A Brief Introduction to the New Testament

The Importance of the Book of Romans

The Epistle of Romans and all it fulfills has one motivation; to glorify God. It is the very reason for which humanity was created. The author, Apostle Paul, strongly asserts that he is not embarrassed by the Gospel since it is God’s power to save everyone who trusts in Him. Bart indicates that Paul’s letter to the Romans had a central theme; Good News. It presents God’s grace fulfilled through His only Son; Jesus Christ. Undoubtedly, it is a Gospel. Romans purposed at laying the foundation for the faithful in the truth presented by the Gospel with the motive to glorify God. The course or motive of the author is to make someone get stronger in his or her faith (Bart 89).

The Epistle to the Romans is a guide for the Kingdom of Heaven’s citizenship. It explains the way to attain heaven’s citizenship that is justified by faith in Christ. The Book of Romans outlines the blessings bequeathed to an individual on becoming a citizen of the Kingdom of Heaven, being born again, or saved. Furthermore, the book teaches the citizens of heaven in the expected manner of life. It also presents citizens of heaven as sojourners here on earth. An emphasis is laid on the repentance of sinners (Bart 100).

The Epistle to the Romans provides a complete primary theological framework to the rest of Paul’s works. It lays down the basics of the Gospels and God’s plan, both of which are fundamentally essential to the new era; Church Age. Romans has indeed played a central role in the life and history of the church over the years.

Women in Paul’s Churches

The relationship between Apostle Paul and women forms an important aspect in the theological discussion about the place of women in Christianity. Paul wrote the first directives on women’s role in the church. At the time Paul started his missionary work, women were vital agents in different cities. Paul’s letters and casual greetings to female acquaintances provide concrete information on women’s prominence in his ministry.

Various women carried out missionary work in the churches founded by Paul and in his movement at large. Paul’s salutations to some of his followers show that people preached in pairs, either with their brothers or husbands. Priscilla was Aquila’s wife, and she decided to work with Paul, which made her a missionary as well. Also, they worked together in tent making. Some women were also church-planters and evangelists. Paul praised Junia for being a prominent apostle (Bart 124). Women such as Phoebe acted as deacons in the early church. Paul describes Phoebe as a supportive woman or benefactor. Paul’s works had solid information on the role of women in the church as apostles, missionaries, deacons, informants, and partners in evangelism.

The issue of the status of women, as exemplified in Paul’s works and advice to the various churches he established arouses heated debates. Paul presents women as subordinates to their husbands but also advances egalitarian views. In particular, Ephesians 5: 22-24 has been at the center of the debate on women’s subordinate position (Bart 98). Both traditionalists and Christian egalitarians agree that Paul’s assertion was divinely inspired.

Nevertheless, the traditionalists emphasize male leadership in the church and marriage. Christian egalitarians point out that both men and women are equals in all spheres of life. Paul’s traditional approach to some issues is a precursor to the Jewish cultural influence in his works. Nevertheless, Paul also presents a robust unrestricted position in Galatians 3: 28, where he asserts that all people are united in Christ irrespective of their background.

The Apocalyptic World View of the Book of Revelation

The book of Revelation was authored by Apostle John. It is one of the difficult books regarding understanding Christian literary works. The work, also known as the Apocalypse of John, arouses a pool of questions and competing interpretations. The work falls under the category of apocalyptic writings; it employs images, symbols, and numbers to transmit its message. The work is characteristic of the persecution era, where it equates the emperor of Rome with Satan as well as showing the ancient Roman administration as the final evil (Bart 105).

Often, a majority of the people never understand Revelation. Therefore, there is a need to understand the basic foundation under which the book was written. This includes the features of the writings, the history possessed by the early Christians, persecutions, and their way of life, which makes it easier to comprehend the book of revelation. In the work, several symbols and images were connected to events, people, and places that were familiar to Asia Minor Christians during the 1st century (Bart 53).

A wide range of interpretations has been fronted to explain the imagery and symbolism used in Revelation. The content of the book presents an apocalypse of the present and future world views. The cataclysmic images used in Revelation relate to global occurrences and predict how or when the end times will ultimately come. The book of Revelation, like most of the other apocalyptic writings in the Bible, presents a world view characterized by a sharp contrast between the good and evil powers. The two fronts are presented to be rallying themselves against each other in an ultimate global conflict that is succeeded by the overthrow or supremacy by God (George 81).

Works Cited

Bart D. Ehrman. A Brief Introduction to the New Testament. Oxford University Press, 2010. Print.

Bart D. Ehrman, Peter Paul and Mary Magdalene. The Followers Of Jesus In History And Legend. Oxford University Press, 2008. Print.

Bart D. Ehrman. Lost Christianities, The Battle for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew. Oxford University Press, 2005. Print.

George T. Montague. The Apocalypse: Understanding the Book of Revelation and the End of the World. Harper & Row Publisher, 1991. Print.

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Chapter 5 of “Religion in Society, a Sociology of Religion”

Introduction

Based on a thorough reading of the book, I would have to say that Chapter 5: “Becoming Religious,” created the biggest impact on me. I realized that my religious orientation was, in fact, not out of personal choice, as I had originally believed, but was a direct result of religious socialization wherein my inclination towards my religion was, in part, influenced by the society and culture that I was a part of. As a direct result of such an epiphany, I researched various instances where religion was fostered, often unwillingly, onto a populace and how this impacted them as a direct result.

It is quite interesting to note that when examining the various countries where European colonization occurred, it can be seen that religious fervor and the proliferation of devout followers is a common theme among such countries at present. Krause (2012) explains this current predilection by stating that in order to overtake the cultures and original religions that used to play important roles in such cultures, European colonizers utilized religious conversion as a means by which the local populace could be influenced and as a result subvert the practices that were in existence at the time with something more akin to what the European colonizers wanted (Krause, 135-154).

The present-day fervor seen in various South American countries as well as in the Philippines is clear evidence of the effectiveness of such a tactic (Abo-Zena, 15). While Johnstone (2007) did not delve too deeply into the concept of religion as a form of indirect subversion, he did touch upon topics such as group affiliation, which explains that people are often enticed into joining a religion as a direct result of their desire to be part of a group. From my understanding of Johnstone’s work in this chapter, I have come to the conclusion that it is this intense desire to belong to some form of group affiliation that at the core of why people converge towards particular types of religion within certain areas (Johnstone, Chapter 5).

One way of understanding this is through social control theory developed by Travis Hirschi, which specifically states that all individuals actually have the potential to become criminals; however, it is the “bond” they share with society, whether in the form of friendships, recognition of societal rules and norms of conduct, parental influences, etc. that prevent them from actually committing a crime (Kyoung, 371-380).

Hirschi goes on further to explain that it is actually quite normal for an individual to desire to commit a crime or even think about it, such as desiring to steal an object, injure a person, or other forms of criminal activity; however they are prevented from doing so because of a distinct fear of the impact of this type of activity on their position in society (Kyoung, 371-380). The concept of fear in this particular case comes in the form of the loss of societal bonds, careers, social relationships, and other connections that individuals have come to rely on due to a person’s inherent nature to rely on social connections to retain a stable psychological state (Abo-Zena, 15).

In other words, people are normally so dependent on social bonds and maintaining them that the thought of losing them after committing a particular action is sufficient enough to deter them from committing a crime (Kyoung, 371-380).

Combining social bond theory with the work of Johnstone in chapter 5 creates the notion that people desire psychological stability through social bonds with religion and the community that develops around it, often becoming the necessary “attractive force” that entices people to become part of a particular religious congregation (Johnstone, Chapter 5). It is the fear of being alone, not being part of a group, and of the unknown that causes people to like the concept of religion since it helps to assuage any of the problems that were previously mentioned.

Examining Religious Socialization

After finishing the reading on becoming religious, a thought occurred to me regarding how the religious culture that defines a particular society tends to change over time into something completely different (Lövheim, 151-168). Despite this, the people, the society, and what can be defined as “religious traditions” are still considered part of the original culture despite the drastic changes that occurred.

For example, when looking at England at present, the religious culture that embodies it within the current era is drastically different from what it was during the 1880s, the 1400s, and even far before that. The society that defined itself as “religious” during the 10th to 17th century is no longer present what exists in its place is an entirely new religious culture, a far different society, and a population that for all intents and purpose is far more diverse than it was in the past yet such a population still considers itself as “religious” despite the fact that it is in no way similar to what was defined as “religious” in the past (Lövheim, 151-168).

For example, homosexuality, equal rights for women, and other such developments over the past 100 years were unthinkable 500 or 700 years ago. When examining such a disposition towards classification, it can be seen that people in the past became so used to the characteristics that define a particular gender or stereotype preconception that despite the latter proving otherwise, the same “standard” continues to stick, especially when it comes to religious stereotyping. For example, despite women showing that they were just as capable as men when it came to certain tasks, the same gender stereotype preconception continued to exist (which classifies women as being the weaker sex), which results in greater rights, privileges and distinction being given to their less than capable male counterparts.

Such aspects are of course no longer seen in the present and, as such, can be considered evidence of a shift in society which had a distinct impact on religious socialization. For me, Johnstone (2007) did not sufficiently touch on this topic within the chapter “becoming religious” despite its relevance in understanding how becoming religious now is far different from being religious back then. When examining the concept of changes in becoming religious, it can be stated that this is applicable to nearly all modern societies at the present wherein through hundreds of years of change what was used to define Catholics, Muslims, Christians and Buddhists has gone through various iterations and changes.

Who they are at the present cannot even be considered a similar facsimile of the original religious culture within their respective societies. While it may be true that some vestiges of the original religious culture are left it can be stated that there are more differences than similarities wherein if you had brought someone from the 1600s to England, Japan, China or the U.S. they would be hard pressed to find what they could define as “familiar”.

Dynamic Development of Religious Culture

It is based on this that I developed the notion that to consider religious culture as a static event that is isolated to particular periods of time is actually fallacious. Rather, what is known as religious culture to most people is actually a dynamic process that constantly changes over the years into different iterations. To a certain extent it can be stated that the different religious periods throughout history are nothing more than stages in a development cycle that never truly ends.

It is based on this perspective that the religious distinctions that we have at the present will very likely undergo even more changes in the coming years into something completely different to our present day experience of religious culture yet the society of this future iteration will still define themselves as Catholics, Muslims, Christians and Buddhists.

The Concept of Religious Identification

This enduring method of “religious identification” is for me not necessarily a result of religious culture but rather a manifestation of the sense of community that is inherent in us all. Various studies have shown that man (i.e. humanity) is a social creature and actually craves societal contact and desires to be identified with a particular type of group. It is based on this that I came up with the conclusion that the concept of religious identification (i.e. calling oneself Catholic, Muslim, Christian, Buddhist etc.) is a way in which man has created a means by which he is able to identify himself with a particular social group and once this particular sense of identification is set that is when distinct aspects related to religious culture begin to manifest itself.

If you think about it, from this particular perspective, this helps to explain why societies that live within a relatively close proximity to each other can still develop drastically different religious cultures despite having the same religion (ex: France, Spain, and the U.K. which all have different forms of Catholicism).

Are People still becoming Religious today?

Based on the work of Snell (2012) which examined the societal origins of atheism it can be seen that the disbelief in the concept of an omnipresent and omniscient all mighty being is a prevalent aspect of present day society (Snell, 291-308). This is in part due to advances in the general understanding of the way in which the world around us works and operates through science and technology. Vaidyanathan (2011) points out that natural phenomena in the past was at times attributed to the actions of Gods and Goddesses as seen in the case of the Ancient Greek civilization (Vaidyanathan, 366-387).

It is only within the past 400 years that science has enabled us to better understand how natural phenomena occur and through such developments ushered in a period of understanding rather than ignorance (Vaidyanathan, 366-387). This in turn has caused a significant development in society at the present wherein people have started to doubt various aspects of religious doctrine involving creationism, miracles and a variety of other phenomena that have been elaborated on in such scriptures such as the Bible, the Torah and the Qur’an.

When examining the view of theologian Jonathan Edwards and the phrase “he that believeth not is condemned already” it can be seen that this is a statement indicating that those who do not believe in the concept of the almighty and his teachings through Jesus Christ are in effect condemned to an eternity of suffering in hell (Fisherman, 272-298). From a certain perspective it can be implied from the aforementioned statement and the way in which Edwards phrases his arguments in the sermon “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God” that what is needed in the case of the Christian faith is not a doubting mind but rather one that wholeheartedly believes in the teachings of the bible and in the message of Christ (Fisherman, 272-298).

The inherent problem with such a point of view is that science has in effect proven that many of the acts of God that have been listed in the Bible are actually the result of natural phenomena. It is based on this that another shift is evident wherein instead of religion being thrust upon a person and remaining with them for life, people unlike in the past are beginning to see the concept of choice wherein they no longer feel that they have to be part of a religion in order to feel that they “belong”.

Works Cited

Abo-Zena, Mona M. “Faith From The Fringes.” Phi Delta Kappan 93.4 (2011): 15. MasterFILE Premier. Web.

Fisherman, Shraga. “Socialization Agents Influencing The Religious Identity Of Religious Israeli Adolescents.” Religious Education 106.3 (2011): 272-298. Academic Search Premier. Web.

Johnstone, Ronald. Religion in Society: A Sociology of Religion, 8th Edition. 8th ed. New York: Pearson, 2007. Print.

Krause, Neal. “Parental Religious Socialization Practices, Connectedness With Others, And Depressive Symptoms In Late Life.” International Journal For The Psychology Of Religion 22.2 (2012): 135-154. Academic Search Premier. Web.

Kyoung, Seol. “The Effects Of Religious Socialization And Religious Identity On Psychosocial Functioning In Korean American Adolescents From Immigrant Families.” Journal Of Family Psychology 26.3 (2012): 371-380. Academic Search Premier. Web.

Lövheim, Mia. “Religious Socialization In A Media Age.” Nordic Journal Of Applied Ethics / Etikk I Praksis 6.2 (2012): 151-168. Academic Search Premier. Web.

Snell, Patricia. “Accidental Inequality: How Religious Youth Socialization Reproduces Social Inequality.” Sociological Spectrum 32.4 (2012): 291-308. Academic Search Premier. Web.

Vaidyanathan, Brandon. “Religious Resources Or Differential Returns? Early Religious Socialization And Declining Attendance In Emerging Adulthood.” Journal For The Scientific Study Of Religion 50.2 (2011): 366-387. Academic Search Premier. Web.

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Religion Sociology: Rational Choice Theory

Introduction

At times, I wonder if religion can be placed deep down a human being or outside of human beings. In other words, is religion an external force or an innate force in human beings? Views on religion differ, but two schools of thought seem to arise strongly (Johnstone, 13). One school looks at religion based on the substance of religion, i.e., what is religion composed of, what is the core of religion.

Does the other school look at what religion helps achieve (Johnstone, 7) what is the role of religion in society? At this point, I try to think about what role religion plays in society when negative things like earthquakes, floods, and droughts happen. Does religion bring answers to many questions running through the minds of people affected by such phenomena? I answer yes. Many people will attribute the happenings to the will of a supreme being and take consolation in the fact that such things were bound to happen anyway.

I further intend to reflect on the concept and importance of Sociology of Religion as well as the rational choice theory.

Sociology of Religion

Sociology is the study of how people interact in society. Sociology aims at deciphering how groups in society operate and how such groups affect an individual as well as collective behavior. Religion is the totality of beliefs and practices that a certain group embraces to assist them to focus on the Supreme Being or beings (Johnstone, 7). As such, religion must be practiced by a group of people and not a single individual.

Religion exhibits several characteristics. One, religion applies or is practiced by groups, which are commonly called denominations (Ronald, 9). I do not intend to imply that religion is not an individual happening. I mean, an individual can only practice religion within a certain group. Of course, the individual members make up the group, and the conviction must start with an individual (Putnam and Campbell, 35).

Secondly, religion must necessarily have a belief system to which individual members subscribe collectively but practice individually. Over, religion involves a set of practices such as rites for different occasions like baptism in Christianity. For the sake of society, religion must give moral prescriptions like respect for parents, avoidance of sexual immorality, among others. Prescriptions indicate what should be done or not done based on certain convictions. Lastly, religion involves the sacred. By this, I mean they believe in a Supreme Being or Beings (Johnstone, 11). Muslims, for instance, will cleanse themselves before going before Allah in prayers. Allah here is the Sacred.

Sociology of Religion, being a science, demands that Religion and any other subject should be approached with a lot of neutrality but I must say that it is impossible to be neutral when tackling such a value-laden subject as religion (Johnstone, 5). It is a science in the sense that it employs the scientific method of data collection and verification backed by evidence. It is the study of how religion influences society.

The question that immediately comes into my mind ‘to what extent can a sociologist in religion go to verify such concepts as the Supreme Being yet the human person is so limited (Johnstone, 6)?” Is it possible to verify issues such as the sacred, the supernatural, the opposing evil forces? It is a challenge to the aspect of the study being a science. I tend to think that where religion is concerned, the sociologist can only be content by depending on the views and observations obtained from the individuals in any religious group. Beyond that, it might prove hard.

All in all, it is worth noting that religion also embraces nonspiritual practices like education, health, and commerce. In this regard, an objective study on such aspects of religion can be carried out empirically since beneficiaries of such practices as well as the professionals involved are human beings, not unless such healing involves the spiritual realms.

Importance of Sociology of Religion

The study of how religion influences members of a society have its significance. The study allows people to understand how diversified the concept of religion is (Putnam and Campbell, 37). We have major religious groupings like Christianity, Buddhism, Hinduism, and Islam in the world. Even in a grouping like Christianity, there exist several groupings like the Roman Catholics, Anglicans, Lutherans, and Baptists, and so on. It is only through Sociology of Religion that one can grasp the diversity implied in religion.

Secondly, the Sociology of Religion assists the researcher to grasp, how culture affects religious views (Putnam and Campbell, 34). Culture is a people’s way of life, which is not static but dynamic. For instance, in my interaction with Muslims, I realize how the Middle East culture influences the religion called Islam. Islam is one religion whose practices like polygamy are a direct consequence of cultural practices. The use of water in sanitation, as opposed to paper, has a lot to do with culture than any other thing.

Much as culture affects and/or influences religion, it has also been known to affect certain cultures. Christianity in Africa is responsible for the change in way of life since it brought with it the European Culture. As such, practices such as worship of different deities have been overtaken by events. The missionaries condemned most of the African traditional aspects like polygamy, female genital mutilation, killing of twins among others.

Rational Choice Theory

This theory has to do with wanting more rather than less from a certain good or service. It is commonly applied to economics. When applied to religion, I would think of it as the choice a person makes regarding what satisfaction one can get from religion or a particular religion (Putnam and Campbell, 36).

Such deliberate choice is based on various assumptions. First of all, as a human being, my choice is based on rational calculations. If I belong to this religion, how am I to benefit, for instance? Secondly, I am a rational being, and in that regard, my choices must be based on reasoning. Lastly, I must choose what will grant me maximum pleasure or benefit (Johnstone, 9).

Conclusion

Religion can be best understood by people who are inside it more than those who are outside a religion. The outsider can only interpret the sensible, but the insider knows what they have since it has to do with the sacred, the supernatural forces which are not quantifiable. Sociology of Religion is significant since it explains how religion influences society and vice versa. Religion is a part and a parcel of our daily life and affords members some benefits. If one has to belong to a certain religion, deliberate and informed choice is inevitable. The reason has to prevail so that one can know how much benefit to expect from religion.

Works Cited

Johnstone, Ronald, L. Religion in Society: A Sociology or Religion. Pearson: Prentice- Hall, 2007.

Putnam, Robert D. and David E. Campbell. American Grace: How Religion Divides and Unites Us. New York: Simon & Schuster, 2010.

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“Religion in Society: A Sociology of Religion” by Ronald Johnstone

Introduction

The most important chapter in this context is chapter one. Apparently, all people have some familiarity with the religion, although they may not be affiliated with any religious group in particular. However, religion plays a crucial role when it comes to the field of politics (Dawson, 2011). Probably, terrorism has some indirect links to politics; for instance, the event that took place on 11th of September 2001 led to the emerging concerns and fame of the Islamic religion (Putnam & Campbell, 2010).

The actual perpetrators and players involved in the attack were linked to this religion, and this sparks my concern for the role of religion in preserving human life and dignity. Religion is rampant, and most people are for the recognition of God as the Supreme Being. Moreover, the strong presence of religion prevails even among people who claim not to be affiliated to any religion or even to recognize God, but in one way or another, from their expression, they tend to recognize the existence of a supreme being.

The aspect of religion exists to uphold some beliefs and practices (Blasi, 2007). Principles such as recognition of human rights, justice to all people, equity, and freedom from oppression prevail among all religions despite their differences in faith. Despite many religions in the world today, upholding these principles shows that human beings are not defined by religion, rather religion is a basis of a person’s faith while at the same time in respect of one another by virtue of being human (Dillon, 2003). This paper reflects on various issues in connection to sociology and the study of religion, as highlighted in chapter one of this book by Ronald Johnstone.

Roles of sociology in connection to religion

Sociology aims at defining the way people interact, especially when in groups, and how the two parties get to influence each other as they keep on interacting. In my opinion, this aspect depicts that a sociologist is in a position to explain the different behavior of different individuals in a group. Sociology is quite crucial in finding solutions to problems that may arise in an organization or even a small group of people (Johnstone, 2007).

This assertion holds because different people behave in a different way and human beings are subject to influence each other if care is not taken during socialization. This same case happens with religion, which is usually organized in groups. For instance, there are Muslims, Christians, Buddhists, and many other religious groups currently existing globally. The strong influence exerted upon people by a particular religion makes him or her remain or join a particular religious group (Dawson, 2011).

The influence is derived from individuals’ perceptions of the group’s doctrines and teachings that lead to strong beliefs and faith in the religious group. Religious groups have such a strong influence, as they are likely to determine a member’s behavior at his or her place of work, home, and other social places. This aspect holds because that member tends to behave in a way to obey the group’s teachings and doctrines (Johnstone, 2007). The displayed behavior is likely to attract others into joining or rejecting a particular religious group.

Sociologists’ assumptions on religion

Just like many other theories and concepts, sociological concepts and views on religion have assumptions behind them. By virtue of being a biological organism, human beings are subject to a variety of needs, potentials, and limitations, and this aspect makes us prone to influence, although limited by biological factors. Religion is one of the agents through which human beings tend to socialize (Johnstone, 2007).

For instance, people from different households meet for a common purpose on a certain day as long as they share a common religious group and faith. This element is not limited to households, but the socialization of this kind can extend to people from different regions globally. Religion plays a crucial role in defining how the mode of behavior, especially when it comes to sexuality (Dawson, 2011).

Different religious groups have different views when dealing with human sexuality; however, there exists a common aspect that all of them regard and concur that it should be treated with the dignity of high caliber. For instance, Christianity is for the view that sexual intercourse is only a preserve for the married and polygamy is not allowed as God created one man and a woman; therefore, marriage should be preserved for two people. However, this belief is not the case with Muslims who allow polygamy, although they strictly discourage sexual activities before marriage. In both religious groups, sex before marriage qualifies for fornication, which is sinful before God. This aspect depicts the fact that religion has a strong influence on this biological aspect of human beings (Dawson, 2011).

Human beings have the ability to attach some meaning to objects, sounds, and symbols, among others. Arguably, the creation of consensus on the intrinsic meanings has helped members of a group to communicate and gain adequate knowledge (Johnstone, 2007). Different symbols and words are used to denote different things or pass a variety of knowledge and ideas among different religious groups.

The religious aspect for some people claims that a divine message has been revealed to them. However, if this message is not expressed in a way that can be understood by people, then that message tends to lose meaning and become useless. This assertion is an issue that needs to be addressed as it seems to be recurrent and religious leaders involved do not seem to take any step to correct the issue (Furseth & Repstad, 2007).

For instance, in a prayer meeting, people tend to deliver messages in tongues that cannot be understood by the people present. The message loses meaning since the intended recipients cannot understand. Arguably, people become human when in groups. I agree with sociologists to some extent for a human being cannot exist on his or her own. Human beings are dependent on each other, and thus can hardly survive independently. However, I challenge this point for courtesy of biological makeup, people are human beings. For instance, they are human for they have higher brain capacity than all animals, and they are organized in a unique way when it comes to the body structure.

The assumption that all actions by human beings are directed towards solving a problem stands to be challenged (Blasi, 2007). Sociologists believe that human beings are presented with problems that they choose to present a solution either immediately or in the future. However, it depends on a person’s discretion to solve the problem or leave it as presented. They also believe that religious behavior aims at solving some forms of problems through prayers, attending church services, and many other ways. Currently, religion has failed to address some contentious issues, and it seems to complicate issues the more.

For instance, it is not biblical to terminate the life of another person. Medically, do the Bible and other religions come in to provide a solution in termination of pregnancy when the mother’s life is at risk? Currently, some people are being sentenced to death by courts for various crimes depending on the magnitude of the crime committed. Does this decision depict a conflict between religious principles and those depicted by systems of justice? Apparently, the same religion advocates justice to all human beings. These issues depict some of the problems that religion has failed to provide a solution.

The concept of religion

Sociologists have offered different definitions of religion. However, there is no clear and concise definition of religion, although it can be based on the role depicted by religion upon the lives of different individuals. The difficulty relies on the fact that there are many mysteries lying behind a religion, most of which are natural and can hardly be explained (Dillon, 2003); for instance, where people go after death and causes of death, floods, fires, and thunderstorms among others.

From these occurrences, people believe a strong force behind them, hence laying a basis of religion. Religion is a phenomenon on a group of people who have similar believes (Dawson, 2011). However, religion is a group phenomenon, although it begins with an individual who has a vision and insights that he or she feels should be shared with other people. Based on this argument, sociologists can derive characteristics depicted by a certain group of individuals who share a common goal (Dawson, 2011).

Currently, there has been the emergence of differences among the member of a certain religion, which has led to divisions being experienced among members of a certain religious group (Putnam & Campbell, 2010). This aspect has resulted in the emergence of several protestant religious groups, especially among Christians. Sometimes, religious practices, beliefs, and doctrines should go hand in hand with logic.

Some religious groups with weird teachings and practices have been on the rise, and to my surprise, people are following them blindly, which shows the extent at which religion has had influence on human beings beyond logic and common sense. However, a religious group should be organized in a way where every member has a role to play with respect to the norms of the group. In addition, as a sign and symbol of unity, group members should work together, as it is also a way of expressing unity and a sense of belonging.

All religious groups have a body of beliefs and set of practices, which they are entitled to in their existence; for instance, holy books, readings and scriptures, in addition to universally accepted principles and practices. These set of practices are upheld on behavior, especially when it comes to performance of some rituals (Blasi, 2007). However, people should be warned against following certain religions blindly.

People should be at a position to evaluate the intrinsic meaning behind some practices by some religious groups, especially with the current emergence of different religious groups, some with religious practices that need close scrutiny. There have even been allegations that some religious groups are linked to devil worshiping. These allegations have gone to the extent of claiming that currently, the practice has been very rampant and are associated with top class people in the society (Putnam & Campbell, 2010).

With the application of common sense and logic, people should be at a position to study the behavior depicted by such groups and make an informed decision before taking any action. Some of these groups tend to lack moral prescriptions as displayed by other religious groups. They have no dignity for human life as depicted by the fact that they make human sacrifices in order to fulfill certain missions. This practice is against universal Christian religion that shuns this kind of practice (Furseth & Repstad, 2007).

Religion and magic

The practice of magic entails exercise of powers that are likely to have control over people. However, this practice happens out of consciousness and is a deliberate practice to interfere with certain events expected to occur in the future (Blasi, 2007). Magic can also be applied to have a change on some events that are deemed inevitable. However, it is only among primitive societies that such practices are prevalent, although some people are ignorant when distinguishing religion from magic.

However, this scenario happens as both involve some faith and beliefs, practices, and tend to provide solutions to problems faced by some individuals. Although there are some similarities between the two, religion supersedes magic in various ways (Blasi, 2007). While religion goes beyond providing a solution to a problem, magic is typically geared towards a problem after which the powers cease to function. Religion is a group affair that involves believing in unseen super natural being whereas magic is an individual affair involving a magician- a fellow human being (Dawson, 2011).

Conclusion

There lays various roles played by the religion in the lives of people as stipulated in chapter one of this book. Religion is crucial in upholding human dignity through promotion of virtues such as equality among others. Currently, there has been the emergence of various religious groups with varying practices. However, every human being has the responsibility of studying the group carefully before making an informed decision.

Reference List

Blasi, A. J. (2007). American sociology of religion: Histories. Leiden, Holland: Brill.

Dawson, A. (2011). Sociology of religion. London, UK: SCM Press.

Dillon, M. (2003). Handbook of the sociology of religion. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Furseth, I., & Repstad, P. (2007). An introduction to the sociology of religion: Classical and contemporary perspectives. Aldershot, UK : Ashgate.

Johnstone, R. (2007). Religion in Society: A Sociology of Religion (8th Edition). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Putnam, R., & Campbell, D. (2010). American grace: How religion divides and unites us. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.

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Religion in America: African-American Churches

How important has the institution of the church been for African-Americans?

African-American churches are churches whose ministry is predominantly done to African-American people living in the United States. The institution of the church has a significant role for the African-American people. The African-American churches were established after the abolition of the slave trade. They developed their ways of worship that were culturally distinct from those of white Americans. I will highlight some of the reasons why the church is an important institution for African-American people.

Social cohesion

The most important role played by the African-American church is the provision of cohesion. The church has been able to bind together the black people living in America, thus making it easier for them to achieve their aspirations. Black people in America must work hand in hand to achieve their targets.

Creation of awareness

The African-American church has provided its congregation with a forum for enlightenment. Church leaders have developed various forums to enlighten their people about various issues that touch on different aspects of the black American people. These issues include political issues, social issues, and economic issues. The church makes the congregation aware of its rights as American citizens.

Social institution

The church is a very important institution in the social lives of African-American people. The church provides a forum for which the African-Americans can meet and interact. It gives them the voice to raise issues that they face and provides them with a forum to discuss their issues and find amicable solutions. The church is an important institution that these people can run to seek support, especially when other institutions fail to provide them.

Reduction of crime

The African-American church has been able to impact morals and virtues to the members of the society, and this has helped to reduce crime rates. The high levels of unemployment for black Americans has resulted in increased crime. The church has taken an active role in trying to reform criminals by giving them teachings on good morals and Christian virtues. Crime, especially among black youths is a major concern for Americans, and the church has had to step up to ensure that this trend changes by teaching the youth honest ways of making a living.

Social welfare

The church institution has taken an active role in providing its people with social amenities. These social amenities include schools, health facilities, recreation centers, and orphanages. It has helped to build the community by improving the living standards of people. The church has sponsored various projects which are aimed at improving the quality of life of its people.

What do you think the future of religion is in America?

America is one of the world’s most religious countries. The greater population of America engages in private and organized spiritual practices. However, I believe that in the coming years, the future of religion in America will be transformed. I believe that religious practices will decline shortly. I will provide several reasons why I believe religion will decline in America.

Scientific advancements

I believe this is the main reason why religion will lose its meaning in America. Many people are beginning to have doubts regarding various spiritual beliefs, especially, because man has proved to have the capability of developing things that God could. Technological advancements that are discovered daily make it more convincing to believe in science due to the presence of physical evidence, unlike with religion where we know God exists, but nobody has seen him.

Religious diversity

The diversity of religion is on the rise in America. I believe that the religious landscape will change in the coming years. Jewish, Catholic, and Protestant religions are the most dominant religions in America. I think the main reason for religious diversity is due to the presence of immigrants in America. As people moved into this country, they carried along with them their religious practices. The Muslim religion is an example of the growing religions in America. The presence of Sikhs, Muslims, and Buddhists in America is evidence of diversity. This diversity is going to be experienced in the future as people believe in change.

Religious conservatives

Religious conservativeness is a growing trend in American society. Conservativeness arises as a way of trying to deal with religious diversity. I believe that in a decade to come, many religions in America will have lost their identities, and this will necessitate the presence of religious conservatives to defend fundamental truths. The conservative movements are established to deal with threats posed due to religious diversity.

Changes in society are the main reason why the rates of religious practices are bound to decline shortly in America. Sexuality, contraception, and biotechnology are some of the reasons why religion is taking a deep change. People tend to believe in science more than in God. People also want to be associated with groups that are open to new trends, and religions that have strict rules will lose followers.

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Religious Beliefs

Theism or atheism?

The belief held by theists is that God’s existence can be proven by rational argument. It is true that God’s character is understood to be all-powerful (omnipotent), a God who is all-knowing (omniscient), unchanging (immutable), incapable of suffering (impassable), eternal and perfect righteousness (Peterson, et. al, 2002). Thus, it is essential to understand that if religion is meaningful or not, then man must commit to an enterprise, which considers the grounds for belief in God. The philosophy of theism involves a consideration of the tenets of philosophical theism. The limitation with the approach of the philosophy of theism is that it tends to focus on a limited perspective of religious practices.

Religion involves a fundamental faith commitment to a set of beliefs that are aimed at transforming the lives of individuals and society. When religion is considered in a historical context the study of religion results in various attitudes to religion, as well as, the conception of the existence of God. Theism is the most common doctrine held by those who believe in the existence of God as an individual being.

Contrary to this, atheists support the doctrine of those who oppose the idea of an existence of God or a supreme deity. Atheism is a doctrine that rejects theists’ ideas (Peterson, et. al, 2002). Atheists do not believe in God and reject the notion that God exists. It is a concept that is considered as a personal conviction concerning religion. If an individual does not practice religious faith or does not have any feelings or knowledge of God’s existence, this may have implications for the thought of many.

How an individual perceives his or her life and the moral attitudes and principles, or how an individual relates to others in the society varies largely from a theist and an atheist. Human being understands the existence of cultural variation for different religions, as the idea of the existence of a supreme deity also varies with different religious groups. Different categories of atheists can also differ in their attitudes of rejection towards the existence of God. Many factors influence the reason why people understand certain concepts differently which leads to variations in reasoning. The differences are evident across cultural diversity as well as philosophical and spiritual contexts.

These are challenges that should be viewed as great to the thinking and reasoning of man (Peterson, et. al, 2002). In the cultural context, these variations are a challenge to human reasoning and feelings. Culture may assert individualism as well as liberty. For instance, human rationality can be influenced by geographical factors on human reasoning capacity, mentality, as well as, feelings. These factors determine the manner in which man perceives God.

On the other, a theist and an atheist are influenced by philosophical reasoning that prevails within the cultural and the intellectual context and determines how individuals perceive the existence of God. These philosophical ideologies demonstrate a new perspective in which the critical question of God’s existence can influence the future of religion. Thus, atheists may question the usefulness of God in a society that is substantially under the influence of pragmatism.

Moreover, an atheist may seek to inquire about the role of God in society. When a particular group of people is influenced by idealism, it becomes more probable to seek to understand God’s existence and how to interact with Him in order to understand Him. Thus, an important question to ask is what GOD is being rejected by the atheists, and what would be the possible consequence of this rejection? It is necessary to keep religious considerations in mind since different religions perceive and explain the existence of God in different ways. These religions have distinct thoughts and feelings.

Even though individuals may argue that there is only one God, the existence of God is perceived in the same way by different people. Atheism rejects the existence of God, this practice may attract the attention of people to ask, what kind of God is rejected? Some people may decide to reject God when they perceive that He is a God of intolerance and suffering. The logical consequence of theism is that it is the rejection of the presence of a Supreme Being or God.

The definition of an atheist is an inbuilt and inherent rejection of the existence of a supreme being. There exists a secular consequence of the perception of the existence of a supreme deity and a rejection of the idea that God exists. These are evident in other aspects of human life. The major reason for this consequence is the nature in which man perceives and conceives God that also has a direct link to how an individual perceives oneself as well as others.

However, according to the concept of agnosticism, it is not easy for a human being to attain the knowledge of God (Peterson, et. al, 2002). Other people may use their intellectual ability to agree to the non-existence of a supreme deity or, maybe emotionally chosen to reject the existence of God.

Developing what I regard as the sharpest problem facing a traditional Christian or Muslim or Hindu, or Buddhist, by providing the facts of religious diversity and explaining how an appeal to religious experience may be made in an attempt to defuse the problem

The most pressing problem in understanding religious traditions is the different traditional cultural perceptions of world religions. Historically, there are claims that all religions represent different ideas, which are directed to the same route. Despite the fact that each religion may choose its own direction, the diversity in religious belief and practices are different from Christians, Muslims, Buddhists, Hindus, as well as, other religions of the world.

The pressing problem to the traditional religions is the intolerance and the assertion that one religion is the only true religion. This type of intolerance among the traditional religions has ignited much suffering to the human race (Peterson, et. al, 2002). Thus, it leads to more problems since there is a lack of tentative proof that one religion is genuine, and others are false religions. Therefore, it explains that there is no religion that has the ultimate truth. However, the main purpose of religion is destined to the same direction that may be emphasized by the pluralistic hypothesis (Hick, 1970).

According to Hick, the hypothesis he presented fourth tries to explain the fact that human beings are inherently religious, hence leading to some substantial diversity that exists in the actual meaning of a religious belief. This supports the assumption that belief in a supreme deity or God is an illusion and the fact that most religions have a tradition that seeks to transform a believer’s life. According Hick (1970) he asserted that there is an ultimate reality that all the religious traditions suffering from Kantian Blindness do not have any direct link or perception of the ultimate reality.

He also posits that different traditions of diverse religious groups indicate an authentic way in the perception of reality and religious experience (Hick, 1970). There are various religious traditions with conflicting beliefs on various crucial aspects of religion. Each traditional religion enhances a positive moral change referred to as the liberation in the behavior of the followers (Hick, 1970). Thus, it is not proper to conclude that one religion is more genuine than others. Such a pluralistic interpretation of religion portrays a strong appeal but is finally unacceptable. For instance, it does not consider the conflicting truth claims among diverse religious groups.

All religions have truth claims, which may contradict the claims made by other religions. The contradiction based on the truth claim needs to be taken into account with regard to the nature of reality. Moreover, reality also embodies the nature of God’s existence. Furthermore, the difference between monotheism and atheistic religion is quite clear. For instance, Muslims believe that there exists only one supreme deity, Allah. The Muslims believe that Allah created the universe from nonentity (Hick, 1970). On the other hand, the Hindu’s religious view is parallel to the Muslims because they believe in an absolute reality that oversees everything.

The Hindu’s also believe in numerous deities, which are the manifestations of absolute reality (Brahman). In addition, traditional religions are also influenced by opposing views on life after death. This contradiction relates to the fate of the dead. The Muslims believe that an individual dies once and later on faces judgment by their God (Allah). According to the Muslim’s Supreme Deity, Allah, an individual is present in eternity either in hell or in heaven depending on the judgment made by Allah.

The Hindu religious tradition believes that the life of man is cyclic from the time of birth to rebirth after death. They also believe that the existence of man is controlled by influential cosmic laws; these laws control the past life of an individual, the present life, as well as, the future life. The Hindu religious belief states that an individual is reincarnated and may be transformed into any creature including man. These religious traditions are identified by the same problems that have implications to humanity. Consequently, this takes us to the next level of argument by the Hindu, that man faces a universal problem characterized by a continuous cycle of birth, death, and rebirth which traps all.

This condition can be unrestricted when man undergoes religious commitment through devotion and a close relationship with the Supreme Deity. The other religious group with a distinct ideology believes that man faces a problem of separation between him and God. This separation occurs when man sins and rebels by violating Gods commands. These are Christians who also believe that man is not able to solve these problems. However, through salvation, sin can be overcome.

Christians also believe that Jesus is the Savior who died to save mankind from sin. This is seen as a covenant to restore the bondage between man and God. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the religious contradictions about reality, the fate of people after death, and the universal problem facing humanity which are some of the problems facing the traditional religions. If different religions make claims that are contradicting, then none of them can be right. Therefore, this principle of contradiction leads to a misunderstanding of the true nature of religious language.

The area of philosophy of religion that has changed my views the most because of taking this course

The discipline of philosophy of religion is quite beneficial in this course because it leads to an understanding of the concepts involved in religious traditions. The field has been tremendously beneficial since it provides an opportunity to explore various religious beliefs of the world. According to the philosophical reflection of God, the reasons of faith were initially not considered as part of philosophy of religion.

However, philosophy of religion forms a vital component among philosophical disciplines. The interactions of various philosophical themes including debates about God’s existence, importance of religious pluralism and the nature of good and evil in relation to God’s existence as well as the purpose that led to the origins of terms such as theism, materialism, consciousness and many more. An important area that changed my views in learning philosophy of religion is the existence of God.

Most arguments on the subject are presented as unjustifiable proofs and demonstrated as infallible. For example, the debate that the concept of the role of the cosmos is not practical on the grounds that there is an intelligent work done by the cosmos, undermines the argument on the existence of God who is characterized by his omnipotent, omnipresent, and benevolent nature. Various comments and conclusions can distort the views of the scientific naturalists who do not support the notion of the transcendence forces and intelligence. Therefore, it is important to don further research by initiating a comprehensive inquiry on the increasing common philosophies that include theism.

Foundationalism is another concept that is very controversial concerning the philosophy of religion because it focuses on arguments based on the beliefs that seems to be true to some extent. On the basis of justifying an extensive belief about oneself and the existence of the universe, most philosophers have taken interest to consider the justification more complex. Thus, an emerging way of conducting a study on philosophy of religion is based on the non-foundationalist line that depends on a comparative rationality of various religious views.

Another means of conducting studies on philosophy of religion on the non-foundationalist line depends on the logical truth on the various worldwide religious views that can be demonstrated to be less rational than other options, but requires obtaining logical equality. The notion of the existence of God may be considered as basic and fully warranted without any justification related to a standard argument for God in his design as well as miracles; hence, this argument can be based on the integrity of religious views of the world as a holistic, internally coherent, as well as open to criticisms along different forces.

The study on the existence of God has led to various factions of theists and atheists as well as the deists. Fideism is another branch that maintains an argument that there is no proof on God’s existence. However, this is not a practical argument to understand the existence of God due to its minimal contribution to the debate. Therefore, philosophy of religion is beneficial because it introduces man to the nature, scope, and distinction between what is right or wrong. Moreover, it is concerned with human and personal activities; hence making the discipline to be of more concern in practical matters (Peterson, et. al, 2002).

The other pertinent issue to this field of study is its broad context. The field explains various religious traditions in the world; hence, various aspects of religion can be understood through the study of philosophy of religion. Furthermore, philosophy of religion touches on historical ideas in addressing religious issues. Therefore, the discipline is beneficial because it helps man to understand the impact of religion and the extent of religious experience among individuals and the society. Philosophy of religion is an important field of study because it exposes an individual to the religious experiences from the existing conflicting claims concerning reality based on the religious experiences.

Various religious experiences need to be addressed in order to obtain a detailed interpretation of the accounts by invoking the concepts in the respective religious traditions. Furthermore, the discipline is very crucial in comparing different religious beliefs and tenets. The analysis of various religions is beneficial because it contributes to the flourishing of religious ideas. Thus, its significance is particularly valuable in understanding the views of various religious groups. For instance, the views held byte Buddhists of the idea of knowledge and the self that has been significantly crucial to understanding the existence of a supernatural being, or the relevant themes in the theological works that involve the transcendence of God and his divine characters (Peterson, et. al, 2002).

References

Hick, J. (ed.), (1970). Classical and Contemporary Readings in the Philosophy of Religion. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Peterson, M., Hasker, W., Bruce, R., and Basinger, D. (2002). Reason and Religious Belief: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Religion, 3rd edition. USA: Oxford University Press.

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Wisdom in Old and New Testament

Introduction

What is wisdom? Even humble attempts to explore the concept—for example, by asking one’s friends to define it—will reveal quite a variety of interpretations. However, all of them will revolve around understanding the way things are, knowing the way they work, making the right decisions, and advising others what the right thing to do is. Webster’s dictionary contains six definitions of the word: “accumulated philosophical or scientific learning,” “ability to discern inner qualities and relationships,” “good sense,” “generally accepted belief,” “a wise attitude, belief, or course of action,” and “the teachings of the ancient wise men” (Merriam-Webster’s, 2008, p. 1437). In different contexts, the word is connected to knowledge, insight, and judgment. Oxford dictionary (2010) offers three definitions: “the quality of having experience, knowledge, and good judgment; the quality of being wise,” “the fact of being based on sensible or wise thinking,” and “the body of knowledge and experience that develops within a specified society or period” (p. 2036). It cannot pass unnoticed that the word has strong positive connotations.

Concerning wisdom as the quality of a person, it has been regarded as a virtue by many religions. In fact, in Hinduism and Buddhism, achieving enlightenment, which can be regarded as the ultimate degree of wisdom, is the goal of all spiritual practices developed by those religions. For Christians, being wise is important, too. However, the exploration of this concept from the Christian perspective should not be limited to dictionary definitions, and analysis of Scripture is required to gain insight into what is meant by wisdom. To address the initial biblical (i.e. original Christian) understanding of wisdom, three examples from the Old Testament and three examples from the New Testament will be examined and compared.

Old Testament

Definition

The Old Testament uses different words that can be translated into English as “wisdom;” however, the one that is used the most is “chokhmah” (Shapiro, 1971). The word is strongly connected to knowledge and can be defined as proficient knowledge or being very well-learned and educated in a particular subject or in general. Until today, the word can be found in Hebrew titles for rabbis who have dedicated many years of their lives to studying Scripture and are recognized as experts in it. However, the word can refer to skillfulness, too (which is the case for its English counterpart as well). Another word in the Old Testament that can be translated as “wisdom” is “Binah”; in some contexts, however, it is translated as “understanding” to avoid confusion with “chokhmah” because they are used in the same verses. This suggests that the original text differentiates between the meanings of the two worlds, and they are not synonyms, although both can mean “wisdom” in certain contexts. One more Hebrew word for “wisdom” that can be found in the Old Testament is “sakhal;” it primarily refers to a person’s behavior that helps him or her manage practical affairs successfully and avoid trouble. Therefore, it can be referred to as wisdom, too, and possible synonyms for the word are caution, discretion, prudence, and circumspection.

Verses

To examine the specific features of the words’ meanings, it is necessary to turn to particular verses in which they are used. A verse that demonstrates one of the aspects of the word “chokhmah” is Exodus 28:3 (New International Version) that reads, “Tell all the skilled workers to whom I have given wisdom in such matters that they are to make garments for Aaron, for his consecration, so he may serve me as a priest.” Wisdom in this context refers to a certain set of knowledge and skills that allow a certain degree of proficiency in performing particular tasks.

There is also a verse that demonstrates the difference between “chokhmah” (wisdom) and “Binah” (in this context, understanding): “The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom, and knowledge of the Holy One is understanding” (Proverbs 9:10, New International Version). This verse reveals a specific difference between various aspects of wisdom in terms of the Christian understanding of God. Finally, a verse that shows an example of the use of the word “sakhal” is Joshua 1:8 (New International Version): “Keep this Book of the Law always on your lips; meditate on it day and night, so that you may be careful to do everything written in it. Then you will be prosperous and successful.” The idea of succeeding in life is closely connected in this context to discretion and prudence and conveyed by the use of the word “sakhal.”

Analysis

Although only three verses were shown above, more than three distinct visions of wisdom have been presented. In the case of “chokhmah,” wisdom can refer both to proficient knowledge and skillfulness. The former is theoretical, and the latter is practical; however, what they have in common, is that “chokhmah” is something one should learn and try to master. From this perspective, wisdom is an achievement; it requires substantial effort. If someone is granted “chokhmah,” this can rather be seen as a miraculous event because most people need to work hard to achieve it, albeit a skill or a body of knowledge. Therefore, this notion, which is the leader in the Old Testament in terms of being translated into English as “wisdom,” means knowing how to do something better than others and being capable of more meaningful judgments based on the expertise one has earned. It is noteworthy that, from this perspective, one cannot be born wise; wisdom is rather a quality on which one should work.

The second word, “Binah,” is translated as “wisdom” in some contexts, but not in the context presented above. It is a different aspect of being wise that is not equal to “chokhmah,” and the verse from the Book of Proverbs illustrates the difference. This verse shows the way of a Christian’s cognition of God. First, the fear of death and supernatural forces that humans cannot control prompts them to study the word of God—“[t]he fears of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom”—and this training further allows gaining insight into the God’s intention for creation—“knowledge of the Holy One is understanding” (Proverbs 9:10, New International Version).

In this context, wisdom is not merely knowledge and skills one acquires during his or her life but the enlightenment he or she achieves as a result of this hard learning process. Therefore, “Binah” can be regarded as the next step in developing wisdom; upon accumulating a body of knowledge, one manages to comprehend it profoundly, and this is how the wisdom of a new level is achieved. The differentiation can be confusing, but it should not be disregarded that the English language has different definitions for the word “wisdom,” too (see Introduction). To illustrate this gradation, one can refer to the idea that a smart person is one who knows a lot (or a skillful person is one who can do something better than others), while a wise person is one who understands what he or she knows (or brings meaningfulness to the skill in which he or she is proficient).

Finally, the concept of “sakhal” is beyond this gradation. It refers to wisdom as the ability to be practical and to achieve benefits. At the same time, “sakhal” does not necessarily refer to selfishness; instead, it suggests that it is the wisest strategy for a person to adopt behaviors that will ultimately prevent the person from harming himself or herself. By using the term that is associated with success, the Bible suggests that the life of a Christian is not necessarily a series of sacrifices or a period of never-ceasing suffering. On the contrary: if a person is committed to certain moral values, it will bring him or her prosperity and success, and this is why it is wise for Christians to follow the word of God because the reward will come not only after death but before it, too: living the life of a committed believer is hard in this regard but wise from the perspective of a Christian. It is prudent to live according to the way God wants humans to live—not only because going to heaven or hell will depend on the compliance with God’s commandments but also because rewards for the period of one’s earthly life exist, and the verse seems to support this idea.

New Testament

Definition

In the New Testament, the variations in meanings are somewhat less confusing for the concept of wisdom, and what is translated into English as “wisdom” is the word “Sophia” in most cases (Schroer, 2000). This word is still present in English—not only as a popular female name but also as root in such words as sophisticated or philosophy (the latter means love for wisdom). However, a closer examination reveals that there are Greek words used in different parts of the New Testament that can be associated with the notion of wisdom, too, and two prominent ones are “Epignosis” and “sunesis.” The former word’s root refers to knowledge and can be seen in such English words as “cognition” and “recognize;” however, it should be acknowledged that “gnosis” is not knowledge as such but something that can be described as primary knowledge, i.e. achieved by empirical or organoleptic methods—by trying or sensing—or revealed to someone by supreme forces.

It is not something that someone tells a person; it is something a person gets to know through experience. The prefix of the word “Epignosis” suggests that it is something above knowledge and can designate “true knowledge” (as opposed to superficial knowledge) or a higher level of knowing something, e.g. by intuition. However, the meanings may vary in different contexts. The other word—“sunesis”—can be translated as “understanding”, i.e. gaining insight into the knowledge one possesses. “Sunesis” refers to the result of reasoning and examining facts and designates the transition of mind from knowing what things are to understanding the way they work.

Verses

Many verses in the New Testament use the word “Sophia;” a major one is Mark 6:2 which reads, “What’s this wisdom that has been given him [Jesus]? What are these remarkable miracles he is performing?” (New International Version). This verse refers to Jesus Christ’s teaching in the synagogue and people’s reaction to it. It shows that wisdom (“Sophia”) is something evident in one’s words: what he or she says and perhaps how it is said. A verse that uses the word “Epignosis” is Romans 1:28, and it is translated as “knowledge” there, although it can be understood as wisdom, too; the verse reads, “Furthermore, just as they [people, who suppress the truth by their wickedness] did not think it worthwhile to retain the knowledge of God, so God gave them over to a depraved mind so that they do what ought not to be done” (New International Version). It should be noted that, according to the definition of “epignosis,” this knowledge had been granted to people but refused or neglected, and this led them to shameful deeds. Finally, the word “sunesis” is used in Luke 2:47 that reads, “Everyone who heard him [Jesus] was amazed at his understanding and his answers” (New International Version). It means that the listeners of Jesus Christ’s teachings noted not only his “Sophia” but also his insight into issues of which he spoke, and this is what “sunesis”—translated as “understanding” in this version—designates.

Analysis

An important aspect of the use of the word “Sophia” in the New Testament is that it is presented as a quality of a person that can be recognized from hearing the person speak. There is a persisting question in the analysis of the concept of wisdom: how can one who is not wise recognize wisdom? If wisdom is understood as a particularly high level of perceiving and understanding things, how can one who is not on this level make judgments as per whether certain statements are wise or not? However, the Bible shows that people called some other people wise (and they still do); does it mean that those people implied that there were wise, too (since a wise person only can tell a wise person from non-wise)? Different answers can be given, but the mechanism of recognizing someone as a wise person seems to be driven by the power of impression: when one hears a statement that makes things connect in his or her head in a meaningful way, this person feels impressed and can say that the statement is wise or that the one from whom he or she heard the statement is wise. This is what seems to have happened to the listeners of Jesus Christ’s teaching when they said “What’s this wisdom that has been given him” (Mark 6:2, New International Version). In this context, wisdom is something that causes amazement in the listeners.

Concerning the word “epignosis,” Jesus Christ uses it to designate a specific internal feeling of God and the translation of this feeling and faith into knowledge. Therefore, wisdom from this perspective can be regarded as a form of transformed knowledge: one is wise if he or she knows God and knows what God wants him or her to do, and those who lose this knowledge or suppress it engage in shameful activities. Both “Sophia” and “Epignosis” are something that develops in a person as a result of either experience or divine revelation. When it is said that “many who heard him [Jesus] were amazed” (Mark 6:2, New International Version), what is meant is that they doubted that such wisdom could have developed from experience and that it could be of divine origin. When Jesus Christ says that there are people who suppressed their “Epignosis” of God, what he means is that this knowledge had been in them already but they somehow drifted away from it. Therefore, wisdom as the knowledge of God may not necessarily be something achieved as a result of experience but something granted by God to humans as part of creating them in His image.

Finally, the meaning of the word “sunesis” is similar to that of “Sophia” but it is more specific in a way. The listeners of Jesus Christ’s teachings were amazed not at how much he knew but at his vision and interpretation of things. In this context, wisdom can be interpreted as the ability to answer questions in a way that makes sense to many people and brings them insight. It is noteworthy that Jesus Christ was just a child at the time to which Luke refers; therefore, “sunesis” cannot mean accumulated knowledge of life that is usually attributed to experienced people; instead, it is something that even a child can display in case his or her perspective and speech are appealing to the listeners and make them enlightened. When Jesus Christ’s mother tells him that she had been looking for him and was worried, he replies, “Didn’t you know I had to be in my Father’s house?” (Luke 2:49, New International Version); it can be interpreted as the recognition of the temple as exactly the place in which a person’s wisdom, whether “Sophia” or “sunesis,” is to be displayed.

Comparison

In both Testaments, the understandings of wisdom can be generally divided into two groups: wisdom that comes from experience and wisdom that does not. In the former sense, “chokhmah” and “Sophia” are something that can be achieved by a person in case he or she learns a lot or manages to make sense of his or her experiences. Unlike “Sophia,” “chokhmah” also designates skillfulness and knowing how to do something. Interestingly, the meanings of the three words chosen from the New Testament seem to overlook the concept of skillfulness; a skillful person can possess wisdom, high knowledge, and understanding, but skillfulness itself is not something that makes him or her wise. Also, the New Testament’s words do not seem to reflect the Old Testament’s concept of “sakhal,” i.e. practical wisdom and ability to achieve success.

However, both Testaments recognize the difference between knowing and understanding (Deen & Caldwell, 2003). Although “chokhmah” is the most frequently used word for wisdom in the Old Testament, it seems to refer more to knowledge than understanding, and understanding is described by the word “Binah.” Similarly, in the New Testament, “sunesis” is different from “epignosis,” but the most frequently used word for wisdom in the New Testament—”Sophia”—unlike “chokhmah,” seems to encompass both. Finally, it is noteworthy that, in both Testaments, the notion of wisdom is connected to divine revelation in some contexts, i.e. wise people may be wise not from experience but from being granted wisdom, either from birth or from revelation.

References

Deen, E., & Caldwell, E. (2003). Wisdom from women in the Bible. San Francisco, CA: Harper.

Merriam-Webster’s collegiate dictionary (11th ed.). (2008). Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster.

Oxford dictionary of English (3rd ed.). (2010). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Schroer, S. (2000). Wisdom has built her house: Studies on the figure of Sophia in the Bible. New York, NY: Liturgical Press.

Shapiro, D. S. (1971). Wisdom and knowledge of God in Biblical and Talmudic thought. Tradition: A Journal of Orthodox Jewish Thought, 12(2), 70-89.

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