Saudi Arabia

This proposal provides insights on the challenges that the Saudi Arabian Cultural Mission, the agency that assists in the administration of policies and programs that enable students learning in the United States (US) to meet their needs pertaining to education and culture, and mediates between educational institutions in the US and the other branches based in Saudi as well as the predicament that Saudi students studying in the US under the Saudi government’s sponsorship are facing, which the researcher deems to be primarily.

A consequence of the agency’s failure to provide adequate solutions and the resulting students’ powerlessness to raise their concerns to appropriate authorities.

An intensive literature review on materials that reflect the interdependence of the Arabian cultural mission and the Saudi students it serves in the United States was conducted to gather pertinent information for this study. Information gathered revealed that the major concerns of the students namely:

1. inadequacy in language proficiency due to inappropriate language education curriculum;
2. cultural discrimination resulting to isolation and formation of cliques;
3. delay in defraying school fees resulting to a number of late registration and, in austere cases, to students having to drop off from school;
4. the agency’s reluctance in assisting students to acquire relevant immigration documents; and
5. the existing inappropriate matching system that determines students’ eligibility to be accepted to certain courses they intend to apply for are primarily caused by the agency’s current programs’ inadequacy to respond to the needs of their clientele.

Recommendations presented propose reasonable modifications to the existing practices carried on by the agency which if ever adopted are deemed to improve the current state of interdependency between the cultural mission and the Saudi students studying under the government sponsorship in the United States.

If you ask a question to a Saudi Arabian, an Egyptian, an Algerian and a Syrian that which thing makes you an Arab? They will answer in just a second that speaking Arabic makes us an Arab. This language makes the Arab world and it binds the whole Arab world from Morocco to Kuwait.

This language gives identity to the Arab society and makes them aware about the history of the Arab. Since the inception of Islam Arabic is the speaking language of the Islamic world. Islamic holy book the Qur’an was initially written in Arabic.

There is a great religious significance of this language in the Islamic world. According to Muslims – if you want to understand properly the messages of Qur’an, you should read it in Arabic language. That’s why Arabic is not only the language of Arab world. (Seikaly, 2001)

Arabic language is not only official language of Saudi Arabia, but it is also considered as an official language in more than forty five countries and dialect of Arabic is being spoken by 200,000,000 people all around the world. Main part of this population lives in the Arabic countries, but a considerable number of Arabic Speakers live in some parts of Africa. Arabic is treated as a biggest member of the Semitic branch and it is some what same as Hebrew and Aramaic.

Arabic is studied widely in the Islamic world. Since 6th century Arabic is being taught as a literary language and many words of other languages had been taken from Arabic such as English and Spanish. Some words like sugar, cotton and magazine had been derived from Arabic. In Arabic these words are pronounced like sukkar, quṭūn, maḫāzin. Some other words like alcohol, algebra and zenith came from Arabic language. (Shah, 2007)

There are many verities of Arabic language. In this paper we will discuss those varieties in brief. We will mainly focus on the Najdi (A variety of Arabic language). Najdi Arabic speakers oppose the theory of generative phonology. We will move step by step and in an arranged manner.

 The First Word of Arabic

The first word of Arabic, which was revealed to the Prophet Muhammad, is iqra (means “recite”).  According to literature the meaning of Qur’an is recitation. Muslims say that it was the command, which was given to the Muhammad by god, when the Prophet began to receive the revelation and this finally got converted into the Qur’an. The word Qur’an is based on the three letters, those are Q, R and A and the word iqra contains these 3 letter root. (Seikaly, 2001)

Forms of Arabic

Arabic language can be divided in the three forms- classical, modern standard, and colloquial. The Arabic, which has been used in the Qur’an, is considered as classical Arabic. The Arabic used in Qur’an is treated as the perfect Arabic and is a stander for written form of Arabic.

The modern standard Arabic is derived from the Classical Arabic and is used in the formal communication such as in literature, in news, in offices and in print media. Colloquial Arabic is locally spoken Arabic language and it varies from nation to nation and area to area. Many varieties of the Colloquial Arabic have been found in the Arab World and Najdi is one of them. In religious and social functions the oral Arabic is used for writing also because the written and spoken forms of Arabic language are highly interconnected.

Modern Standard Arabic is not used at such moments. It is used in television and radio news broadcasts. Modern Standard Arabic plays an important role to bind the whole Arab world because the Arabic speakers from Lebanon and Morocco cannot easily understand one-another’s Arabic language due to their local dialects. But they can talk in Modern Standard Arabic easily.

That’s why Modern Standard Arabic is used in formal meetings and occasions. Many local and regional variations have taken place in spoken Arabic and written Arabic has also been changed since 7th century. Many foreign words are being used in Spoken Arabic such as computer, telephone, television, and radio.

On the other hand lots of words have been borrowed from Arabic by the many Western languages like English, Spanish and Portuguese. In the earlier time, the Arab world was known for medicine mathematics, philosophy, and astronomy. Name of many stars are based on the Arabic language such as Betelgeuse, Rigel, Deneb, Altair, and Aldebaran. (Seikaly, 2001)

The Arabic script had been taken from Nabataean Aramaic script. Originally, Arabic language had been used since 4th century but there is no solid evidence for it. Generally 6th century is treated as the starting era for Arabic language. Initially Aramaic language was there in use, but there are fewer consonants in this language. Hence in the 7th century new Arabic letters had been created with the help of dots. Then vowels came into the picture. . (Omniglot writing systems & languages of the world, 2010)

Classification of varieties

The Arabic script had been taken from Nabataean Aramaic script. Originally, Arabic language had been used since 4th century but there is no solid evidence for it. Generally 6th century is treated as the starting era for Arabic language.

Initially Aramaic language was there in use, but there are fewer consonants in this language. Hence in the 7th century new Arabic letters had been created with the help of dots. Then vowels came into the picture. Nowadays Arabic is spoken in many different ways in different areas. (Omniglot writing systems & languages of the world, 2010)

ArabNet is heading to Saudi Arabia in December for the fifth edition of to be held on December 12-14, 2016 at the Four Seasons Hotels in Riyadh. As a key forum for digital businesses in the MENA region, ArabNet expects to welcome over 1500 attendees for the 2016 edition, which focuses on the digital economy of the Kingdom and its Vision 2030 plan. Being hosted in three parallel tracks –smart economy, media, and entrepreneurship- ArabNet Riyadh brings together expert speakers to discuss transformations, challenges and potential associated with each theme.

Besides a pre-event workshop for entrepreneurs and developers, and TechFair, a digital business showcase space, the conference offers a platform for regional startups to pitch their products and business through the signature and challenges. In addition, the region’s gaming community also stand to meet potential partners at challenge. The speaker line-up includes Fahd Hamidaddin, Chief Commercial Officer, King Abdullah Economic City (KAEC), Ahmad El Alfi, founder and chairman, Sawari Ventures and co-founder, Sarah Ayed M. Al Ayed, co-founder and partner, TRACCS, among others.

Startups can apply before November 1, 2016 to be a part of Startup Demo and Ideathon, and apply to Battle of Games before November 9, 2016 to showcase your

Name: Mohamed D. Ray-zack Date: 5/12/2010 “Women’s right to Drive in KSA” I realize how people of two genders, coming from different ethnic backgrounds and having various degrees of devotion to religions sit together, talk, argue, oppose, explore, learn, laugh, repent, and , hopefully, become better people with greater knowledge and higher ambitions.

I am grateful to Charles Darwin for his clarifications of how evolution of living beings takes place; but beyond the biological explanation of traits inheritance, I can elaborate in his theory and apply it to the evolution of humans’ favorable characteristics that could significantly evolve into what are so-called “principles”. It really is impressive to see the immense evolution of human rights around the world since people started calling for liberty, civil rights, and virtuous democratic governments.We could successfully step to that high level of humanity understanding not by being dissimilar to each other, but by being open-minded and by seeing the inner beauty in others and ourselves. Along the way of evolution -my proposed rights evolution-, there are several challenges to our beliefs and traditions, which definitely come by turning points, and, eventually, support our rights and establish greater principles. One of the worldwide challenges stirring in the heart of the Middle East is Saudi women’s call for equal civil rights.Saudi Arabia is one of the hot spots where social implications affect not only the neighboring countries but further extend to the worldwide. Since the foundation of the Saudi government, the Saudi society experienced outstanding changes in the grounds of civilization, culture, education, and gender-based interactions (Al-Mohamed, 2007).

Not so long time ago, if a Saudi national would like to walk in public in jeans and a T-shirt, he would lose his national identity in other Saudis’ perspective; this is a mild example of how conservative and strict the Saudi society was.Women education in schools was a long-term debate with lots of controversies analyzed by the government and the national council of senates (Harrison, 2008). The society could later understand the need to let off girls to school so they can draw their own pathway instead of being a property taken from the parent’s house to the husband’s house and then to the grave. Although Saudi women could overcome many challenges as they called for equality, one demand remained upheld: women driving in Saudi Arabia.The conservative Saudi community does not consider women to be worthy of rights equal to those of men (Harrison, 2008); since there is no need for the majority of Saudi women to come out their habitats and earn a living as men do, it is unnecessary, Saudi thinks, to have human rights given to men and women equally. The rights given to a Saudi woman do not grant her the adequate civil independence, keeping her head under man’s armpit unable to access the basic rights in the various aspects of health, security, career, marriage and divorce (Al-Mohamed, 2007).This poor treatment which women are experiencing is an expression of government’s fear of impracticality if women are more often seen in public.

Being more often in contact with men as they drive on Saudi roads, women will become subject to frequent harassment and immoral reactions by loathsome males. But if you think twice about this reasoning, you find that women will always be subject to harassment since it is not women’s fault that boys show improper behavior. Driving ban does not promise for fewer stigmas, and keeping women indoor as much as possible does not promote malfeasance, either.Basically, the problem is that men are violating women’s rights, and, to confine harm, the government have ripped off more rights from women by setting this driving ban. Nonetheless, the government totally understands the principle that no one should restrict any feminist right, whether it would be prohibiting women driving or obligating ladies to dress in black cloaks and veils. King Abdullah Al-Saud allowed female students in KAUST (King Abdullah University of Science & Technology) to interact with male colleagues freely, to drive cars on campus, and to forgo veils in co-ed classes (U.S.

Dept. of State, 2010). Ladies in Aramco city of Dhahran District are given driving licenses to drive to markets, friends’ residents, recreation parks and anywhere else within Aramco campus (Saudi Gazette, 2009). These two examples reflect the government’s understanding of women’s absolute right to be a liberal civilian. Many Saudi academes reported to Western media that the women driving ban lacks any religious reasoning (Fattah, 2007). Muslim scholars clearly stated that it is not illegal for women to drive and to be present in public as often as men are.Islam is sometimes abused by some individuals of authority to keep on banning women driving in order to achieve personal goals and delay the occurrence of many unpleasant consequences.

The primary reason of this ban is the social implications, which are expected to follow stretching the capacity of women freedom to an extent of women free mobility across the country. Women drivers will pass the threshold to more rapid demands for further liberty legislation, and women will have a greater power so they may call for equal job opportunities, feminist representation in politics, and, more importantly, independence from male guardianship.That chain of liberty reactions is likely to be the upcoming nightmare the Saudi government fears. Yes, Saudi women liberty will no longer remain folded and it is just a matter of time until we witness women and men driving side by side on Saudi roads (Umm Omar, 2010). One concept needs to be emphasized is that women driving is not just practical; it can save women’s self-respect and dignity. After critical thinking of the essence of this driving ban, I cannot see vehicle driving is simply an independent right with no effect on other principles.Misbehavior toward women in Saudi Arabia is witnessed and driving can be the solution to avoid the immature flirting in public and the risk of female pedestrian being kidnapped with no one to notice that crime.

This is how we can understand that the best utility will not be brought by banning women driving, but social awareness and education are more effective in orienting the way of thinking of many people, youth in particular, if we assume that the Saudi Kingdom is a society of rational agents.To put it briefly, misbehavior of some immature minors is not a valuable reason of why women ought to lose the essential right of vehicle driving in the Kingdom. In fact, there should be no reason whatsoever to distribute civil rights on men and women unequally. This unfair ban does not solve the occurring dilemma of harassment, which can be more effectively dealt with by awareness of the displeasing impacts following that sort of behavior. A current plan negotiated among the Saudi government is to legalize driving for women older than forty years old (Noora, 2007).It is encouraging that the government is going to make a change, but this proposal still does not grant women, generally speaking, the complete right of mobility and independence. Legalizing women driving should take place irrespective to any age group.

Being one of the top Muslim nations, Saudi Arabia should also support the feminist care for equality since Islam has always proven to be a fair sponsor of women and men equality.

Introduction

Commins (2006, p. 97) asserts that the teachings of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab have influenced the contemporary political and cultural environment in Saudi Arabia. This religious movement, commonly referred to as the Wahhabi movement started in central Arabia in the mid-18th Century and grew because of the preaching and scholarship of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. According to Zayd (2006, p. 41), Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab was a scholar of Islamic jurisprudence who received his education in Mesopotamia and Hijaz and then returned to Najd (central Arabia) to advocate for Islamic reforms. This paper explores how his teachings influenced the everyday life in Saudi Arabia.

Allen (2006, p.89) says that Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab was concerned with the practices of the people of Najd, which he regarded as polytheistic and wanted them to stop the practices. He wanted reforms that would remove all practices that were added to Islam after the death of Mohammad. He was against practices like using votive and sacrificial offerings, veneration of caves, stones and trees, celebration of birthdays of prophets, praying to saints and making pilgrimages to special mosques and tombs. These were common practices in Najd and the people here regarded them as being in compliance with Islamic teachings. However, to Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab they were polytheistic. He was concerned with these practices because he perceived them as being lax in terms of adherence to Islamic law. In addition to this, he was also concerned with the fact that the people were reluctant to perform religious devotions like disregard to obligatory prayers, not showing care to the widows and orphans, rampant adultery and failure to give women their fair share of inheritance. These practices formed the basis of his preaching as he was determined to make the people change their ways of life and start living in full compliance with Islamic laws.

Weston (2008, p. 11) asserts that his teachings revolved around the breaches of Islamic laws and emphasised the need to comply with all customary practices like jahiliya. He initially encountered opposition but eventually overcame it by forming an alliance with Muhammad ibn Saud, a local chieftain. This alliance ensured that his influence endured through difficult times because Muhammad ibn Saud was very powerful in southern Najd. Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab and his descendants converted the alliance that was initially for political loyalty into religious obligation that had to be followed by everyone. In his teachings, he insisted that all Muslims must present an oath of allegiance (bayah) to Muslim leaders when alive so that they can get redemption when they die. He emphasised that Muslim leaders must be given unquestionable allegiance from the people as long as they are providing leadership that is in full conformity with Islamic laws. He held the perception that the purpose of the Muslim community was to be a living embodiment of Islamic laws (Hegghammer & Lacroix 2011, p. 64). The responsibility of ensuring that the community knows and conforms to the laws of God lay squarely on the legitimate rulers. Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab and his followers then started a jihad targeting the backsliding Muslims in the region to ensure that there is total obedience to Muslim rulers and God. This was the beginning of religious intolerance in Saudi Arabia.
Fatah (2008, p. 77) claims that the key message in the teachings of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab was tawhid (oneness of God). Tawhid is very important in Saudi Arabia and it is emphasised by both state and religious leaders. It is for this reason that its adherents call the movement as the call for unity (ad dawa lil tawhid). He was against third party intercession and all prayer rituals because he considered them as leading to shirk. This is why he objected Sufi mysticism, celebrating the birthdays of prophets and Shia mourning ceremonies which were considered as religious festivals. As a consequence grave marking, building of tombs and any other shrines are forbidden in Wahhabism. However this is partly practised in Saudi Arabia because the shrine of Prophet Muhammad is in the country and Muslims go there to pay pilgrimage.
They only accept authority from the Sunna and Quran and disregard any reinterpretation of the two books on issues that were already settled by the previous jurists. They totally remain opposed to reinterpretation but give allowance for interpreting the areas not decided by the earlier jurists. Livingstone (2011, p. 50) suggests that they literally interpret the Sunna and Quran and aim towards enforcing parochial Najd practices. The religious and political leadership work collectively in ensuring that there is conformity in behaviour throughout the country.
Life in Saudi Arabia is guided by Wahhabism as the government remains committed to ensuring that there is full compliance with Islamic laws (Brym & Lie 2010, p. 31). In addition to this, the government has supported the Wahhabi literal interpretations of right and wrong behaviour. Prayer performance in a ritually correct and punctual manner is required of all men. Livingstone (2011, p.54) says that all the believers are forbidden from taking wine because literally, the Quran forbids it. They have extended this ban to include all intoxicating drinks and stimulants like tobacco. Both men and women are required to dress modestly in accordance with the Quran. These conservative regulations have direct influence on all aspects of life in Saudi Arabia. The leaders of Saudi Arabia support the conservative religious establishment and monitor closely the people who present potential threats to their regimes (Lacroix & Holoch 2011, p. 96).
In the Middle East, Saudi Arabia ranks as one of the most conservative and restrictive countries with those who do not subscribe to the Islamic religion barred from practicing their faith even in private (DeLong-Bas 2007, p. 66). It is this harsh, conservative and restrictive environment that has led to radicalisation of some people in Saudi Arabia as they have no tolerance to other religious faiths. In school the religious curriculum teaches students that there are two types of people; the first one is the Salafis (Wahhabis) who are the chosen ones and will go to heaven because they are the winners. The other group are Muslims, Jews, Christians and all other religions. These ones are either, enervators, or deniers of God (kafirs) or they put their gods next to God (mushrak). The Sunni Muslims are called enervators because they do things that are proscribed by Salafis like celebrating the birthday of Prophet Mohammed (Husain 2009, p. 15). All these groups of people are not accepted by the Saudi Arabians as Muslims and as such, they are supposed to be hated, persecuted and even killed. This is what the government is encouraging and has led the Saudi Arabians to be intolerant to any other dissenting views on religion because of the rapid radicalisation and fundamentalism (Allen 2006, p. 77).
This paper has shown that the teachings of Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab influenced everyday life in Saudi Arabia. His teachings, which were originally intended to bring reforms to the Islamic faith, have gone to the extent of radicalising the people of Saudi Arabia. As the paper indicates, they have no tolerance for other religions. To them, the people of other religions should be hated, persecuted and even killed. This is what is fuelling fundamentalism and radicalism in Saudi Arabia and has already brought about extreme terrorists like Osama bin laden among others.

References

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