel that they belong to a certain group. This sense of togetherness is usually developed over years, with the help of other factors. In Japan, nationalism has been developed for years to an extent that many Japanese feel that they belong to a similar group. They share a common culture that is based on the teachings of the Shinto religion¹. The Shinto rituals and beliefs are treated as Japanese symbols of unity since they unite them, even in overseas countries. It is not surprising to find various Shinto shrines in countries, such as the US, Australia, and even Canada. This article evaluates the role of the Shinto religion in developing Japanese nationalism. The article supports the statement that Japanese nationalism has developed over years with the help of religious teachings, which are based on the Shinto religion. Several individuals in Japan identify themselves with the Shinto religion, even though they belong to other religions, such as Christianity and Buddhism. This means that Shinto is no longer perceived as a modern religion, but instead, it is a traditional religion of Japan, which explains the culture of the Japanese.

The article gives a brief history of the Shinto religion in the introduction part whereby it is argued that kami is the traditional god according to the Shinto religion. Kami refers to various deities, which have continuously influenced the behavior of individuals at the state level. The Japanese leaders made Shinto a state religion after realizing that it could bring people together to realize their dreams. The emperor was made the kami meaning that he served as both the temporal and political leader. Under the literature review, the article revisits the works of various scholars who support the thesis that Shinto religion is closely related to Japanese nationalism. The articles offer critical information regarding the link between Japanese patriotism and the teachings of Shinto.

Shinto teaches that an individual should always aspire to be pure since it would bring greatness to the nation. The article gives feature data whereby the major characteristics of Shinto religion, which play a role in the development of nationalism, are analyzed. In this section, a few visual data showing various practices of the Shinto religion are given. In the analysis and synthesis section, the article reports that religious teachings have always influenced the behavior of people in the country, which leads to the development of nationalism. The article gives four major ways in which nationalism is always related to religion. Some scholars believe that nationalism is analogous to religion while others are of the view that the two are intertwined. Some believe that religious nationalism is a special type of nationalism. Historians believe that religion explains the growth and development of nationalism in any society.

Finally, the article discusses the role of religion as far as nationalism is concerned under the discussion section. The development of nationalism is traced from the time Shinto was established to the time it was made the state religion. In modern society, the article in this section notes that nationalism cannot be separated from Shinto practices. The article offers a strong conclusion whereby it is confirmed that nationalism and religion are two intricate concepts that cannot be separated.

Thesis Statement

This article utilizes several sources to support the thesis that Japanese nationalism has risen over the years due to the influence of the Shinto religion. The cultural beliefs of Shinto play a critical role in determining the behavior of the Japanese since it teaches people to behave in a certain way. Shinto is a term that was first used to refer to the way of Gods implying that people were expected to behave in a certain way if they were to please the gods. In some instances, nationalism in Japan is treated in the same way as Shinto. Some scholars observe that nationalism has replaced the Shinto religion in Japan.

Introduction

The existing body of knowledge proves that the Shinto faith changed the culture of the Japanese from a farming society that relied on farming to the landed gentry. It offered a spiritual nationalism and ethnocentricity to the people of Japan meaning that it confirmed the divine ancestry of the emperor. The state was perceived as the home of the kami (divinity) whereby every person was supposed to adore the sun-goddess. This means that the kind of spiritual occupancy practiced at the time would only be realized through stringently following the traditions of the kami to pacify the gods. This would bring about peace and would further guarantee a productive relationship between the people and the god². Japanese society maintained a close relationship with the kami until the early period of Kamakura when Buddhism was undergoing some changes. At the time, the nation faced several problems, including wars, famine, and other catastrophes. Apart from natural disasters, the country suffered from institutional corruption whereby public officials would divert national resources to their projects. This was against the teachings of the Shinto religion, which taught its members to be people of high integrity.

The behavior of leaders was blamed for the many problems that faced society since such leaders were against the fundamental teachings of culture, which Japanese people were identified worldwide. In this regard, the society could not achieve its prime objective that was related to stability and security. Other religions, such as Buddhism never minded addressing issues that touched on nationalism since they were of secondary importance. For some leaders, who followed the Shinto culture such as Nichiren, nationalism was a very strong concept that had to be obeyed in case the county was to regain its lost glory. Literature review on the relationship between religion and nationalism shows that the two are closely related in four major ways³. How the two are related would be discussed in detail in this article to confirm the statement that Shinto religion is closely related to Japanese nationalism. Religion and nationalism have always enjoyed a close relationship since time immemorial. Even though the treaty of Westphalia separated the functions of the church and those of the state, the two have never been separated in practice. This shows that religion is an ever-present element in the country’s political leadership.

Literature Review

Definition of Terms

Nationalism

Nationalism refers to a set of beliefs, doctrine, or political ideas, which entails a well-built identification of a group or individuals with a state. Historians categorize nationalism into two major perspectives, one of them being a primordial viewpoint while the other is a modern perspective. Primordial perspective perceives nationalism as a manifestation of the antique and superficial evolutionary propensity of human beings to organize themselves into a distinctive group that would be based on kinship. On the other hand, the modernist approach perceives nationalism as a topical observable fact that calls for structural conditions of contemporary society for it to exist.

A nation is defined variously, which results in several descriptions of the word nationalism. Some scholars suggest that nationalism signifies a condition in which citizens of a particular nation should stick to a single ethnic group, cultural belief, religious affiliation, and identity. Others are of the view that even minorities should be allowed to exercise their rights and freedoms as citizens of the country. Japanese nationalism can be interpreted as perceived from both a primordial and a modernist approach. Traditionally, only those who subscribed to the Shinto set of beliefs were considered nationalists. However, things are different in modern society since even minorities are considered nationalists, provided they exercise Shinto practices.

Shinto Myth-The Kojiki Story

Shinto religion has two primary sources, one of them being Kojiki. Kojiki is perceived as part of Japanese nationalism since it explains the origin of Japanese culture. Kojiki suggests that the Japanese culture was created from foam. It further defines infinite gods and goddesses. The narrative moves from being a myth to a historical legend. It entails a chronology of the imperial line meaning that it defines the processes that Japanese nationalism went through.

Review of Conceptual Literature

Littleton observed that Buddhism and Shinto religions had coexisted for several years, yet Shinto was treated as a cultural practice. Kami is still respected as the Japanese most important god. The historian traced the origin of Shinto whereby he first noted that it is the way of the Gods⁴. Some of the events and festivals in the Japanese culture are worshiped within Buddhism, yet they are the elements of Shinto culture. He also concurred with the fact that Shinto practices gained momentum during the Meiji Restoration. Through the works of this scholar, the rituals and festivals of the Shinto religion are brought out, which proves that Shinto is closely related to nationalism in Japan. In his third chapter, Nelson underscored the fact that the people of Japan value kami so much since she contributed to the making of the nation⁵. Many people are of the view that Japan could not be in existence without the kami. Therefore, kami, a traditional Shinot god, is the national unifying factor.

Even non-Shinto believers conduct the Shinto rituals and practices as a sign of patriotism meaning that people respect the culture of Japan. In the third chapter, the author observes that many visitors are comfortable following the Shinto culture because it is not regarded as a religion, but instead it shows patriotism. In his 2011 version, Littleton was of the view that an individual cannot understand the socio-political and economic aspects of Japan without conceptualizing the cultural practices of Shinto. In this regard, it is evident that a strong relationship between Shinto practices and Japanese patriotism exists. In the view of the author, understanding Shinto culture entails the study of rituals, ceremonies, and sacred architecture⁶. Once an individual comprehends the Shinto culture, he or she is in a position to determine its effects on the life of the ordinary Japanese. The author explains the interconnectedness of the Shinto religion with Japanese nationalism. This would further confirm that Shinto affects the country’s nationalistic ideals.

Averbuch suggested in his study that Shinto culture has retained its rituals over several years to an extent of making these rituals national symbols. Kagura is one of the oldest rituals, which is related to dance. It has been retained for years in Japan⁷. The above scholar talks about Izumo kagura, which is undeniably the most accepted kind of conventional Japanese ballet. In many public functions, the dance is usually played as one of the ways of showing patriotism to the ideals of the country. This also confirms that Shinto is closely related to the country’s nationalism.

Inoue concluded in his study that Shinto is no longer viewed as a modern religion, but instead a traditional religion of Japan, which is related to nationalistic ideals. This means that people worship other forms of religion as their second option, but the first option is always Shinto. Moreover, the author is of the view that modern scholars relate Shinto religion to kami meaning a traditional god⁸. Since it is treated as a traditional religion, it influences the behavior of many Japanese, which confirms the notion that it shapes nationalist ideals. Sugimoto introduces several cultural practices of Japan, which prove that the Shinto is inseparable from the country’s patriotism.

Through analysis, the author observed that a number of these cultural practices, which are valued as national ideals even in modern Japan, have their roots in the Shinto religion. This implies that Shinto is no longer a normal religious belief that an individual may choose to neglect. In particular, the author discussed the issue of impurity whereby Shinto religion teaches that certain types of deeds generate ritual impurity, which demands personal cleansing for an individual to have peace of mind. The erroneous behaviors are referred to as kegare whereas purity is termed as kiyome⁹. The author was of the view that a normal schedule in an individual’s life is referred to ask while a season full of festivities is referred to as hare, meaning good. Many Japanese worldwide celebrate whenever they feel that they have achieved their objectives. They celebrate by following strictly the teachings of Shinto meaning that cultural practices in the country rely on the Shinto teachings.

Pilgrim and Ellwood were of the view that since the time of Nara and Heian, scholars have been employing an expanded set of beliefs through verbal communication and tradition¹⁰. They note that the style of dressing and the performance of rituals show that the Shinto religion contributed a lot to the development of Japanese culture.

Bowker supported the ideas of Pilgrim and Ellwood by observing that religion contributes enormously to the development of any culture in the world¹¹. In Japan, the development of culture is attributed to Shinto. Yamakage was of the view that Shinto religion forms the backbone of the Japanese culture meaning that it influences the life of each ¹². Without Shinto culture, the author observes that there would be no religion in Japan. In his 1998 works, Averbuch supported the previous works of other scholars by observing that some aspects of culture, such as dance, play a role in extending the influence of any culture¹³. In Japan, kagura dance has contributed a lot in developing and maintaining Japanese culture, which is directly related to the Shinto religion. Shimazono and Murphy in their article “State Shinto in the Lives of the People: The Establishment of Emperor Worship, Modern Nationalism, and Shrine Shinto in Late Meiji,” talked about the Japanese society after the abolishment of Shinto as a state religion.

The authors discussed how Shinto managed to penetrate society to an extent that it was considered a national ritual. In particular, the authors focused on the period ranging from 1890 to 1910 whereby the emperor was the most powerful figure in the country due to her position as a religious leader¹⁴. The source reviewed three major features including the ritual system, educational structure, and the training system for the priests. These features of the Shinto religion contributed enormously to the development of Japanese nationalism. Susumu went ahead to argue that many people in Japan have reservations towards Shinto as a religion. The author is of the view that people are comfortable associating themselves with Shinto as a cultural belief, but not as a religious meaning it plays a critical role in determining the country’s nationalism¹⁵. The western values affected the views of many Japanese regarding Shinto, but many individuals are unwilling to abandon it since it is part of their culture.

Fukase-Indergaard and Indergaard in their article “Religious Nationalism and the Making of the Modern Japanese State Religious Nationalism and the Making of the Modern Japanese State,” talked about the role that religion played in developing the Japanese nationalistic ideals. In the source, the authors observe that the Japanese were determined to strengthen their culture through the implementation of Shinto rituals and practices. Some scholars had earlier advised that western societies achieved their objectives mainly because of the strong religious ideals. State Shinto was instituted as one way of ensuring compliance from the locals. The author concludes by noting that, even though Shinto was aimed at realizing modernity in Japan, its path was different from that of the west¹⁶.

In Japan, the state was never separated from religion since political leaders doubled up as religious leaders. In this regard, the country was able to achieve nationalistic objectives, as opposed to several countries in Europe and the United States. Suga discussed extensively the idea relating to Shinto shrines. These shrines (kaigai jinji) are believed to be the national heritage of Japan since they are not only present in the country, but also in other countries with Japanese emigrants. Before Japan was defeated in the Second World War, many individuals believed that the Japanese race was the most powerful in the world. The places of pilgrimage were erected in some countries to illustrate the existence of Japanese¹⁷. This meant that the Shinto shrines were symbols of national unity. Suga revisited the previous works, which stated that an individual might not differentiate between Buddhist believers and Shinto believers because they tend to have a similar set of beliefs. The article claims that Buddhism originated from Shinto, with the belief of the kami implying that Japanese culture borrows heavily from Shinto religion.

Presentation of Feature Data

As already mentioned in the previous sections, Shinto is a Japanese religion that was founded by kami, which beliefs in sacred beings. Kami can be interpreted in several ways implying that it has various features. Before delving into the features of kami, several types would be given. One of the kami is the august kami, which is known to motivate people with feelings of holiness appreciation, trepidation. According to one of the Edo theology scholars, who lived between 1600 and 1868, the kami has an exceptionally excellent virtue. In this regard, everyone facing it should be full of high regard and respect. Another type of kami is incomprehensible kami, which is never understood by human beings.

This is based on the logic that human beings have insufficient power of thinking, which can never be contrasted with that of the kami. Emerging kami suggests that it exists through unification with other forms of materials. This suggests that the kami could be perceived to be polytheistic. Some of the kami have names, such as Futsunushi-no kami, which refers to the sword while Haraedo-no-kami refers to purification. Ukano-mitama-no-kami is another form of kami referring to grains. The Shinto religion does not have an absolute god, who has powers over other gods. Amaterasu Omikami is usually considered holy because it was the first god to be worshiped under the Shinto religion, but it is never considered a sacred god. Studies show that kami prove their holiness through material medium since it is only through this that people would feel their sense and believe in them¹⁸.

When compared to human beings, the kami is superior meaning that it can never compete with human beings. Moreover, there will never be a discontinuity between kami and human beings since they share a very strong relationship. This means that human beings will always feel the superiority of kami in their lives. In modern Japanese society, kami is believed to be a type of an ancestor or champion. Therefore, every person is expected to believe in its teachings and try as much as possible to do as it teaches. Based on this, many heroes in Japan, who are considered real patriots due to their contributions, are usually named as kami after their death. For instance, Sugawara Michizane was named the Tenjin sama, meaning the kami of study.

The scholar was anointed as a kami because of his enormous contributions in the field of education. Before Shinto, was declared state religion, only the kami were considered holy, but things changed when political leaders demanded attention from the religious leaders. With time, human ancestors were named kami meaning that they were regarded as gods. Human heroes were treated in the same way as worship heroes. Once an individual dies, he or she would become kami, but only if he contributed positively to the lives of the locals. A very close relationship between the Shinto religion and nationalism existed since heroes were treated as gods once they died while serving their country. A hero would be respected in the same way as god meaning that the teachings of Shinto affected the position of an individual in society.

One of the major features of Shinto is that it embraced nature meaning that is aimed at conserving the environment. Kami teaches that all nature, both in heaven and earth, should always be respected¹⁹. Due to this, the environment should always be preserved and any attempt to destroy it should be condemned. Its teachings are not based on the ideas of the founder hence it is considered the Japanese culture. It has continuously affected the normal life of people in Japan since it warns the populace against the destruction of the environment²⁰.

Environmentalists quote the famous teachings of Shinto to encourage people to preserve the atmosphere while at the same time warning those whose aim is to destroy nature for their interests, such as acquisition of building materials²¹. It does not bar people from worshiping other religions, but they have to obey the teachings of Shinto as their culture. Unlike other forms of religion, Shinto does not have various sectarian groups meaning that it only has a single set of laws. In other societies, people are reluctant to support a particular religion, particularly if does not support their values. Such societies would only believe in the teachings of the local religion, but Shinto is different since it accommodates the views of other people, even if they do not belong to the culture. This means that the Shinto religion supports the values of Japan, which state that cultural diversity should always be given priority.

As early stated in the literature review, many groups of people are always willing to visit Japan since they are convinced that their culture would be respected. A society that tends to view other people’s culture with contempt is usually unhealthy in terms of social cohesion. The believers of Shinto are always of the view that it is better to understand the teachings of other cultures since they contribute to the growth and development of the local culture. For instance, people familiarize themselves with the dynamic of modern society through learning from parents, teachers, and peers. This makes them complete since each level of study provides them with an opportunity to explore something new. In the same way, learning from a different culture would be productive to the local culture since an individual would be equipped with various coping skills. Cultural diversity, which is supported by the Shinto religion, promotes positive nationalism in the sense that people all over the world come to appreciate the culture of Japan. As early stated all Japanese visit the Shinto shrines as an appreciation of and respect to the kami. Surprisingly, such individuals do not encounter any contradictions with their religions meaning that Shinto is more of a culture, a form of nationalism, as opposed to modern religion.

Shinto religion teaches that there cannot be an original sin or karma, even though some of the events that make an individual unhappy, such as diseases and natural disasters are considered a sin. Unfortunately, these natural disasters were never regarded as the causes of sin since sin was caused by an external factor. Since sins are caused by external factors, which are beyond human control, they could perhaps be purified at the Shinto shrines based on the rituals referred to as oharai. A popular saying was developed, which stated that people should always blame the sin, but not the people who caused it.

The history of the Shinto religion shows that one of the male kami sinned, but he made himself pure by visiting the shrine. Izanagi was one of the male kami who had lost his wife. After realizing that he had missed her so much, he decided to visit the world of the dead, which made her impure. He had a good understanding that this was a sin. Therefore, he proceeded to purify himself using water, which would revitalize him. Even the gods realized that he had followed the teachings of Shinto. In this regard, three major Shinto deities were reinvented, including Amaterasu-Omikami, which was a sun kami, Tsukuyomino, the moon kami, and the susano-no-mikoto. This blessing confirmed that cleansing is the only source of energy and production. Purification brings about peace to the nation, but not specifically to an individual. Even in modern Japan, purification is always insisted because it brings joy to the whole nation, but not just an individual²². This explains why Shinto is more of a national belief than a religious belief.

One more feature regarding the Shinto religion is that it is a way of life, which means that life is changing from a linear model to a cyclical model. Shinto opposes the western scientific view that life progresses in a straight line. The scientific view is that life is always centered on the human race. Based on this, destruction of the environment is taking place at a rate that few people anticipated. One day, the world would be without a single tree, which would be very difficult for human beings to survive. Therefore, the Shinto religion supports all efforts meant for conserving the environment in Japan. For the Japanese nation to survive for years, it must conserve the environment because life without a clean environment in the 21^st century would be hectic. Currently, Japan is just similar to other nations following the linear mode of production, but Shinto culture is opposed to this mode. The nation is better preserved through employing a cyclical mode, according to the teachings of Shinto. Traditionally, the Japanese believed that life was cyclical since there were nights, days, seasons, life, and deaths²³. All these followed a cycle meaning that it would be possible to predict the way of life.

Based on the Shinto religion, at least four qualities would be emulated. One of them is that the pace of modern life is too intense meaning that people should resort to the traditional ways of doing things, particularly in terms of resource utilization. Real patriotism would be demonstrated by following the tenets of the Shinto religion in Japan. One of the scholars by the name of Ortega commented that when a civilization turns out to be too nonessential and perplexed, then an individual ought to resort to prehistoric simplicity to restart a new life. Therefore, it is always sensible to reconsider the teachings of Shinto to realize societal dreams. One other feature of the Shinto faith is that it implants the spirit of agreement to individuals.

The seventeen article constitution, which was written during the leadership of the Shinto religion by the prince of Shotoku, suggested that harmony is one of the values that must always be respected in the Japanese society²⁴. The religion teaches that the unknown should always be treated as an enemy since its main aim would be to destroy the fundamentals of society. The Shinto religion discourages people to be competitive, but instead, it encourages individuals to join hands in accomplishing major tasks facing them in society. Whenever an individual interacts with others in society, he or she is encouraged to ask him or herself a question whether survival would be possible without other people. Because no individual can exist without the other in modern society, people should always cooperate and keep off from unnecessary competition.

Analysis and Synthesis of Data: Relationship between Religion and Nationalism

Religion and Nationalism as Analogous

In this section, how religion is related to nationalism would be discussed. In the first case, religion and nationalism would be perceived as equivalent observable facts implying that they cannot be broken up from each other. In this regard, nationalism would be treated in the same way as ethnicity and race²⁵. A different way to examine the correlation between the two would be to identify some of the ways through which religion helps in outlining nationalism. This refers to stating the history, the influence, and the distinctive nature of nationalism. The third aspect entails treating religion as part of nationalism. In this case, it would be prudent for the researcher to specify some of the modes through which the two would be interpreted²⁶.

In the fourth case, faith would be interpreted in terms of patriotism. This categorization is critical as far as the understanding of the relationship between religion and nationalism is concerned. This part of the literature review would shed more light on the thesis statement that Shinto religion is closely related to Japanese nationalism. It is important to revisit the literature showing that religion, in general, is closely related to nationalism, irrespective of the nation, or the race. In this case, the Japanese case is not exceptional since other religions, such as Islam, have contributed to the development of nationalism. While Islam forces its members to adhere to its rules by imposing strict Jihadist regulations, Shinto encourages its members to observe cultural beliefs without the use of force.

Nationalism and religion are two different concepts that their relationship has always been contested. An individual encounters antithetical assertions whenever he or she tries to relate the two concepts. Some would be reluctant to believe that nationalism and religion would be related since the former is intrinsically secular while the latter is religious. Some studies suggest that nationalism is a result of religious decline whereby it could have emerged due to intensive religious feelings. To this extent, the assertion that nationalism emerged in Japan due to Shinto’s decline is true since people opted to embrace its tenets as part of their culture due to the influence of other religions such as Buddhism and Confucianism.

This article is not interested in establishing what could be the relationship between the two, but instead, it is concerned more with how the relationship resulted in what is being experienced today in Japan since Shinto practices are valued so much. As stated previously, religious conviction and jingoism could be viewed as equivalent phenomena principally because of their characteristics. Some analysts characterize nationalism as part of the religion because it shares some features with religious teachings. Scholars employing this perspective suggest that nationalism activates deep persuasive emotions, which are religious. In reality, this is the nature of religion, including Shinto since it entails belief in some external power, feelings of fear, and worship.

For the case of Shinto religion, it entails habitual traditions that are mostly based on the national colors. Just like religion, nationalism has its gods, such as the benefactor or optimization of the fatherland, tentative divinity, or myths, which explains the eternal past. Other features of nationalism, which are closely related to those of religion include the belief in the eternal future of the country, the idea of deliverance and immortality, the principle of sanctified scripture, the slap-up meal, fasts, pageants, pilgrims, holy days, and extreme sacrifice. However, some differences between the two exist. While religion, such as Shinto, exists to unite the population, patriotism re-enshrines the previous ethnic mission of the selected people, with its clannish egotism and vainglory²⁷. Different studies suggest that nationalism is a new religion of the people meaning that nationalism, just like religion, serves the major purpose of bringing people together and motivating them.

In this regard, nationalism is a religion in two ways, one of them being in a substantive sense whereby it brings about salvation and another being functional since it instills the system of beliefs and practices that describes the culture of people. In this case, it differentiates between the sacred and the profane since it brings together its believers into a single community. Consequently, validity in patriotism is the correspondent of sanctity, jingoistic champions, and civic masterminds. Individuals with the above qualities are always willing to die for their nations. They are compared to prophets who are also willing to die for the faith that they believe in. Once a prophet dies, it is believed that he or she would join other prophets in heaven. His or her place in heaven is special as compared to that of other believers. For patriotic heroes, their place is special since they are always remembered after a specified period. Conversely, religion and nationalism could be viewed as similar concepts by considering the two as social institutions and modes of recognition. In this case, they are ways through which an individual would identify him or herself with a certain group, which portrays equivalence and diversity²⁸.

Religion as an Explanation of Nationalism

To understand the relationship between religion and nationalism, they would better be viewed in terms of cause and effect meaning that religion or religious practices lead to the development of nationalism. Based on this, the researcher aspires to focus on one of the aspects of nationalism, such as genesis, expressive power, content, and form. The main feature of religion, including religious ideas, organization, traditions, and proceedings, would be understood to offer a proper explanation. Several studies focus on how religious traditions have shaped certain types of nationalistic ideas. In this regard, Puritanism or Protestantism has affected the growth of English nationalism in several ways²⁹.

German nationalism on the other hand is attributed to pietism. In Poland, nationalism is attributed to Catholicism while Balkan nationalism is attributed to orthodoxy as a traditional religion in the Balkan region. In Japan, nationalism is often attributed to the Shinto religion whereby many people perceive this religion as a traditional Japanese religion that teaches the fundamental rules. Sinhalese nationalism is closely related to Buddhism while Israeli nationalism has close links with the Hebraic religion. Studies suggest that religious images, narratives, and secret messages were simply transposed into the political spheres of several nations, which were later used to create the first renowned pro-independence claims.

It is factual that various forms of religious teachings, such as Shinto teachings, contributed to the development of nationalism mainly through political commandeering and religious codes. In Japan, the Shinto religion contributed to the development of nationalism in three major ways, one of them being instituting new modes of imagining and creating socio-political relationships. Moreover, the Shinto religion played a major role in promoting literacy and standardization of lingua franca languages. In other words, it brought together disintegrated forms of religion, which was a major characteristic of Japanese society before the advent of Shinto. Finally, the Shinto religion bridged the gap between the polity and culture by bringing the two into a tighter position. By establishing the new ways of envisioning and classifying the spiritual community, the Shinto religion presented an innovative model for political development. In other words, it was very easy for the leadership of the country to bring people together since they would simply invoke religious teachings³⁰. Through promoting literacy and promoting the regularity of local languages, Shinto religion instituted the culture of nationhood, which was made possible through regularized language.

Religion as Intertwined with Nationalism

The third way of understanding the relationship between religion and nationalism is by viewing the two as entwined meaning that one cannot be understood without the other. In many parts of the world, the boundaries are usually drawn based on religious and national lines. In this regard, the nation is defined in terms of members who belong to a certain religion. Apart from Japanese nationalism, other nationalities sharing the same feature include the Jewish nation and the Sigh nation. Some scholars are of the view that religion is not the variable that is always considered when drawing boundaries. To such scholars, religion supplies specific mythologies, images, and codes, which are critical to the discursive or iconic illustration of the nation. Based on this, individuals are not necessarily concerned with understanding where they belong, but instead, they would wish to understand who they are. People view themselves as being very different from others hence they wish to know what is makes them different from the rest of the races. Through religion, they realize that they have varying narration, disposition, identity, duty, and fortune. For religion to be viewed as entwined with nationalism, spiritual intonation of nationalist discourse would be explored³¹.

Nationalist discourse entails not only discussions focussing on the creation of nationalistic movements but also other specific types of nationalist politics. This would entail public and private discussions that focus on certain nations or states. Since time immemorial, religious codes and images have been found to influence people’s ways of thinking and the types of discussions in public places. In Japan, this is not exceptional since people talk about the origin of the nation while basing their arguments on the kami, which is a Shinto traditional god. Based on this, the Japanese view their country as one that has god’s blessings given the fact that the Japanese race is the descendant of gods. Since the state is righteous, it has the responsibility of making sure that it saves human life internationally.

The role of Japanese leaders is to act as examples of new leadership, characterized by patience, humility, tact, and hard work. These values have made Japan one of the greatest countries in the world in terms of economic development. Some scholars have gone a notch higher to talk about the spiritual variations of nationalist discourse, as well as the contrary phenomena, which are related to the national or nationalist variety of spiritual. This suggests that such scholars focus their studies on the nationalization of religion, particularly in its organizational and sensible context. This confirms that various religions, including Shinto, have gone through several changes due to their interactions with nationalism and the state. In Japan, Shinto was made the state religion for several years. Several changes were introduced to Shinto meaning that religion and nationalism are closely related whereby one can easily affect the other³².

Religious Nationalism as Distinctive Type of Nationalism

Viewing religious nationalism as a separate type of nationalism would also beneficial when trying to understand the relationship between religion, such as Shinto, and nationalism. This would as well be critical as far as confirming the thesis statement that Shinto religion is closely related to Japanese nationalism. Even though it is true, that religion and the nation have a symbiotic relationship, the content of these claims would be revisited in this section. The major claim in this section is that a certain type of religious nationalism exists, which plays a critical role in shaping the culture of certain people. Scholars holding this view define nationalism in statist terms meaning that there is no difference between nationalism and statehood³³.

In this regard, nationalism is just part of the state values, which are found in the constitution. Each citizen is expected to respect the constitution by following the rules and regulations. In Japan, each individual was expected to play his or her duty, which was obeying the teachings of the Shinto religion, especially when Shinto was the state religion. Based on this, patriotism is comprehended as a form, which has its substance. It is considered a form because it encourages an individual to become a member of the state, the inhabitant of the territory, and the supporter of a certain culture. Unfortunately, it does not state how an individual would become a member of a certain culture or be an inhabitant of a certain territory. This means that it does not talk much about the content of the state-centered shared subject³⁴.

Since nationalism does not provide how an individual would become a member of the state or an inhabitant of territory, religion serves this fundamental role since it sets the standards that each person must fulfill or attain before being declared a member. Religion has the capability of specifying some of the ways through which an individual becomes a member of the state, territory, or even culture mainly because it offers the forms of power and imaginations of an ordering authority. In his view, religion has the ability to regulate human life meaning that it is a totalizing order. Shinto is one of the most powerful types of religion, with an ability to influence human life, unlike Christianity, which is considered a stateless faith³⁵. Through religious nationalism, an individual would become a member of the state, territory, and culture. However, some factors are considered, including the gender of the individual, the family, and sexuality. This form of nationalism protects the family since the family is the primary socializing agent concerned with reproduction and behavior development. It guards the family against harmful economic and cultural forces, which are known to weaken its authority as far as socialization is concerned.

Discussion

Nationalism in Japan is attributed to the Shinto religion mainly because of the relationship that the two concepts have enjoyed over time. At one point in history, Shinto was made a state religion whereby the emperor served as both the political and religious leader. During the development of the nationalistic ideals, leaders ensured that foreign cultures are eliminated while only retaining the teachings of the Shinto religion since it has always been considered the local religion. In the 18^th century, Motoori Norinaga came up with a campaign that would later restore Shinto as the dominant religion in the country³⁶. The leader based his research on some of the enlightening Shinto texts, which advised people to believe in the sun goddess. This gave the Japanese leader more power when Shinto was made state religion since she claimed to have originated from the Amaterasu, which was a family that invented Shinto. Based on this reality, the decision of the emperor was not to be questioned since she was sacred. The political leaders went ahead to encourage the populace to adopt Shinto teachings since they would achieve greatness for the nation.

In the education system, students were requested to observe the Shinto rituals since it would prove that they were loyal to the state. Moreover, the government distributed imperial images, which served as the symbols of national unity in the country. When the war broke out in the 20^th century, many Japanese were willing to die for their country since they were convinced that they belonged to the superior race, as Shinto suggested³⁷. During the Second Sino-Japanese war, hakko ichiu became an important Shinto philosophy, which was depended upon by the militants. The philosophy noted that the emperor was the center of the phenomenal world meaning that he or she was charged with the responsibility of shedding light on the Japanese ideas³⁸. At this time, the interests of the individual were never valued since collectivism was highly encouraged. National mythologies, histories, and doctrines motivated the Japanese to embrace the spirit of togetherness.

Towards the end of the 17^th century, Shinto took over the affairs of the government, which resulted in the Meiji Restoration. Consequently, Shinto was made a state religion in 1868. The first leader of Japan, Amaterasu, who was also a staunch supporter of the Shinto religion, was promoted to be one of the gods. Shinto religion taught that the Japanese leader was not only a political leader, but also a religious leader. In other words, the country’s leader was made a high priest. The emperor would therefore rule not only Japan but other parts of the world as well. Since the Japanese were related to god, they had a moral responsibility of ensuring that they offer their skills to other people. Since the emperor was associated with the god, her position changed in society meaning that he was also a religious leader.

Some analysts observe that the Japanese emperor was the powerful figure in the land to an extent that he would not respect the law. In the 20^th century, the emperor had inadequate powers mainly because she was both a temporal and a political leader. No one would question her leadership given the fact that she would release the military at will. Article 28 of the Meiji constitution allowed people to worship a god of their choice, but the emperor made it illegal for an individual to believe in any other faith, apart from Shinto. Every aspect of life, including political, social, and economic, centered on the Shinto religion. In the education sector, Shinto religion was made a national core subject, both in primary and higher education. It is factual to conclude that the Shinto religion controlled the lives of many in Japan until 1946, just after the Second World War³⁹.

Shinto religion has always influenced the lives of the Japanese since time immemorial. It has continuously provided divine ethno-spiritual nationalism for the Japanese since its early leaders found it. One of the historians by the name Philippi Donald noted that the history of any country entails anxiety, incongruity, and difficulties, which is still a reality to many countries, including Japan. The scholar is of the view that changes brought about by modernity do not affect the historical events of a country. Several nations have witnessed revolutions, but their early conceptions, feelings, and viewpoints have been maintained since they are considered the nation’s most important values in history. Japan is not exceptional since it has maintained its early attitudes, concepts, beliefs through Shinto religion⁴⁰. These beliefs have constantly affected the behavior of Japanese even those living in other countries⁴¹.

Each Japanese national would wish to identify him or herself with the cultural teachings of the Shinto religion. This explains why Shinto shrines are available even in other countries where Japanese are available. This article establishes the relationship between the Shinto religion and Japanese nationalism. It is observed that the Shinto religion affects the socio-cultural and political life of many Japanese even in modern society. At one time, it was made a state religion meaning that it could not be separated from Japan and the Japanese.

Conclusion

From the literature review and analysis of feature data, nationalism in Japan is indeed attributed to the Shinto religion. The two are closely related in several ways, as could be seen in the synthesis section. Some scholars are of the view that religion is inseparable from nationalism because nationalism is indeed its product. Scholars holding this view suggest that nationalism is a result of weakening religion, as is the case with Japan whereby nationalism is slowly replacing Shinto. Many people in Japan identify themselves with Shinto rituals, yet they belong to other religions.

Shinto is treated as a cultural belief, meaning that many people are comfortable identifying themselves with it. At one time, Shinto became a state religion implying that it could not be separated from the people of Japan. It was considered the way of life, as kami suggests. The emperor was viewed as both a temporal and political leader. This strengthened the spirit of nationalism since the emperor was more of a unifying factor. Soldiers would fight confidently on the battlefields knowing that the emperor was the center of the phenomenal world. Literature proves that Japanese all over the world believe in shrines to an extent of constructing them in foreign countries. They find it difficult to operate without their culture in overseas countries since Shinto shrines are the symbol of their nation.

Bibliography

Averbuch, Irit. “Shamanic Dance in Japan: The Choreography of Possession in Kagura Performance.” Asian Folklore Studies 57.2 (1998), 293–329.

Averbuch, Irit. The Gods Come Dancing A Study of the Japanese Ritual Dance of Yamabushi Kagura, Ithaca: Cornell University, 1995.

Bowker, John. The Cambridge Illustrated History of Religions. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002.

Inoue, Nobutaka, Shinto, a Short History. Washington: University of Washington Press, 2003.

Littleton, Scott. Understanding Shinto: Origins, Beliefs, Practices, Festivals, Spirits, and Sacred Places. London: Watkins Pub, 2011.

Littleton, Scott. Shinto: Origins, Rituals, Festivals, Spirits, Sacred Places. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.

Nelson, John. A Year in the Life of a Shinto Shrine. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1996.

Pilgrim, Richard, and Ellwood, Robert. Japanese Religion. New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1985.

Shimazono, Susumu, and Murphy, Reagan. “State Shinto in the Lives of the People: The Establishment of Emperor Worship, Modern Nationalism, and Shrine Shinto in Late Meiji.” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 36.1 (2009), 93-124.

Suga, Kōji. “A Concept of “Overseas Shinto Shrines”: A Pantheistic Attempt by Ogasawara Shōzō and Its Limitations.”Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 37.1 (2010), 47-74.

Sugimoto, Yoshio. An Introduction to Japanese Society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.

Susumu, Shimazono. “State Shinto and the Religious Structure of Modern Japan.” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 73.4 (2005), 1077-1098.

Yamakage, Motohisa. The Essence of Shinto, Japan’s Spiritual Heart. New York: Kodansha International, 2007.

Fukase-Indergaard, Fumiko, and Indergaard, Michael. “Religious Nationalism and the Making of the Modern Japanese State Religious Nationalism and the Making of the Modern Japanese State.” Theory and Society, 37.4, (2008), 343-374.

Footnotes

1. Motohisa Yamakage, The Essence of Shinto, Japan’s Spiritual Heart (New York: Kodansha International, 2007), 10.
2. john Nelson, A Year in the Life of a Shinto Shrine (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1996), 110.
3. Shimazono Susumu, “State Shinto and the Religious Structure of Modern Japan,” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 73.4 (2005), 1077.
4. Scott Littleton, Shinto: Origins, Rituals, Festivals, Spirits, Sacred Places (Oxford, NY: Oxford University Press, 2002) 65.
5. John Nelson, A Year in the Life of a Shinto Shrine (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1996), 115.
6. Scott Littleton, Understanding Shinto: Origins, Beliefs, Practices, Festivals, Spirits, and Sacred Places (London: Watkins Publishers, 2011), 112.
7. Irit Averbuch, The Gods Come Dancing A Study of the Japanese Ritual Dance of Yamabushi Kagura, (Ithaca: East Asia Program, Cornell University, 1995), 18.
8. Nobutaka Inoue, Shinto, a Short History (Washington: University of Washington Press 2003), 118.
9. Yoshio Sugimoto, An Introduction to Japanese Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 37.
10. Richard Pilgrim and Robert Ellwood, Japanese Religion (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1985), 94.
11. John Bowker, The Cambridge Illustrated History of Religions (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 59.
12. Motohisa Yamakage, The Essence of Shinto, Japan’s Spiritual Heart (New York: Kodansha International, 2007), 75.
13. Irit Averbuch, “Shamanic Dance in Japan: The Choreography of Possession in Kagura Performance,” Asian Folklore Studies 57.2 (1998), 325.
14. Susumu Shimazono and Reagan Murphy, “State Shinto in the Lives of the People: The Establishment of Emperor Worship, Modern Nationalism, and Shrine Shinto in Late Meiji,” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 36.1 (2009), 114.
15. Shimazono, Susumu, “State Shinto and the Religious Structure of Modern Japan,” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 73.4 (2005), 1087.
16. Shimazono Susumu, “State Shinto and the Religious Structure of Modern Japan,” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 73.4 (2005), 1077-1098.
17. Kōji Suga, “A Concept of “Overseas Shinto Shrines: A Pantheistic Attempt by Ogasawara Shōzō and Its Limitations,” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 37.1 (2010), 70.
18. Nobutaka Inoue, Shinto, a Short History (Washington: University of Washington Press, 2003), 114.
19. Kōji Suga, “A Concept of “Overseas Shinto Shrines”: A Pantheistic Attempt by Ogasawara Shōzō and Its Limitations, “Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 37.1 (2010), 54.
20. MotohisaYamakage, The Essence of Shinto, Japan’s Spiritual Heart (New York: Kodansha International, 2007), 17.
21. Fumiko Fukase-Indergaard Michael Indergaard, “Religious Nationalism and the Making of the Modern Japanese State Religious Nationalism and the Making of the Modern Japanese State.” Theory and Society, 37.4, (2008), 349.
22. John Nelson, A Year in the Life of a Shinto Shrine (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1996), 120.
23. Irit Averbuch, The Gods Come Dancing A Study of the Japanese Ritual Dance of Yamabushi Kagura (Ithaca: Cornell University, 1995), 90.
24. Irit Averbuch, “Shamanic Dance in Japan: The Choreography of Possession in Kagura Performance,” Asian Folklore Studies 57.2 (1998), 309.
25. Scott Littleton, Shinto: Origins, Rituals, Festivals, Spirits, Sacred Places (Oxford, NY: Oxford University Press, 2002) 82.
26. IritAverbuch, The Gods Come Dancing A Study of the Japanese Ritual Dance of YamabushiKagura, (Ithaca: East Asia Program, Cornell University, 1995), 26.
27. Yoshio Sugimoto, An Introduction to Japanese Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 56.
28. Richard Pilgrim and Robert Ellwood, Japanese Religion (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1985), 105.
29. Motohisa Yamakage, The Essence of Shinto, Japan’s Spiritual Heart (New York: Kodansha International, 2007), 87.
30. IritAverbuch, “Shamanic Dance in Japan: The Choreography of Possession in Kagura Performance, “Asian Folklore Studies 57.2 (1998), 337.
31. Shimazono Susumu, “State Shinto and the Religious Structure of Modern Japan,” Journal of the American Academy of Religion73.4 (2005), 1089.
32. KōjiSuga, “A Concept of “Overseas Shinto Shrines: A Pantheistic Attempt by Ogasawara Shōzō and Its Limitations,” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 37.1 (2010), 84.
33. Scott. Littleton, Understanding Shinto: Origins, Beliefs, Practices, Festivals, Spirits, and Sacred Places (London: Watkins Pub, 2011), 15.
34. Richard Pilgrim and Robert Ellwood, Japanese Religion (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1985), 106.
35. Susumu Shimazono and Reagan Murphy, “State Shinto in the Lives of the People: The Establishment of Emperor Worship, Modern Nationalism, and Shrine Shinto in Late Meiji.” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 36.1 (2009), 109.
36. Yoshio Sugimoto, An Introduction to Japanese Society (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 221.
37. Richard Pilgrim and Robert Ellwood, Japanese Religion (New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1985), 113.
38. Averbuch, Irit. “Shamanic Dance in Japan: The Choreography of Possession in Kagura Performance.” Asian Folklore Studies 57.2 (1998), 293–329.
39. John Nelson, A Year in the Life of a Shinto Shrine (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1996), 155.
40. Susumu Shimazono and Reagan Murphy, “State Shinto in the Lives of the People: The Establishment of Emperor Worship, Modern Nationalism, and Shrine Shinto in Late Meiji.” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 36.1 (2009), 111.
41. Shimazono Susumu, “State Shinto and the Religious Structure of Modern Japan.” Journal of the American Academy of Religion 73.4 (2005), 1087.

Introduction & Thesis statement

Globally, history has been quite an important part of human life with its imperativeness eminent in the contemporary world. For several decades since countries globally became dully independent and formulated means of governance, researchers have continuously argued that cultural, religious, and political paradigms in the current days represent much of the historical backgrounds. Despite diminutive literature existing regarding the influence of religion, culture, and social life on the current living or lifestyles of human beings, some significant studies have emerged in support of this association. Perhaps the most fascinating of all religious backgrounds that still influence people’s living in the current days is the Shinto religion that plays a significant cultural, political, and social influence within the Japanese community.¹ Shinto is among the globally renowned religions that remain ethnically and historically attached to the Japanese and their nationalism. Despite the information presented by broad research demonstrating the correlation between Shinto and Japanese nationalism, little is known about this connection. Hence, this research paper explores the correlation between Shinto and Japanese nationalism comprehensively.

Thesis Statement

In this paper, I focus on establishing the relationship between Shinto religious practices and Japanese nationalism. I discuss how Shinto rituals and ceremonies commemorate life to demonstrate that Japanese nationalism is attributed to the Shinto culture. Much of the discussion streams right from the historical foundation of religious nationalism to its dramatic change to state nationalism.

Background to the study

Before getting further into the interest of this study, it is important to understand an overview of the two most important variables in this study that is Shinto religion and Japanese nationalism. Shinto has been among the greatest religions in the world that carry much influence into the lifestyle and nationalism of the Japanese people. Shinto currently ranks tenth in the world’s largest existing religions in recent days with approximately 2.7 million adherents in Japan alone. Notwithstanding its political, cultural, and social prowess in Japanese society, there has been a considerable argument on how the Japanese percept this form of religion with little knowledge existing about its connection with nationalism. Actually, “there are very few people, inclusive of Japanese or foreign, who understand Shinto thoroughly and are able to explain it in detail”.² First, reviewing a bit of the history of Shinto that connects it with Japanese nationalism is quite significant to this study.

History of Shinto religion

Shinto is an old Japanese non-doctrinal religion that has historically been associating with numerous Japanese communities with sources revealing that it existed even before the appearance of other religions like Buddhism, in the early 6th century.³ Before the emergence of Buddhism in Japan, there existed no formal Shinto in Japan and only a few local cult groups dominated the entire nation, and these groups nowadays form subgroups of Shinto. During the Japanese pre-historic period, “animists were the first inhabitants of Japan and this society remained devoted to spirits of the natural world. For the animists, Kami denoted the spirits existing within the natural phenomena including mountain, storms, earthquakes, seas, or even plants and animals and the Japanese Shinto religion still believes that Kami is responsible for protecting people through devotion and respect”⁴. The natural world in their case involved the kami, who were the perceptible gods with the meaning of ‘something hidden. This Kami can also consist of honored ancestors known as the ujigami in the Japanese communities.

Historically, the Kami assisted the Shinto followers in understanding religion by providing them with a unifying way of purifying consecrated material and objects. During this historical epoch, the Shinto with their worship in the divine nature spirits mentioned as Kami developed rituals and stories meant to give them a better understanding of their universe by generating a cultural and spiritual world that demonstrated some history.⁵ Streaming from the primordial living and a strong belief of the natural way of the geographical phenomena and its connection to human life, Shinto grew exponentially in successive decades before the Buddhist group joined them in the 6^th century. From this moment, a mixture of Shinto religion, Buddhism, and Confucian interactively started sharing religious believes, views, faith, and traditions that made Shinto even stronger in the national outlook⁶. Subsequently, Buddhists occupied some of the Shinto’s shrines and worshipping zones, with Buddhist temples gradually developing and the traditions and values associated with them being explored in Japan.

Buddhism empowers Shinto

In successive political regimes, religion and leadership in Japan became two inseparable issues with the government assuming control of the religious practices by establishing the department for affairs of deities. A close connection between the Japanese government and the religious practices continuously emerged with the outgrowth of Buddhism. Also, the Confucian overpowered the Shinto after which Buddhism started expanding concomitantly with a slight growth of Confucian and the government subsequently trusted the Buddhists and gave them the role of supporting the central government in controlling Japan. The idea then emerged that people should strictly submit to the willpower of gods⁷, which is how much of the Shinto religion became influential in the social, cultural, and political life of the Japanese. The Japanese Emperor and the court that existed at that moment oversaw the emergence of religious compulsions and occasional ceremonies to ensure that Kami remained respected and bestowed with the obligation of Japan and its people. The emperor, being much prominent in the politics of the day, propelled religiousness to greater levels.

In successive moments, “most of the Japanese became more attached and accustomed to the activities, traditions, and the cultures governing Kami and Buddhism ideas that involved their spiritual lives”⁸. From such a view, until this moment, the Japanese viewed Kami as the transformation of Buddha with the 7^th to 8^th centuries continuously witnessing an extensive association between the Buddhists and the Japanese government with Sun Goddess Amaterasu becoming the official doctrine.⁹ The period between the 11^th and 15^th centuries saw massive interactions among the Buddhists, religious groups, and the Japanese government.¹⁰ This moment became one of the best historical transformations that emerged in Japan as religion interactively engaged in political reforms, policing, and governance as the Japanese government became controlled by three interdependent power holders including the Japanese courts, religious establishments, and the aristocracy. A massive controversy emerged during this same period with questions on whether religion had the desired unity, unanimity, or political power compared to the two governing federations and the moment started becoming bitter for the religious establishments.

The sixteenth-century heralded a period of differences in society, even though religious organizations remained dominant in some major parts of the state. By the seventeenth century when missionaries appeared in Japan, Shinto became the preferred religion among the powerful religions with the imperialism of Buddhism despite efforts by the Christians to convert them.¹¹ Since Christianity at this moment seemed like a threat to the existing political monarchy of that era, anti-Christianity became more powerful and dominated followers by ensuring that they impose anti-Christian measures through the Shinto and Buddhism that required followers to register as members in Buddhist temples. Dramatically, before the emergence of the Meiji period towards the eighteenth century, a purer transformation with rituals, cultures, ideas, and beliefs of Shinto began dominating the Japanese community.¹² To have a deeper understanding of the foundation of association between Shinto and Japanese nationalism, one must understand the presence of Meiji in history.

The emergence of Meiji and restoration of Shinto

Perhaps the most fascinating moment in the history and development of the association between Shinto and Japanese nationalism is the emergence of Meiji, which is known as the Meiji restoration. In the period within the nineteenth century and specifically in 1868, a sudden change in the history linking Shinto and the Japanese emerged when a traditionally famous emperor Meiji decided to restore the faith, believes, morals, and culture of the Shinto religion.¹³ Emperor Meiji’s epoch is one of the most important parts of Shinto’s history that must be mentioned in any historical writing covering Shinto. The beginning of Emperor Meiji’s governance and its reinterpretation of Shinto was purposely aiming at “providing a sacred foundation and possibly providing the modern Japan, its philosophies, and its administration with completely a new religious rationale”.¹⁴ Emperor Meiji took the initiative to reorganize, restructure, and reform Shinto completely as the governance at this moment decided to separate Shinto from Buddhism and emerged with a more inclusive administrative structure.

Emperor Meiji, who brought about Meiji nationalism, Meiji constitutionality, and the separation of Shinto and Buddhism at this moment, was the sole initiator to the awakening of the remarkable unofficial movement by the Shinto followers headed by their priest to destroy and remove Buddhist images from Shinto shrines. Subsequently, after a massive stressing of Buddhism and efforts to restore Shinto to its earlier religious dominance, the Japanese government under Meiji governance turned Shinto into an official state religion, albeit with a mixture of success and failure.¹⁵ The religion of the state in this sense meant that Shinto would force the Japanese government to follow the rituals, doctrines relating to the emperor’s will, and following ancestors royally. This aspect meant that the Japanese government would remain institutionalized under the hierarchy of shrines. Shinto now became the official state religion with Amaterasu validating and overseeing the role of the emperor in Japan.¹⁶ With all Buddhism imagery cleared and all shrines cleaned, Shinto emerged as the most powerful state religion that dominated entire Japan.

Shinto after the Second World War

The relationship between Shinto and Japanese nationalism was growing substantially with the greater Japanese population relying on monarchy governed by Emperor Meiji through 1863-1912. At this moment, Shinto was now more cynical, non-religious, and it became more inseparable from the imperialism philosophies. One of the revolutionary moments that remain known in Japanese society and the entire nation is the period between 1939 and 1945 also known as the period after the Second World War. Immediately after the end of the Second World War in 1946, “Shinto underwent disestablishment when the emperorship and the rules bestowed by Emperors started losing their divine status following the emergence of allied reformations in Japan”¹⁷. The emerging powers took over the Japanese governance and laid a strong imperial script in January 1946.¹⁸ Undoubtedly, Japan was among the forerunners of World War II and given the moment when Shinto was still a powerful state religion, which is the moment when the Japanese post-war constitution became a powerful and separated religion and state and laws governing them articulated.

Gradual changes escalated from the new laws that governed the Japanese as Shinto started losing its official status and its connection to Japanese imperialism and colonialism. The state of Shinto that Meiji propelled its dominance in Japan now remained unconsolidated and shaken with its ideologies and the power of the Emperorship, the divine shrines, and aristocracy was diminished. The incumbent government during that moment established three main regulations that subsequently acted as separation of religion and state under article 20 of the constitution.¹⁹ Among the regulations and policies, freedom of religion was a guarantee to all and no religious organization would enjoy any privileges from the State or even have any political influence. Secondly, there would be no compulsion to any individual to follow certain religious culture, rite, or practice. Finally, the government also articulated that the Japanese state should desist from any religious activity including religious education. This move marked the loss of Shinto’s power in the Japanese political paradigm, but the Japanese spirituality and everyday life including nationalism remain entangled around Shintoism even to date.

Modern Shinto in Japan

Following the official disbanding of the Shinto state and its philosophies immediately after the Second World War, the Shinto state religion as a whole lost its prestige in Japan, and followers became discredited by increasingly nationalistic responsibilities that were gradually dominating Japan. The Japanese military at this moment remained powerless and decided to surrender since the American soldiers had conquered them in the events of World War II.²⁰ An influx of immigrants into the Japanese state commenced dramatically after the Shinto religion started losing powers and this move marked the advent of the Japanese Brazilian Catholicism. As stated earlier, the 1946 constitution promulgated by the American government that was dominating Japan by then and that persevered a separation between the state and the church, led Shinto to reform to a non-religious national belief system.²¹ The state Shinto now remained nothing other than a single form of sectarian Shinto, which did not even compromise the existence of Buddhism. State Shinto also became simply a religion and impoverished from its militaristic and nationalistic elements.

Shinto believes

Historical sources relating to the Shinto religion have revealed much about the foundations under which the Shinto religion originated and Kami as their influential gods. One of the funniest and most captivating aspects of Shinto religion is that its ideologists believe that Shinto has no founder, and it is thus not an entirely independent religious conviction, but it has been part of an independent religion due to the influence of political policy. According to the believing accustomed to the followers of Shinto, this religion comprises divine beings known as Kimi, with no clear distinction among natural, supernatural, spiritual, bodily, or even transcendental and heavenly quintessence²². Shinto does not believe in the originality of sin or evil as eminent in other religions, and for the followers, spiritual goodness in human beings is paramount so long as one respects the Kami.²³ Having purely a different religious foundation since the beginning of the first centuries, Shinto never believed in the maintenance of congregational form in their worship routines.

Rituals and traditions

Shinto is one of the oldest religions that have ever existed in Japan and comparable to other religions, rituals and traditions are common features of this religion. Shinto rituals and traditions hold that human beings are naturally born pure and that it is only through living and interacting with the worldly compositions including its creatures that result in tinting the purity and divinity found in human.²⁴ Therefore, since human beings must exist in the world as the only place where life and subsistence prevail, human beings must be cleansed through the performance of rituals. In the Shinto religion, the tsunami may also refer to certain physical features that are beyond mortal control.²⁵ All rituals, protocols, and even gatherings governing the existence of the Shinto religion are equally important, and that human beings must respect the gods to avoid curses and uncertainties. Shinto practices are useful and practical in all forms of ceremonies and celebrations as these rituals enable cleansing and purification.

Literature review

For numerous decades since the historical formation of the Shinto religion in Japan, several studies have managed to examine the existing connection between this religion and the aspects relating to Japanese nationalism. However, diminutive literature exists in pertinence to the correlation between Shinto and Japanese nationalism.²⁶ Despite featuring minutely in the literature concerning the relationship between Shinto religion and the Japanese state, few studies have articulated this association. While trying to understand the relationship between Japanese nationalism and its connection with the Shinto religion, a deeper indulgence into the state, religion, and Japanese nationalists must exist in this study. Several terms describing forms of nationalism that may reflect this correlation may include state religious nationalism, secular nationalism, and state nationalism, and modern nationalism, as well as Shinto nationalism.²⁷ Unending evidence linking the Shinto religion and Japanese nationalism as demonstrated by prior researchers is the prehistoric development of Shintoism cultural values, traditions, values, morals, and even the rituals practiced by early religions.

Religious nationalism

Globally, some leaders tend to draw their leadership skills, philosophies, and principles from their religious cultures and to date, an extensive connection between religion and national leadership still exists. This assertion means that numerous countries have had the impact of certain religions influencing the way of governance where certain religions have officiated to national ascendancy.²⁸ Religious nationalism may typically refer to the situation where people’s political and national governance behaviors follow certain religious beliefs. Perhaps one of the forms of nationalism experienced in contemporary Japan is religious nationalism that history links its development and empowerment to the era of the Meiji restoration. A strong connection between Shinto and the imperialist leadership exercised during the Meiji nationalism can best explain where the connection between religions associates with Japanese nationalism.²⁹ The political paradigm of Japan from 1863-1912 must be the center of the rising questions about the role of religion in nationalism. Three things are distinct in this connection and one must clearly understand them.

One of the most influential aspects that connote this relationship is the existence of the emperorship form of leadership that leaders of early Japan propagated. Emperorship in the early Japanese governance connected with the Shinto religion through ways of worshiping, which was a central point to this relationship. Meiji is among the most celebrated emperors by those linked to the Shinto religion. Emperors in contemporary Japan have a significant impact on Japanese nationalism since the Emperor acts as a national emblem, which is considered holy among the Shinto religion and the Shinto rituals are normally useful in accessing new emperors.³⁰ Shrines have been significant in establishing the co-existence between the Shinto religion and Japanese nationalism as shrines, for instance, the Ise Grand Shrines, have been in regular use in preserving the Japanese nationhood. With the emperor’s association with the famous Yasukuni shrine and the Shinto shrine in Japan, the connection between religious nationalism and the national activities in Japan has remained evitable to the latter.

State nationalism and State affairs

In the context of the prehistoric essence of the Shinto religion into the Japanese nationalism, one must understand the aspects related to the statehood of Japan and its constitutionality. It is unreasonable to explicate the association between Shinto’s involvement and propagation of Japanese laws right from its historical involvement in the earlier regimes. Meiji nationalism, militarism, and his rule of imperialism in supporting Shinto religious dominance perpetuated the involvement of religion in Japanese constitutionality.³¹ A majority of laws governing Japanese nationalism automatically streamed from Meiji’s involvement in Shinto state, which made him posit, “Japanese subjects shall, within limits not prejudicial to peace and order, and not antagonistic to their duties as subjects, enjoy the freedom of religious belief”³² in article 28 of the Meiji Constitution. Despite its suppression in the decades after the Second World War, all rules including from pros and cons of Shinto’s existence, none of the laws were meant to destroy the dominance of State Shinto and its followers.

The majority of the contemporary religious and national laws governing Japan as a nation originated from the Shinto religion with different other religions that emerged after Shinto enjoying almost equal worship rights propelled by the Shinto religion. As the ideologies of nation-building bestowed in other Asian, African, and even the Latin American countries, the relationship between religious supremacy and national interest has been of the same kind and strong in these nations.³³ Away from concentrating on other nations, Shinto as the longest-serving religion in the history of Japan has a huge influence on the constitutionality of Japan as a sovereign state. The post-war revival of religious control in Japan contributed to the formation of major rules and regulations that perhaps govern the way of Japanese nationalism. Three documents emerged central to Shinto purification rituals and its destabilization after the Japanese military failed to conquer the world during the Second World War. The command for the Disestablishment of State Shinto in (1945), royally Re-script relinquishing Divinity (1946), and the post-war Constitution.

The command for the Disestablishment of State Shinto in (1945) and the two major national documents form an important part of Japanese nationalism as they currently face endless condemnation over allegations of trying to subjugate religious freedom in Japan. The central aim of the Directive for the Disestablishment of State Shinto (1945) emerged principally “not to destroy Shinto, but to prevent the reappearance or rather the repetition of Shinto religious beliefs and theories that were taking the Japanese people aback and leading them into aggression and wars”.³⁴ Following the pressure and domineering aspect of Shinto, one can connect its association with nationalism, which is an important constitutional aspect. After the disestablishment of Shinto from national autonomy, three important constitutional affairs appeared after Meiji disappeared from power in 1912, all promulgated by the new Japanese Constitution. All the Japanese had freedom of religion, no compulsion to certain religious rituals and rights, and the state and its organs refrained from all religious activities, which have led to the latter being affected by religious policies in contemporary Japan.

Other important regulations that Shinto propelled to their existence may be to modern China are the regulations covering the use of state resources and state finances. Article 89 of the Japanese constitution that replaced the imperial constitution of Meiji stated, “No public money or other property shall be expended or appropriated for the use, benefit or maintenance of any religious institution or association, or for any charitable, educational or benevolent enterprises not under the control of public authority”.³⁵ This might not have appeared to destroy Shinto‘s existence, but the American-dominated occupation government that supported the formation of this constitution wanted to bring a sense of equity in worship by enabling independence of religions. The above regulation appeared mainly to ensure the existence of religious freedom in Japan since most of the Latin Americans during that era associated much with Christianity. This civil religion blended with secular nationalism that Americans propagated, which relied mostly on Christianity symbols and religious characteristics.

Shinto nationalism

All these forms of nationalism might have a similar meaning, but giving in-depth coverage of the circumstances that led to the establishment of each of them may sound imperative in understanding Shinto’s association with Japanese nationalism. Shinto nationalism that was typically renowned and named Shintoism during the Meiji regime had a great impact on the emperorship and leadership exercised by emperors, with approximately three emperors using the Shintoism aspect in leadership.³⁶ Through its connection to the support of Shintoism in 1868, the Meiji constitution brought the power of the Shinto religion into existence and ensured that emperorship remained a powerful figure. The emperor and his leadership, despite being expected to respect the law of the land, ruled with imperialism and ensured that he remained powerful than the laws themselves.³⁷ One of the considerable aspects that one must recognize in examining the relationship between Shinto and Japan is the leadership bestowed in the military and the national security of Japan during Meiji’s regime and his constitutionality.

The military has always been an important part of national governance with numerous research connecting authoritarian leaders with much utilization of militarism in their tyrannical leadership. The existence of Meiji and his constitution had once been the forerunner of explicating the relationship between the military and religion. In a bid to ensure that Meiji remained powerful amongst the early Japanese, it was essential to support Shinto and it would give mutual support in return.³⁸ The military’s political order that is currently eminent in the leadership of modern Japan resulted from the association between Emperors and State Shinto in the early centuries of Japanese governance. This aspect was particularly eminent in the Japanese pre-historical way of governance through the Ministry of the Military and Ministry of Home Affairs who connected soldiers to Shinto through Shrines in Yasukuni.³⁹ This move meant that through the nationalistic Shinto, the military ruling government propelled the force of imperialistic governance that somehow calmly exists even in the current decades. For such a long period, Shinto influenced militarism until the Japanese government surrenders after World War II.

Japanese nationalism

Currently, Japanese nationalism contains a rich historical diversity enriched in the social, political, and economical stance of the state of Japan. Perhaps one wonders how the influence or how religion connects with Japanese nationalism, but right from the economic and political behavior, religion has had a big share in such paradigms.⁴⁰ One of the most contemporarily argued human aspects is the education real with almost every country in the world understanding and struggling to improve the forms of education to assist in national growth. In Japan, the quest to improve national education has existed around the forces created by the Shinto religion in the early centuries with a mixture of success and failure characterizing the education sector in Japan. Even the early immigrants into Japan themselves despite some having a negative mindset of Shinto consumed much of education influenced by this religion. The Imperial Re-script on Education was common, with rituals performed following a set of Japanese holidays observed occasionally.

Japanese education and Shintoism

In a bid to rearticulate the sense of national strength and pride of the rich Shinto’s diversity in the entire Japanese history, education has been an influential element in connecting Japanese nationalism and Shinto religiousness. The Meiji Constitution in 1889 was among the first practical obligation of a national association with Shinto, by introducing Imperial Re-script on Education.⁴¹ In this constitutional document, religion remains defined as an independent and private affair. The Japanese educational system remains significant in religious transformation as Shinto mutually perpetuated the reformation of the system by ensuring that the education, though an independent factor within Japan, ran under the influence of historical Shinto. Nothing has remained unturned to later decades as Shinto still has the power and influence in important life elements of Japanese nationalists as recently witnessed in the formation of Shindo Renmei, who symbolize a closer permanence of State Shinto education.⁴² Education in Japan, despite representing the rise of modern nationalism, has had much influence on the Shinto religion and its imperialistic nature.

The moment that characterized educational reforms in Japan is still the presence of the Imperial Re-script on Education by Meiji the Emperor in 1890, with State Shinto enjoying national promotion through education socialization of almost all Japanese nationalists. Throughout successive decades, the Japanese educational system has remained characterized by the form of nationalism of the Meiji epoch when a ritualized interpretation of ethnicity became influential.⁴³ Imperial Re-script on Education by the Meiji constitution altered much in the modern Japanese nationalism as this Holy Scripture has propelled the growth of nationalistic rituals influenced by the Shinto religion. As highlighted in several studies, much of the present Japanese education contains Shinto and Meiji influence since it emphasizes on memorization of concepts rather than the modern educational realm that requires students to use logical thinking in addressing educational challenges. According to research, traditional Japanese education involves much emphasis on long imitation and unending memorization during studying rather than common sense application and concise reasoning in education.

Presentation of feature data

One of the main features of symbolic elements that portray the influence of Shinto is the logo used to demonstrate the essence or foundation of Shinto. From personal experience with historical sources, current filmmaking, and symbolism, one main emblem of modern living in Japan is picturesque. Religious symbols of Shinto have been influential in the modern political, social, and economic stratification of the Japanese with all emperors expected to respect and protect these religious emblems as part of conserving the rich Japanese religious history.⁴⁴ The following figures demonstrate a torii, which is one of the outstanding historical symbols that signifies a bird perch and used as a traditional Japanese gate located at the entrance of Shrines.

Almost all the Shrines in historical as well as contemporary Japan have the eminence of this symbol. Structures, scripture furniture, and even a broad set of artifacts developed by artists in modern Japan have the presence of this symbol, distinctively or partially incorporated.⁴⁵ Buildings, inclusive of residential, shrines, and industries designed from the Japanese system have influenced religious symbols designed by the Shinto. The symbol demonstrates divinity and holiness and thus priests, politicians, and nationalists have respect for them.

Emperorship in the Japanese

One of the most significant features that cannot miss in the literature concerning the historical power of Shinto is the long-existing emperor photos that Meiji and his fellow leaders created and made nationalists respect it. Within the Asian and African continents, photos of political leaders have always formed political culture with the entire populace expected to respect the representations of either Kings or presidents in the form of images or photos.⁴⁶ Emperorship was and has probably been a crucial aspect in the Japanese political history with the Meiji constitution forcing the use of emperor images in almost all national sectors in Japan, including having the photographs in all educational institutions and other public places. The image below demonstrates Emperor Meiji photographed in court shawls in the 1800 century. Both Yasukuni and emperor symbols in Japan contribute to a greater shared emotional sense of heritage and belonging that influences the concept of civil religion.

Symbols of war

War and aggression had marked the existence of the Shinto period, religious, and national imperialism, which is a connection that has much associated with the Japanese current nationalism with current literature highlighting Japanese involvement in arsenals. In particular, religious conflict has been a crucial aspect in the Japanese government and since the association between the state and religion decreased with no religion expected to receive more privilege from the religions has been slightly stable in Japan.⁴⁷ One of the rich historical symbols that the Japanese have remained renowned from their filmmaking is the symbols of war. War has been a strong belief among believers of the Shinto religion. “Its roots extend to ancient religious beliefs according to which the spirits of the slain enemy had to be feared and placated so that they would not take revenge after their death”.⁴⁸ This Japanese symbolism underscores the armed strength, authoritarian, and imperialistic nature of national governance during the Shinto period.

Explanations, synthesis, and analysis

In a bid to develop a coherent understanding of the long perceived correlation between the Shinto religion and Japanese nationalism, one must first understand the prevailing Japanese nationalism. Japanese nationalism in the first place developed from the religious forces exhibited by the Shinto religion and the political stand that developed during the early centuries. Despite a shallow coverage of the history concerning Shinto in this study, it is imperative to understand that much of the political, social, and cultural paradigms arose from the aspect of Shintoism during the pre-war and post-war era⁴⁹ Drawing evidence from the historical point of view, it is eminent that the Shinto religion has been in the Japanese national interests and thus it has a great connection between Shinto and Japanese nationalism. Efforts to restore civil religion and fight against state religion resulted in the break of religious nationalism propelled by State Shinto and replaced by a nation-state. Nonetheless, some of the current trends and activities accustomed to Japanese nationalists still reveal Shinto’s influence in modern Japan.

Religious ceremonies in modern Japan

Despite the dismantling of Shinto and some of its practices after the post-war period of the Second World War after disbanding of state religion philosophies in Japan, much has not changed in the religiousness of current Japan. History reveals that a majority of the religions that emerged after the disbanding of the Shinto religion during 1946, involved small units of religions still accustomed to the Shinto religion. One of the contemporary religious practices that still portray Japanese nationalism is the religious ceremonies that still portray the presence of Shintoism in Japanese. The undistorted Shinto shrines that are currently standing erect in Japan have been constantly connecting the historical Shinto to the current Japanese communities. New Year celebrations are among the elements that can best describe the existing connections between Japanese nationalism and the Shinto religion. Among the Shinto’s beliefs, customs involving New Year were among the most respectable rites that the department of divinity considered during the moment of the Meiji constitution.

Public holidays in modern Japan

Globally, public holidays are governments’ most treasured moments, and akin to other nations across the world, Japan has always been observing national holidays and public ceremonies. Most of the current and important national ceremonies that normally remain practiced in modern Japan have been linking with several customs and traditions that Shinto introduced in the early centuries. The Imperial Re-script on Education that solely remained Holy Scripture and with nationalistic rituals has been an important tool in conducting Japanese national holidays. Therefore, “the great majority of the Japanese do not see themselves as preoccupied with religion, meaning that the Japanese religion is socially weak, both privately and publicly”⁵⁰. This aspect has led to extensive and popular involvement in communally oriented practices and rituals even outside Japanese public ceremonies. Accustomed to the use of Shines and rituals, several national holidays that are considered in contemporary Japan have traces and influence of Shinto religion. This study noted approximately ten main national holidays that Shinto plays an important role.

Of all the important national ceremonies and celebrations, “New Year’s Day, Adults day or Coming of Age Day, Emperor’s Birthday, Bean-Throwing Ceremony, Labor Thanksgiving Day, Constitution Memorial Day, National Founding Day, Greenery Day, Girl’s Festival or Doll Festival and a few but to mention, Festival for Deceased Ancestors”.⁵¹ All these ceremonies mark the co-existence of the Shinto religion in Japanese nationalism with approximately two million religious members visiting shrines within three days during the New Year celebrations. Rituals and important traditions in current Japan normally happen in several shrines that the Shinto religion managed to develop during the prehistoric era. Tsurugaoka Hachimangū Shrine and Hanamidō are some of the common shrines used in the current Japanese national holidays. Nonetheless, the Japanese use some portable shrines while marking some important national celebrations and activities, with followers conducting parades, music, dancing, games, and theatrical performances. Japanese nationalists during this moment pray to the gods to provide a continuum of blessings inclusive of rich harvests, good health, fertility, and even success in businesses.

Shinto robes and features in modern Japan

Perhaps the most important thing to consider while reflecting the presence of Shinto in contemporary Japanese nationalism is the issue of religious clothing associated with the Shinto religion. The current Japanese attire has much correlation with the long historically developed robes by the Shinto religion with approximately two million followers practicing the use of shawls in their clothing. The robes formally accustomed to Shinto shrines and only given to ritually clean priests are now common religious fashions in the Japanese communities and mainly used when celebrating certain public ceremonies. Both men and women can qualify to be priests in the Shinto religion just as it was in the traditional foundation of Shinto, with such priests assisted by young priestesses known as Miko.⁵² During Shinto rituals and performances the priestesses who are the Mikos wear special white cloths familiarized with Shinto known as Kimono, the women must remain unmarried and this is normally daughters from elder priests. The ceremonies also involve a million civilians wearing little talismans and charms that they believe provide protection against evil and bring success.

Discussion and conclusion

Given a continuum of studies covering the correlation between the Shinto religion and Japanese nationalism, it is impossible to alienate the two aspects, which are currently inseparable. The events of pre-war remained under the stint of colonies characterized by national or religious imperialism and leaders had a greater connection to certain rituals, traditions, customs, and beliefs. Shinto cannot be exceptional in the case of religious nationalism throughout its history and towards the forming of the present-day Japanese nationalism. Buddhism, Christianity, and Shintoism have been major religions in developing Japanese nationalism through religious nationalism. How “these traditions combine in fashioning Japanese religiosity is not easy to see for outside observers and due to the variety of traditions, which in order for one to exist next to the other, religious tolerance is a requisite, but it also follows from the nature of both Shinto and Buddhism.”⁵³ The Americans with their revolutionary in the Japanese communities led to civil religiousness, but could not manage to change the Japanese Shinto religiousness.

Shinto is an old Japanese non-doctrinal religion that has historically been associating with numerous Japanese communities which sources revealing that it existed even before the appearance of other religions like Buddhism, in the early 6th century. Despite its suppression by the American colonists during the post-war, Shinto has continuously remained influential in developing Japanese current nationalism as it influences all forms of national social, cultural, and political spheres. Within the Japanese government, several matters of national interests have been depending on some traditions historically embedded in Shintoism. The military-political order that is currently eminent in the leadership of modern Japan resulted from the association between Emperors and State Shinto in the early centuries of Japanese governance.⁵⁴ The educational paradigm has been under the influence of earlier teachings introduced by the Shinto religion including narrative and imitative learning rather than logical reasoning. Most of the current dressing behaviors, national celebrations, and religious occasions in contemporary Japan have been depending on early practices and rituals as introduced by the Shinto religion.

Though not appealing to all nationalists especially those who formed religions after the invasion of immigrants, Shinto still holds an important cultural role in current Japan. In essence, none of the religions can ever prove significant in improvising, developing, and nurturing cultural values that have become past tense in other countries and no longer in practice. Not everyone might agree with the perceived significance of the Shinto religion in shaping modern nationalism in Japan, but understanding the importance of cultural influence that it carries is quite imperative. Perhaps one of the forms of nationalism experienced in contemporary Japan is religious nationalism that history links its development and empowerment to the era of Meiji restoration, and values in shaping culture are remarkable. Notwithstanding the socio-political battle that almost destroyed this important religion, the Shinto religion has become of great national value to the Japanese.

Bibliography

Bachika, Reimon. “A Look at Religion in Japan.” Religion and politics in present-day Japan 1, no.4 (2010): 7-23.

Bree, John, and Mark Teeuwen. A New History of Shinto: Blackwell Brief Histories of Religion. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2011.

Dobbins, James, and Suzzane Gay. “Shinto in the History of Japanese Religion.” Journal of Japanese Studies 7, no.1 (1981): 1-21.

Fukase-Indergaard, Fumiko, and Michael Indergaard. “Religious Nationalism and the Making of the Modern Japanese State.” Theory and Society 37 no.4 (2008): 343-374.

Inoue, Nobutaka, Endo Jun, Mori Mizue, and Ito Satoshi. Shinto: A Short History. Washington: University of Washington Press, 2003.

Littleton, Scott. Understanding Shinto: Origins, Beliefs, Practices, Festivals, Spirits, and Sacred Places. London: Watkins Pub, 2011.

Nelson, John. A Year in the Life of a Shinto Shrine. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1996.

Ono, Sokyo, and William Woodard. Shinto the Kami Way, Clarendon, Vermont: Tuttle Publishing, 2004.

Reader, I. “Civil Religion in Contemporary Japan.” The Copenhagen Journal of Asian Studies 9, no.94 (1994): 6-31.

Shimazono, Susumu, and Murphy Reagan. “State Shinto in the Lives of the People: The Establishment of Emperor Worship, Modern Nationalism, and Shrine Shinto in Late Meiji.” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 36, no.1 (2009): 93-124.

“Shinto History.” BBC.co.uk. Web.

Shoji, Rafael. “The Failed Prophecy of Shinto Nationalism and the Rise of Japanese Brazilian Catholicism.”Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 35, no.1 (2008): 13-38.

Suga, Kōji. “A Concept of “Overseas Shinto Shrines: A Pantheistic Attempt by Ogasawara Shōzō and Its Limitations.” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 37, no.1 (2010): 47-74.

Sugimoto, Yoshio. An Introduction to Japanese Society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.

Yamakage, Motohisa. The Essence of Shinto, Japan’s Spiritual Heart. New York: Kodansha International, 2007.

Footnotes

1. John Bree and Mark Teeuwen, A New History of Shinto: Blackwell Brief Histories of Religion (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 2011), 211.
2. “Shinto History,” BBC.co.uk, Web.
3. Nobutaka Inoue, Endo Jun, Mori Mizue, and Ito Satoshi, Shinto: A Short History, Washington: University of Washington Press, 2003, 115.
4. Ibid, 144.
5. Shoji, Rafael, “The Failed Prophecy of Shinto Nationalism and the Rise of Japanese Brazilian Catholicism,” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 35, no.1 (2008): 33.
6. Scott Littleton, Understanding Shinto: Origins, Beliefs, Practices, Festivals, Spirits, and Sacred Places, London: Watkins Pub, 2011, 73.
7. Kōji Suga, “A Concept of “Overseas Shinto Shrines: A Pantheistic Attempt by Ogasawara Shōzō and Its Limitations,” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 37, no.1 (2010), 47.
8. Ibid, 49.
9. James Dobbins and Suzanne Gay, “Shinto in the History of Japanese Religion,” Journal of Japanese Studies 7, no.1 (1981): 12.
10. Ibid, 16.
11. Motohisa, Yamakage, The Essence of Shinto, Japan’s Spiritual Heart, New York: Kodansha International, 2007, 206.
12. Dobbins and Gay, 18.
13. Ian Reader, “Civil Religion in Contemporary Japan,” The Copenhagen Journal of Asian Studies 9, no.94 (1994): 18.
14. Susumu Shimazono and Murphy Reagan, “State Shinto in the Lives of the People: The Establishment of Emperor Worship, Modern Nationalism, and Shrine Shinto in Late Meiji,” Japanese Journal of Religious Studies 36, no.1 (2009): 94.
15. Dobbins and Gay, 20.
16. Shoji, 36.
17. Yamakage, 148
18. Yoshio Sugimoto, An Introduction to Japanese Society, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997, 209.
19. Sugimoto, 92.
20. Littleton, 95.
21. Yamakage, 132.
22. Sokyo Ono and William Woodard, Shinto the Kami Way, Clarendon, Vermont: Tuttle Publishing, 2004, 105.
23. Bree and Teeuwen, 230.
24. “Shinto History,” BBC.co.uk, Web.
25. Suga, 67.
26. John Nelson, A Year in the Life of a Shinto Shrine, Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1996, 68.
27. Ibid, 144.
28. Shimazono and Reagan, 102.
29. Nelson, 125.
30. Inoue et al., 94.
31. “Shinto History,” BBC.co.uk, Web.
32. Fumiko Fukase-Indergaard and Michael Indergaard, “Religious Nationalism and the Making of the Modern Japanese State,” Theory and Society 37 no.4, (2008): 347.
33. Bree and Teeuwen, 146.
34. Reader, 22.
35. “Shinto History,” BBC.co.uk, Web.
36. Fukase-Indergaard and Indergaard, 349.
37. Ibid, 364
38. Shimazono and Reagan, 114.
39. Littleton, 114.
40. “Shinto History,” BBC.co.uk, Web.
41. “Shinto History,” BBC.co.uk, Web.
42. Ibid, 118.
43. Bree and Teeuwen, 169.
44. Suga, 66.
45. Reimon Bachika, “A Look at Religion in Japan,” Religion and politics in present-day Japan 1, no.4 (2010): 17.
46. Reader, 24.
47. Bachika, 29.
48. s. Littleton, 119.
49. Bachika, 22.
50. Suga, 70.
51. Nelson, 58.
52. Bachika, 21.
53. Nelson, 103.

Introduction

The topic of cosmology has ignited a heated debate over a long period. Both religion and science have offered to contradict explanations regarding the origin of the universe (Ruggles 2005). Major religions such as Christianity, Islam, and Judaism are described to be monotheistic, and they attribute the creationism of the universe to a superior and transcendent God who sustains its continuance.

Cosmology has always been integrated as a topic of theism, but only recently has it started to disregard the workings of God. A shift has occurred whereby people have challenged God’s role and asserted that cosmology is centered on astronomy, physics, and mathematics. The study of physics regarding the universe was explored in the 19^th century in Christian doctrines. On the other hand, in the 20^th century, physical cosmology emerged with the major discovery of the earth’s expansion in 1930. Soon enough the observation of this expansion through the interaction of physical cosmology advanced towards the “cosmic microwave”, which is now known as the widely accepted Big Bang Theory.

Despite physical cosmology compiling the utilization of modern sciences, religious ideologists still aim at addressing fundamental questions of the age of the universe, its end, why it is present, and its natural laws. For a long period, science and religion have been seeking to offer a reliable and harmonized explanation about the origin of the universe. There exists a thick line between religious cosmology and scientific cosmology since each has different ideas to offer. As opposed to theological cosmology, modern cosmology has dwelled majorly on mathematical techniques in a bid to explain the universe. Religious-based cosmology is an effective way of justifying the origin of the universe (Scranton 2010).

Different religions in the world have disparate teachings about the origin of the universe. Therefore, it can be concluded that religion plays a great role in explaining the origin of the universe. Through sacred books, different religions attempt to offer explanations regarding the origin of the universe. The major contributors are Christianity, Judaism, and Islam. The aforementioned religions are all monotheistic, but they have different explanations regarding the existence and the origin of the universe. Most religions attribute the universe to creation by a supernatural power. This paper seeks to determine the implications of religion in modern cosmology.

Ancient cosmologies

The early universe was seen to have three components, viz. the heaven, which appeared in the form of an arch and the land that was flat and the world beneath. The gods occupied the heavens while people resided on the surface of the earth. The gods controlled the operation of all-natural bodies such as the stars, the moon, and the sun (Carone 2005). Also, the gods controlled seasons. They had the power to cause floods, drought, and other calamities. The ancient cosmology recognized the omnipresent nature of the gods, and thus the gods could observe the peoples’ behavior from heaven.

The majority of ancient scientific studies centered on cosmology. However, ancient cosmology did not explain much about the universe. Nevertheless, in the subsequent periods, knowledge regarding the universe increased with the evolution of science. The nature of modern cosmology has detonated in the past few decades with new evidence regarding the nature and structure of the universe emerging (Smith 2004). The invention of space observatory instruments such as telescopes has changed the face of cosmology as the tools have facilitated the gathering of more reliable evidence regarding the structure and organization of the universe.

There has been evidence about vast and cosmological ideas discovered in archival cites (Mukhanov 2005). One of the pieces of evidence is a lunar calendar discovered on a bone scrap in Sub-Saharan Africa (Douglas 2004). The calendar is dated about 20,000 BC and its discovery was a major step in understanding ancient cosmology. All the ancient cosmological structures discovered so far exhibit certain similarities and the view that they were developed by different societies at disparate times is a clear indicator that the ancient cosmologies were related significantly.

Einstein is the most influential scientist regarding the development of the theory of relativity to propagate the structure of ‘space-time’ (Walton 2010). The original model of cosmology by Einstein in 1917 described a universe with constant spatial geometry. During the 1920s, it was concluded that The Redshift data brought forth the idea that the stars were becoming more distant, and faster, thus indicating the expansion of the universe. This cosmological model asserts that the universe was extremely dense and hot, which ultimately led to the Big Bang theory (Teresi 2010). Religious cosmological views may be different, but they overlap on some aspects especially the origin of the universe, whereby most religions hold that an all-powerful God created it.

Cosmology from a religious perspective

Islam is the second-largest religion in the world with a population of about 1 billion people. The religion is monotheistic just like Christianity and it follows the teachings from a sacred book known as the Qur’an (Sharples 2010). According to its followers, the Qur’an contains God’s will as communicated through His prophets. They believe that God sent his prophets to convey His word to the people.

However, the most influential prophet in the Islamic religion is Prophet Muhammad, since he is said to have been chosen by God as the only prophet to convey the final word of the creator to the followers (Sisti 2008). They believe in one God called Allah who is said to be invisible, omnipresent, and formless. Muslims also believe in angels and demons that are said to reside in heaven with God. Muslims allege that the angels and demons are charged with the responsibility of documenting the deeds of the living on earth to be used in judgment day.

The Islamic cosmology is based on the belief that God created the universe and set it going. The Islamic cosmology is in some sense related to modern cosmology as it shows some correlation with the Big Bang theory. The Big Bang theory states that the world came into existence as a result of a single hot object that later broke up to form the various components of the universe (Essien & Umotong 2013). The Quran seems to be consistent with this theory as it asserts that both heaven and earth were at one point bound together, but later separated. Sura 21:30 highlights the early bondage of all the creations and the subsequent separation of the cosmos into the phenomenon observed today (Pennington & McDonough 2008).

The consistency between the modern research findings and the Quran’s teachings are clear indicators of the contribution of the Muslim in modern cosmology. Some sections of the Quran contain messages that support human exploration of space in search of knowledge. About Sura 55, humankind is mandated to travel to the moon and involve in other space exploration activities (Kleinman 2007). This aspect is an indicator that the Muslim religion is consistent with the Big Bang theory. The findings of modern astronauts are in no doubt supported under the Quran’s teachings. Therefore, it is evident that the teachings offered by the Quran are consistent with modern cosmology, and thus there is a strong relationship between Islamic cosmology and scientific cosmology.

Christianity is a monotheistic religion that believes in Jesus Christ as the savior. Christians trace their origin to Abraham. It has attracted more than 2 billion followers spread over all continents in the world. Christianity started during the Roman Empire before spreading to other countries in the world. The religion is founded on the teachings of Jesus Christ, his life, and his experiences. Christians believe in the trinity of being in their God, viz. God the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. Christians have their sacred book, viz. the Bible, which is divided into 2 sections – the New Testament and the Old Testament (Ferrari 2008). Christian believers dedicate at least one day per week to worship their God. Christians observe certain rites of passage, which include baptism, circumcision, and marriage (Isenhour 2013).

Christians believe in the existence of a spiritual powerful God whom they claim is the creator of the universe and everything in it. According to the Christian faith, the bible was authored under the guidance of different authors as directed by God. Therefore, the message contained in the Bible reflects the actual thoughts of God. The bible teaches that the universe was created under God’s command in 6 days (Wright 2013). Given that different authors wrote the scripture at different periods, the message is not consistent, thus leading to different interpretations by different groups of Christians. Some Christians have been accused of interpreting the scripture too literally, thus leading to the inherent inconsistencies in the Christian cosmology.

The universe, according to the ancient Israelites, took the shape of a big arch that floated on a mass of water. The ancient Israelites asserted that the living occupied the surface of the earth while the dead occupied the surface below. The underworld was a peaceful place for the dead. The introduction of Greek ideas at around 330 BC changed the view of the nature of the underworld. The underworld was now taken as a place where the wicked would suffer due to their wickedness.

The righteous, on the other hand, would enjoy life in heaven. In the same period, the perception by the ancient Israelites of the world as an arch was replaced by the Greeks’ idea of a spherical world. Contrary to the perception by the ancient Israelites that the earth was suspended on water, the Greeks asserted that the earth was suspended in space.

Just before the arrival of Jesus Christ, the Greek notion that God created the universe took the place of the earlier belief that everything on the earth including the earth itself existed, but in a chaotic state. This idea, which is known as creatio ex nihilo, is the universally accepted one in most Christian and Judaism faiths contemporarily (Chia 2007). Most Christians now believe in the existence of a single God who is the creator of both heaven and earth.

Conceivably, the Greeks were the major contributors to the modern cosmological ideas about the universe (Isenhour 2013). The numerous works by Greek scholars of the day continue to shape modern cosmology even to date. While most ancient cosmologies were founded on myths and legends, the Greek cosmology incorporated evidence in most of its ideas. Also, most Greek scholars used mathematical techniques to prove their theories.

The fundamental theme in Greek discipline is the application of both observation and testing to explore simple common rules. The need to formulate a universal Geometric Cosmology resulted in the discovery of science, which has greatly influenced man’s understanding of the universe. In a roundabout way, via an assessment of various beliefs and creation myths, scientific ideas, and techniques were developed (Jeffers 2007). The key concept of the Greek’s cosmology is the assumption that the components of the universe can be represented mathematically. This idea was crucial to the modern cosmology that is based on scientific ideas and mathematical verification of such ideas

Modern cosmology is founded on both scientific and philosophical notions (Boeke 2007). Both philosophy and science contribute almost equally to the idea of cosmology. According to Gossin (2007, p. 103), modern cosmology is ‘closely linked to philosophy as it seeks to answer important questions regarding the universe’. On the other hand, cosmology is closely linked to science given that it seeks answers in the form of empirical perception by observation and coherent elucidation.

Conclusion

For a long period, human beings have been trying to understand the nature of the universe. In attempting to explore the aspects behind the operation of the universe, ancient man developed theories known as cosmological theories. Also, the idea of divinity normally played a fundamental role in these planetary hypotheses. Nearly all monotheistic faiths hold that God is the exclusive creator and protractor of the universe. In the ancient days, the creation was attributed to supernatural powers that controlled all the activities of nature. Religious cosmology overlaps with scientific concepts like the Big Bang theory.

Reference List

Boeke, H 2007, The Value Of Victory In Pindars Odes: Gnomai, Cosmology and the Role of the Poet, Brill, Leiden.

Carone, G 2005, Plato’s cosmology and its ethical dimensions, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Chia, M 2007, Cosmic Fusion, Universal Tao Publications, Taiwan.

Douglas, M 2004, Natural symbols: Explorations in cosmology, Routledge, New York.

Essien, S & Umotong, I 2013, ‘Annang Philosophy: Foundations and Outline’, British Journal of Arts & Social Sciences, vol. 13, no.2, pp. 166-187.

Ferrari, G 2008, Alcman and the Cosmos of Sparta, University of Chicago Press, Chicago.

Gossin, P 2007, Thomas Hardy’s novel universe: astronomy, cosmology, and gender in the post-Darwinian world, Ashgate Publishing, New York.

Isenhour, T 2013, The Evolution of Modern Science, RAND, Westport.

Jeffers, A 2007, ‘Magic and divination in ancient Israel’, Religion Compass, vol. 1, no.6, pp. 628-642.

Kleinman, R 2007, Four Faces of the Universe: An Integrated View of the Cosmos, Lotus Press, Detroit.

Mukhanov, V 2005, Physical foundations of cosmology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Pennington, J & McDonough, S 2008, Cosmology and New Testament Theology, T&T Clark Int’l, New York.

Ruggles, C 2005, Ancient astronomy: an encyclopedia of cosmologies and myth, ABC Clio, Santa Barbara.

Scranton, L 2010, The Cosmological Origins of Myth and Symbol: From the Dogon and Ancient Egypt to India, Tibet, and China, Inner Traditions/Bear & Company, Rochester.

Sharples, R 2010, Particulars in Greek Philosophy: The Seventh SV Keeling Colloquium in Ancient Philosophy, Brill Academic, Leiden.

Sisti, S 2008, The big bang and relative immortality: seminal essays on the creation of the universe and the advent of biological immortality, Algora Publishing, New York.

Smith, W 2004, The Wisdom of Ancient Cosmology: Contemporary Science in Light of Tradition, Foundation for Traditional Studies, Oakton.

Teresi, D 2010, Lost Discoveries: The Ancient roots of modern science–from the baby, Simon and Schuster, New York.

Walton, J 2010, The lost world of Genesis one: ancient cosmology and the origins Debate, Intervarsity Press, Downers Grove.

Wright, R 2013, Cosmology in antiquity, Routledge, New York.

Introduction

Individuals are usually identified and associated with their behavioral characteristics and what they engage in their day to day lives. Different people go through different life experiences, which in one way or the other shape their behavior and determine the degree of success or failure they achieve in their lifetime. This piece of paper will give an in-depth evaluation of Prophet Muhammad and his characteristics.

Discussion

Prophet Muhammad is a well-known individual, particularly among the Muslim community due to what he was involved with and more so the characteristics that distinctly made him whom he was. He was born in 570 CE in Mecca. He had a humble beginning having lost his parents at a very tender age. In his early days, Muhammad was a businessman and trader. Even then, Muhammad showed a lot of positive characteristics or rather attributed. This includes honesty, trust, and reliability. This made him be referred to as Al-Ameen, an issue that depicted he was a man of integrity and dignity (Al Maqdisi 22).

Prophet Muhammad is deemed to be an extremely vital element in the eyes of many. One of his characteristics is that he was able to perform miracles. The Muslim community believes that Allah sent numerous prophets to the world so that they may show people what they are supposed to be involved with and what should be avoided in an effort to live a righteous life. One way through which they would accomplish this is through performing miracles that were seen as a way of supporting divine messages.

Consequently, Prophet Muhammad was granted the power to perform miracles so as others would observe and learn from them. Some of the notable miracles that were performed by Prophet Muhammad include the flowing of water from his fingers, the Night Journey, and Ascent through the Heavens. All these signified different aspects and made the prophet to be adored for his works (Nursi 41).

Another attribute worth noting is that Prophet Muhammad had the characteristics of a counselor. It is believed that a counselor ought to come after Jesus left, would stay forever with the believers, would speak what he hears from or is sent by God, and finally, would always glorify Jesus. The above attributes were observed in the Prophet Muhammad. In fact, research shows that the following characteristics are only applicable to the Prophet Muhammad. This argument has been supported by the following remarks; Prophet Muhammad was the only messenger who came after Jesus, after a period of six centuries, and that he was a universal message.

In addition, the Prophet Muhammad’s message is believed to be universal and everlasting, from God, meaning that he would stay forever with the faithful. Further research also shows that there is no other prophet who glorified Jesus as Prophet Muhammad. Despite the accusations he received from the Jews, Prophet Muhammad proclaimed Jesus as a great prophet and always glorified him. To show that Prophet Muhammad spoke what he heard from God, we find that after getting the revelation of the Qur’an through angel Gabriel, the prophet conveyed, to the people, what he heard without changing it. The Qur’an also confirms the above statement about Prophet Muhammad “He does not speak out of his own fancy. He utters what is revealed to him.” (53:4, 5) (IslamKotob 11).

Prophet Muhammad is associated with a lot of positive and admirable attributes. For instance, He advocated for justice for all. In carrying out his duties, he did not discriminate between believers and nonbelievers or even the rich and the poor.

Prophet Muhammad also preached equality, disputing any form of groupings based on aspects such as race or family background. He instead stated that righteousness alone ought to gauge one’s superiority. Another characteristic of Prophet Muhammad is that he had a great love for the poor. He told the Muslims to treat the poor in a kind manner and help them by all means stating that showing love to the poor was a great act that would result in God’s blessings (Singh 54).

Trust in Allah is also a characteristic that has been seen clearly in Prophet Muhammad’s life. Although he passed through a lot of disturbing situations such as danger, loneliness as well as persecution, the prophet kept his faith and trust in Allah. He also preached to the people the importance of having faith and trust in Allah. He was as well a very prayerful individual and delighted in children. He was also polite and treated all people, young and old, courteously.

Another characteristic is that despite being a prophet, he feared God and was careful not to trespass his limits. He also sought to associate and cooperate with people rather than commanding them to carry out his orders. Reformation and reconciliation were also aspects that Prophet Muhammad delighted in. Whenever a need for reconciliation emerged, the prophet did everything to resolve the issue and create peace among those involved.

Prophet Muhammad was also a man of sound intellect, and in all his undertakings, he advocated for good and forbade evil. He did this in a manner that would not seem controversial among people. Prophet Muhammad also showed great love for purification. He sought to be pure while doing anything associated with God showing the respect he accorded Him. Although not of much concern spiritually, it is said that Prophet Muhammad had a good physical appearance. Most people considered him to be the most beautiful person of the time (Badawi 35).

In his duties, Prophet Muhammad did things for the sake of God. He always sought the pleasure of God in all that he was involved with despite the treatment he would receive from those who were against him. In his deeds, Prophet Muhammad was sincere and honest and took this as an order from God. Good morals, ethics, and companionships are also attributed that were prevalent in Prophet Muhammad. His wife described his manners to be the Qur’an, meaning that he strictly observed what was in it. This made him a role model for many.

Conclusion

From the above discussion, it is clear that Prophet Muhammad is an individual who is extremely valued and respected for the roles he was entitled to throughout his life. He portrayed the characteristics of a good spiritual leader who tried as much as possible to lead his people into the right path through his teachings and messages. He is an individual who has been depicted to be very influential in his dealings to the point of being a leader and founder of Islam religion and a prophet and messenger of God.

Works Cited

Al Maqdisi Al Imam Al Hafiz Abdul Ghani. Short Biographies of the Prophet and His Ten Companions Who Were Given the Tidings of Paradise. UK: Darussalam, 2004.

Badawi Jamal. Muhammad (Peace Be Upon Him) In the Bible. Nasr: ideas4islam.

IslamKotob. En_The_Truth_About_Messiah. New York: Islamic Books.

Nursi Bediüzzaman Said. Prophet Muhammad and His Miracles. New York: Tughra Books, 2006.

Singh Nand Kishore. Prophet Muhammad and his Companions. Delhi: Global Vision Publishing Ho, 2003 pp54 companion.

Model Case – Yes, Religion is compatible with Secularism

The line separating secularism and religion is becoming thinner and thinner each day. Justin wondered whether secularism would at one time become a religion or if religions have any meaning in today’s secular life. In a conversation with his friend, Kelly, Justin appeared concerned about the ever-thinning line separating religion and secularism. “Nowadays people live with little regard to religious doctrines, there is increasing pressure for separation of religion from state; moreover, atheism is becoming a common thing, what happened to the times when religion used to be the people’s way of life” Justin wondered and lamented.

Kelly, noting the pessimism in her friend, responded, “it is not like that Justin, religion is still most people’s way of life and atheism is different from secularism in many ways”. She continued, “Secularism, unlike atheism, is a life philosophy, which tries to explain the role that religion plays in governance and public life”. Still unsatisfied, Justin queried “how can secularism be important in public life and yet it cannot explain the origin of life?”

Although secularism cannot explain where life came from, what life means or what people should do with their lives like Christians, Muslims, Judaists or Buddhists do, it nevertheless, explains the role of religion in public life and governance. Secularism, much like any religion, has prohibitions against drinking, smoking, or any unhealthy activities, which are important teachings in many religious faiths.

Intending to learn more, Justin asked again, “If secularism serves to promote religion in governance and in public life, isn’t in itself a religion and how is it different from the other religious faiths?” Kelly responded, “Inasmuch as secularism tries to describe the role of religion in governments and public life, secular doctrines are not religious, hence secularism is different from religion”. “In addition, secularism unlike religion, has no belief in deity and therefore not a religion.”

In most cases, religious beliefs enhance stereotyping and prejudices, which make religion a divisive factor in today’s society. However, secularism is not part of any religion but serves to protect all religions. “In this way, secularism protects people’s right of expressing their religious beliefs publicly”, Kelly, explained. “In other words, she continued, “secularism protects religious symbols; however, it also provides limits; for instance, a judge is not expected to wear a religious outfit while in court.” “Is like secularism protects religion while at the same time controls expression of religion in public life and in governance”, Justin concurred. “This makes religion compatible with secularism”, Kelly concluded.

Justin believes secularism is the same as atheism founded on anti-religious beliefs:

• Stereotyping and prejudices among different religious faiths
• Secularism does not believe in a supreme deity and eternal life
• Protection of freedom of expression and religious symbols

Contrary Case: No, Religion is not Compatible with Secularism

Grace was convinced that secularism is a religion in itself. She believed that religion is a defined system of beliefs and practices. “Secularism just like religion also is defined by some set of values and beliefs regarding public display of religious symbols and in governance”, she told Mark one evening. Mark had a contrary opinion, “But all religions have gods while secularism does not and therefore, not a religion”.

Grace, unconvinced, explained that most mainstream religious faiths like Buddhism also do not believe in a supernatural being. In addition, she believed that secularism, just like other religions, focuses on moral commandments that would enhance good physical health. Further, she believed, secularism sets limits for public expression of religious faiths in an effort to enhance religious tolerance. It describes the role of religion in governance and public life.

In states that have established one state religion, public expression of faiths and religious symbols are done in accordance with doctrinal teachings of the religion. In secular states, pop-cultural focus defines the public expression of faiths and politics.

From Grace’s reasoning, pop-culture and humanism, which define secular life, are either philosophies or religions that conflict with religious faiths. Pointing to an example of how secularism attempts to limit the public expression of religious faiths, Grace told Mark that religion and secularism are two contrasting doctrines, each with a set of beliefs and principles. In addition, secularism is also faced with certain flaws and problems such as universal acceptance and fundamentalism, which are common problems that face religious faiths.

Secularism attempts to unify religions and establish a common standard for public expression of faith. For example, secularism restricts judges from wearing religious garments when in courts and Muslim women from wearing veils in public. From these common experiences in many countries, Grace believed that secularism is trying to establish itself as a religion competing with religion for converts. In this way, she believed that religion and secularism have many contrasting aspects, which make them incompatible with one another.

Grace believes that a religion is defined by a system of beliefs, religious symbols, and practices:

• Many religions have no gods or supernatural being.
• Pop culture and humanism as aspects of secularism.
• Religion and secularism have contrasting doctrines, exhibit fundamentalism, and compete for converts.

Borderline Case: Yes/No

Jackson had mixed feelings about the whole issue of separating religion from the state. He was of the opinion that religion, being a way of life for most people, should also define how people wish to be governed. However, he noted that there have to be limited to the expression of religious practices and symbols in public. He felt that to promote religious tolerance among the many religious faiths, there has to be some sort of regulation of religions. He admitted that religion and secularism could coexist not as contrasting religions, but as independent philosophies each with its own set of beliefs and practices.

Secularism, just like religion, focuses on good physical health and general well-being. Secularism, for example, discourages unhealthy habits such as smoking or drinking to promote good health. In this aspect, religion and secularism tend to concur. In addition, secularism defines how one should live as a global citizen, free from suppression. Many religious faiths also promote healthy social and spiritual living. In these two aspects, religion and secularism seem to complement each other and thus compatible.

However, in many other aspects, religion and secularism tend to differ. Jackson felt that inasmuch as religion and secularism agree on matters of physical wellbeing, they present two contrasting views. Secularism is a philosophy based on the desire to put in place an autonomous socio-political system independent of religious beliefs. It is also naturalistic and more materialistic as opposed to religion that is based on faith and belief in a supernatural being.

In this way, religion and secularism appear to conflict with each other. In addition, secularism sets limits for public expression of religion; for example, it restricts Muslim women from wearing veils or judges from wearing religious outfits. The rationale is that religious neutrality in public places or in courts is important to promote religious tolerance. However, this appears to conflict with religious faiths because religious teachings advise followers to express their religion publicly. Therefore, by restricting public expression of faith, religion and secularism tend to conflict and therefore incompatible.

In secularism, the disconnection with religion may be mainly opportunistic intended to serve the political class at the expense of the religious beliefs of the citizens of a given country. The secular states tend to focus on wealth and power at the expense of peace, individual rights, and equality. However, secular states also have some level of tolerance and exercise neutrality towards different religious denominations. Nevertheless, such is expected as capitalistic states are mostly interested in labor productivity, not religious beliefs or practices of the citizens.

Yes

• Religion and secularism both provide for physical wellbeing and good health and discourage unhealthy habits.
• Secularism promotes tolerance, neutrality, and globalization.

No

• Secularism is based on naturalistic principles and is more materialistic
• Limitation of public expression of religious symbols conflicts with religious beliefs

Yes

No

Invented Case: The liberal democratic state of Mognis

In the seventeenth-century state of Mognis, the majority of the citizens were religious but not orthodox. Nevertheless, religion had a major influence in their everyday life making it difficult for their religion, Hinduism, from the state. Even in their cultural practices involving the various ethnic groups, religious doctrines were important. Secularism lacking atheist notions was also rife in public life. The majority of the people of this country were either Hindu or Bengali.

The country also had many religious communities and indigenous minorities. The ruler of Magnolias at that time wanted to entrench secularism in the constitution despite the majority of the people being highly religious. He reasoned that secularism would allow the citizens to practice their various religious faiths and at the same time protect the interests and the rights of the minority groups. Furthermore, secularism would lead to a more pluralist society accommodating varied religious and cultural aspects. His idea of a secular state involved a value-based secular state that promotes religious equality, individual liberties, and peace.

In this state, after implementing the secular law, people had the right to criticize a particular religion and were at liberty to reject or denounce their religion and adopt a different religion. The state also promoted inter-religious dialogues and deliberations to prevent religious extremism. Individuals were also at liberty to embrace any religious denomination or choose to remain without one. Furthermore, in this state, civil rights were protected including rights to vote or vie for any public office. Discrimination based on religion was not allowed, instead, religious tolerance was encouraged.

Under this model, religion and secularism had mutual exclusion with the religious and political institutions having a clear line of separation. In this sense, Mognolis was not a religious state but all religions were privatized as a way of promoting democratic development. At the same time, the state was not anti-religious but undertook to protect religious liberty and equality among all citizens.

Mongolia supported individual liberties, religious equality, and peace, which represents a perfect way secularism can be implemented in a dominantly religious country:

• No religion was a state religion but all religions were equal.
• Individual rights and rights of citizens were recognized irrespective of their religious beliefs or practices.
• The secular law promoted inter-religious dialogue and religious tolerance an important element of peace.

Social Context: Politicians and religious leader’s role in Secular states

Politicians and religious leaders

Secularism is highly contested particularly by the religious leaders. Most religious leaders are opposed to secularism terming it incompatible with the religious beliefs of the majority. For instance, opposition to secularism in India was mostly from the academic and religious leaders who argued that secularism in itself as a concept was seriously flawed. According to religious leaders, secularism was a form of flawed modernization, which demanded the removal of religious practices from public life. They further argued that secularism underestimated the importance of religion in people’s lives and challenged the fundamental framework of secularism.

Politicians on the other hand, when criticizing secularism, focus on two fundamental issues. Firstly, both secularism and religion are important in most countries because politicians in most states cannot justify their political decisions by entirely relying on their religious beliefs. Secondly, citizens cannot make their decisions by relying exclusively on secular considerations but have to invoke religious reasons. In addition, most decisions including secular or public decisions are based on religious rationale. Political decisions and their justifications also rely mostly on the religious rationale.

Religious leaders argue that by discouraging public expression of faith or religious practices in a secular state, secularism becomes hostile to religion. Other religious clerics argue that secularism purports to promote inter-religious harmony while at the same time attempting to establish itself as a central doctrine for public life. Others claim that the secular law does not recognize community rights and therefore cannot adequately protect religious minority groups from discrimination.

In the implementation of secular law, clerics and politicians play a vital role in adopting an appropriate model of secularism that can accommodate religion.

• Most political decisions are based on religious rationale even in secular states and therefore dialogue between political leaders and clerics is important
• Religion can only become compatible with religion when religious establishments and secular organizations thrive independently
• Secular decisions are based on religious reasons, which shows that religion and secularism are interdependent

Results in Language

Religion

• Individual rights.
• Basis for political and public decisions.
• Religious tolerance.

Religion has a major influence on people’s daily lives. Most political decisions affecting public lives usually have a religious rationale. Religion also protects the individual rights of the citizens by teaching equality among all people. Religious doctrines offer guidance on how people should conduct themselves in public and encourages them to be tolerant of each other’s beliefs thus promoting peaceful co-existence.

Secularism

• Inter-religious harmony.
• Democratic development.
• Economic development.

Secularism acts as a central doctrine that promotes inter-religious harmony among religions. In addition, secular organizations including civil societies contribute to democratic development by protecting minority religious groups. Secular organizations are driven by wealth creation not religious beliefs; therefore, they contribute to the economic development of a country particularly when implemented at the policy level.

Yes, Secularism is compatible with religion. Secularism encourages inter-religious harmony and promotes religious tolerance among different religions. Secularism protects the individual rights of the minority religious groups allowing them to exercise their faith freely. Secularism provides for equality among the citizens by acting as a basis for public and political decisions.

Interior Dialogue

After reading the notes that I have compiled, I am still strongly convinced that secularism is compatible with religion. Considering that theocratic states often turn out to abuse individual rights and deter democratic development, does secularism provide an alternative to religious states? Indeed secularism provides a clear separation between religion and the state, which promotes democratic development. Furthermore, in a multi-religious state, secularism promotes equality among all the religious groups including the minorities, which promotes peaceful co-existence.

Is secularism alone in states effective?

A secular state is often disconnected from religion including disconnection between religious and secular institutions. Secular states do not support the establishment of religious institutions and can even withdraw certain privileges accorded to religions. Furthermore, secular states do not recognize any particular religion and therefore give no grants to religious institutions. In this way, democratic development, individual rights, and religious freedom are hampered in secular states

Is the separation of the state from religion worthy than the union of the state and religion?

Indeed the separation of the state from religion is more beneficial than an alliance between the state and religion. States with an alliance with the major religions usually experience connection at the policy level. The policies affect the minority religious groups and may hamper economic and democratic development. Whenever a dominant religion is firmly established within a state, persecution of the minority groups is common.

About secularism

Secularism refers to the ideology that particular practices and organizations should exist independently of religion. Essentially, secularism supports political decisions based on evidence and logic rather than religious doctrines. Most arguments in favor of secularism claim that secularism is a movement towards modernization, a break from religion. Secularism is deeply rooted in the doctrine of religious tolerance.

In this respect, secularism establishes a clear separation between the church and politics, and by so doing, secularism promotes religious freedom. Modern secularism arose in the seventeenth century as a solution to political problems and religious wars in Europe by establishing a political ideology independent of the religious doctrines (Larmore, 1996, p.71). Secularism provides the best socio-political arrangement that allows individual freedoms and religious practices to thrive.

Secularism as a Religion

Secularism aims at removing religion from the public domain and offering a solution to solving interreligious strife. Secularism shapes the various aspects of religion including religious practices and beliefs. It supports mutual dependence between religious beliefs and political power (Perry, 1991, p.156). In addition, secularism is usually neutral to any political ethic. Without secularism, the dominant religion in a country enjoys immense privileges while the minority religious groups face discrimination (Mohsin, 1999, p.29).). Among the important doctrines of secularism is that it advocates for the complete separation of the church from the state. In addition, the doctrine grants religious freedom and influences public religious practices.

To promote religious tolerance and interreligious dialogue, secularism forces religious groups or extremists to comply with a liberal democratic rule. Secularism allows an individual to evaluate and examine particular religious doctrines and beliefs before making a free choice regarding his/her religion (Sheth, & Gurpreet, 1997, p.115). Religious groups demand minimal intervention by the state on their practices and beliefs.

Therefore, secularism, which claims neutrality to all religions and the rest of the society, provides an ideal environment for these religions to thrive. The increased demand for noninterference made by religious groups is based on the argument that the law forces religious groups to comply with certain provisions contrary to their religious beliefs or the law prevents them from exercising their religious practices.

Contrary to the belief that secularism does not protect religious minorities, a practice that is widely regulated can be permitted in a minority group because of the significance it has to the members of the religious group (Tambiah, 1998, p.98). Minority religious groups usually claim non-interference but sometimes require special assistance to acquire certain privileges enjoyed by the other groups (Madan, 1998, p.67).

Some secular states are guided by values such as religious equality, peace, and liberty to all citizens. Weithman (1997) notes, in these value-based states, individuals have the right to criticize any religion and can freely embrace any religion or remain without any religion (p.45). In addition, these states protect individual rights to vote in an election or contest in any public office without discrimination based on one’s religion.

Conclusion

Despite most religious groups demanding non-interference in their religious practices by the state, they need assistance to acquire certain privileges. Secularism promotes religious tolerance, religious freedom, and individual rights, which are the fundamental principles of any democracy. Secularism also protects the minority groups from discrimination by allowing free exercising of their faith. More importantly, secularism, through the principle of equal distance, ensures there is no state religion, which contributes to religious harmony and peace. In addition, secularism contributes to the separation of the state from religion as compared to theocratic nations, which is important for democratic development. By protecting individual rights and religious practices, secularism is compatible with religion.

Reference List

Larmore, C. (1996). The Morals of Modernity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Madan, T. (1998). Secularism in its place. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Mohsin, A. (1999). National Security and the Minorities: The Bangladesh case. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Perry, J. (1991). Love & Power: The Role of Religion and Morality in American Politics, New York: Oxford University Press.

Sheth, D., & Gurpreet, M. (1997) Minority Identities and the Nation-State, New Delhi: Oxford: University Press.

Tambiah, S. (1998). Secularism and Its Critics. New Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Weithman, P. (1997). Religion and Contemporary Liberalism. Notre Dame: University Of Notre Dame Press.