The Scientific Methods And Big Bang Theory

The definition of science is “knowledge or a system of knowledge covering general truths or the operation of general laws especially as obtained and tested through scientific method.” The scientific method is referring to different techniques for gaining new knowledge on a topic or correcting previous knowledge.The four main steps of the scientific method is characterization, hypothesis, predictions and experiments . With this method people believe that “science can prove anything”.I don’t necessarily agree with that statement due to the fact i believe there is some things that science can not account for.

Inductive reasoning is the process of arriving at a conclusion based on a set of observations or information .But the inductive method is not a valid method of proof or justification, to actually reinforce or prove your conclusion using the inductive method you would need information to support your conclusion. Just because a person observes a number of situations in which a pattern exists doesn’t mean that the pattern is true for all situations.

Deductive reasoning, unlike inductive reasoning, is a valid form of proof. Deductive reasoning is a process by which a person makes conclusions based on previously known facts. Deductive reasoning is what allows someone to discover the correct answer to a question they may not have been anticipating.

Both approaches are useful but they are meant to be applied in some different sets of circumstances.While deductive reasoning is narrow in nature as it involves testing hypothesis that are already present, inductive reasoning is slightly vague and exploratory in nature.Both of the reasonings can be used in science in different ways, inductive reasoning can be used to make a hypothesis and make predictions even though they may not lead to the most practical reasoning or conclusion. But it can be applied nonetheless. Deductive reasoning is the more practical one as deductive reasoning tends to start off with things that are already proven facts

The reason science is mostly inductive reasoning is because science is based on empiricism. Empiricism is a theory that things are only considered ‘real’ or ‘true’ if they are measurable. Science, with its main tool being experiment, is reliant on the hypothesis being able to be measurable in order to make its findings and understand it.Deductive reasoning helps us to establish things with certainty, since it starts with things that are taken to be self evident and proven facts.

During my internet search searching up the string “Can Science Prove anything”. I found a article titled “Can Science Prove Anything?” Written by Andrew Zimmerman Jones. It talks about one of the most notable theories known to man , The Big Bang theory . The article talks about how the big bang theory even though it is seen and regarded widely as how the universe came to be it is and will always be unprovable if no one is able to use the scientific method to actually break down the theory. Since no on was able to make a observation and truly understood at the time what was happening and get the information to prove that the event actually happened.

In conclusion , science can’t prove all if it doesn’t have the materials or means to experiment the theory. Especially since there is no way to get concrete evidence to change some theories to facts.

Read more

Thought piece

We have discussed different learning theories (e. G. Classical conditioning and operant conditioning) in Lecture 3. Please derive ONE hypothesis related to any real-life issues based on one of these theories and then design an experiment to test your hypothesis. When you work on this assignment, try to think of and answer the following questions: D what Is your hypothesis? What are your independent variable (IV) and dependent variable (DVD)? How will you manipulate your IV (I. E. At is your treatment) and how will you measure your DVD? What are your experimental and control groups? What are the possible confounding variables and how would you control them? How would you decide that your hypothesis/sees have been supported? (I. E. Whether or not your hypothesis is supported by your data)? What may be potential problems with your experiment? How can they be solved? The major goal of this assignment is to apply what you have learned about the key elements of experimental design to real-life situations. You will need to describe the design of an experiment to best test your hypothesis.

Please be specific about all of the key elements of your design and also about what results will be consistent or inconsistent with your predictions. Issues like sampling, group assignment, confounding factors etc. Should be considered when designing the experiment. Basically you will not need to read anything extra apart from the textbook and lecture notes for this assignment. Of course if you find it helpful to use ideas from other sources, you may do so, and in that case you should clearly state the source. Work will be penalized with severe mark reduction.

Late submission will also be subject to mark reduction (marked down by 10% per day after due date). Your thought piece should be written in ENGLISH. It should be about and no more than three pages long (AY double-spacing, font: Time News Roman, size 12, 1 inch margin), excluding supplemental materials you may have (e. G. , reference list, table and figures, experiment materials, media clips)

Read more

Lab report Critical Essay

Repeatability measurements were taken on a bolt to get the total length, and also measuring the low rate of a faucet by measuring the amount of time it took to fill a beaker. To ensure a more accurate sample, twenty measurements of each section were obtained. For the batch measurement portion of this lab, a multi-meter was used to measure the resistance in a pack of ten resistors. Each member measured the resistors twice to allow for more precise statistical analysis.

After all measurements were recorded, statistical analysis such as mean, standard deviation, and true mean range with 90%, 95%, and 99% confidence intervals were used to obtain the results. Once calculations were made, it was determined that there was error in this vibratory due to the environment and to human error, however all of the results fell within the ranges of confidence for each given section. Relevance In this experiment length, flow rate, and resistance was measured and the true mean was calculated. It was observed that the true mean varied depending on the variation of the sample mean and sample standard deviation.

It was shown that the population mean, or true mean, could not be found exactly, but could be estimated as a range with a certain level of confidence with the measurement of the sample mean and sample standard deviation. The knowledge practiced in this lab can be lawful in future experiments if say a company needs to estimate the population average with a specified level of confidence of a bolt that they only have a few samples of. Introduction There are multiple ways of measurement, as well as, many different types of ways to analyze raw data.

In this lab the objective is to experiment with two different types of measurements, repeatability and batch measurements. Theoretically the bolt length plus the cap thickness (B+C) should be equal to the measured total length of the bolt(A). Taking multiple measurements done by multiple people until twenty samples re obtained measuring all four components of the bolt and obtaining the raw data of bolt measurements. By having multiple people take measurements a small amount of human error is removed in case one person didn’t measure as accurate.

By having multiple measurements done by each person a bigger sample size is obtained, and bigger sample size typically means more accurate results. After the measurements were made a sample mean was calculated, as well as, a sample standard deviation for all four components of the bolt. The sample mean and sample standard deviation were 2 lactated to estimate the true mean of the population with a level of confidence of 90 and 95 percent. Once the true mean of each component was estimated a comparison was made between the total length(A) and the sum of the cap thickness(S) and bolt length(C).

In theory (B+C) should equal the total length of the bolt(A), as they represent the same length. Though they should be the same, they are not. The sum of measurements, (B) and (C) yield a much wider range of true mean than the measurement of (A). This difference is created by multiple types of error such as, human error, maybe reading the caliper wrong. Or error such as mechanical error, maybe the caliper itself was broken or not calibrated. In the second module of this lab the flow rate of the faucet water is measured using a stop watch and a mall beaker.

Obtaining the flow rate of the water in 20 different samples, then summarizing the raw data into sample mean and sample standard deviation. With the sample mean and standard deviation, the true mean is to be estimated with a confidence level of 90 percent and then again with 95 percent. In the third module the measurements were made in batches. The measurements of batches of resistors were measured with a Center Multi-meter to make sure they all locked in at the same resistance. The resistors measured in this lab were quite strong, getting up to kick.

Each group member measured the batch of resistors twice, then a pooled mean and pooled standard deviation was calculated. Pooling all the members samples together gives us one large sample and a more accurate estimate of the true mean. Using these calculated pooled mean and standard deviation the true mean was found as a range with a 99 percent level of confidence, and then again with a 95 percent level of confidence. The experimental setup and procedures are described in section The results of the experiments can be found n section {V} followed by conclusions in section {VI}.

The appendix with the data chart can be found in section{Veil} Testing the repeatability of the measurements and taking the sample average and sample standard deviation to compare with each other, as well as, estimate the population mean and standard deviation. In three different modules linear dimension, flow rate, and resistance were measured. The primary objectives of this lab are to practice using devices that measure length and flow rate, to apply statistical principles to raw data sets, and to become familiar with use off multi-meter. Formulas Used: Sample Mean

Standard Deviation True Mean Range 3 Experiment: Equipment: Pittsburgh 6″ Caliper Bolt Cent-Tech Digital Multi-meter CTD 10 pack of electrical resistors (gold, yellow, red, yellow) mall Beaker Digital Stopwatch Procedure: This experiment utilizes the billeted above. The experiment is broken down into three sections. First take the caliper and the bolt, calibrate the caliper to make sure that accurate measurements are collected. Measure the complete length of the bolt, thickness of the head, width of the threads and the length of the bolt to the base of the head.

Repeat the measurement a total of twenty times split evenly between the roof members and record the results. Second, take a mall beaker and a stopwatch to the sink and turn the water faucet on to attain a constant flow rate of water. Use the stopwatch to measure the time it takes from the first drop of water entering the beaker to the instant the water begins to overflow from the top of the beaker. Empty the beaker of water repeat this measurement a total of twenty times split evenly between the group members and record the results. For the last portion of this lab, take a pack of resistors and the multi-meter.

Set the millimeter to the appropriate reference resistance and begin measuring each of the sisters one at a 4 time. Each member will measure the set of resistors twice for a total of twenty resistance measurements per each member of the group. Record the measurements from each member and calculate the true mean resistance. Procedure Changes: The only change/ improvement made to the experiment was during the batch measurement section. It was found that more accurate readings of each resistor could be attained by taping the resistor pack to the table to keep it in place while using the probes to measure the resistance.

This change will allow the group to move quicker through the experiment and not to make any mistakes such as possibly measuring the same resistor twice in a row. The experimental procedure is very straight forward and the group should not encounter any difficulties. Results/Discussion This lab required three different modules to be completed with two different types of measurements: batch and repeatability. The bolt measurement along with the volume flow rate were to be completed using repeatability, while the resistance module used batch measurements.

The data was to be recorded and put into tables and analyzed using the mean, standard deviation, and true mean to determine whether the measurements were in the desired confidence intervals. 5 Linear Dimension Module: The first set of data was recorded using a manual caliper and a bolt. Four measurements were to be taken from the bolt: length, cap thickness, bolt length, and major diameter. These measurements lead to some error as expected, mostly human error and calibration of the manual calipers. There was also some error due to the uneven sides of the bolt and the angle at which the calipers were held against the bolt.

Table la. Shows the summarized data falls within the 95% Confidence Interval. Measurement Total Length (A) Cap Thickness (B) Bolt Length (C) Major Diameter (D) B+C Sample Mean (in. ) (in. ) 2. 2661 0. 0033 0. 2825 0. 0031 1 . 9791 0. 0262 . 30327 0. 0007 2. 2616 0. 0268 Table la. Statistics of Bolt Measurements (95%) [2. 265, 2. 267] [0. 2810, 0. 2839] [1. 967, 1. 991] [0. 3024, 0. 3030] [2. 249, 2. 274] The second part of the linear module was to compare the difference between the total length (A) and the sum of cap thickness and bolt length (B+C).

The results show that there was a lower CLC with the total length measurement than with the addition of two parts. This is most likely because of the accuracy of two measurements has more mom for error from the angle of the calipers and human error. Table b. Shows the comparison of the two measurements. The full experimental data for the linear module is listed in Table A in the Appendix. Table b. Comparison of bolt statistics Flow Rate Module: Measurement of the flow rate from a sink using a stopwatch and beaker was the second of the repeatability measurements.

This module produced the most error most likely from human error with stopping and starting of the stopwatch. The inconsistent flow from the sink also contributed to some of the error. The standard aviation in this experiment was high, but after 6 calculating the true mean range for a 90% and 95% confidence interval, the sample mean falls within both ranges with a few outliers. Table LLC. Shows the summary of the data. The full experimental data is listed in Table B in the Appendix . (ECMA/min) 5300. 95 CLC (ECMA/metro) 138. 835 [5247. 27, 5354. 3] Table LLC. Flow Rate Module Statistics 95% CLC (ECMA/metro) [5235. 97, 5365. 93] Resistance Module: In the final part of this lab, resistors were to be measured in batches from each of the group members. This section of the lab showed the most precision with the least error. From the color coded bands on the ten resistors, it was concluded that the value of the resistors was 470 sq. All of the results in table old. Show that the resistors were only reading 400 sq. All 60 recorded measurements were close to 400 ink which could be from mislabel resistors.

The pooled mean of the three samples does fall within the 90% and 95% confidence intervals even with including some outliers in the data. The full experimental data can be found in Table C in the Appendix. Sample Mean (Q) 400. 033 99% (Q) 1. 588 [399. 02, 401. 05] Table old. Resistance Module Statistics 95% CLC (sq) [399. 29, 400. 78] Conclusion: This laboratory focused on repeatability measurements, batch measurements, and statistical concepts/ principles to analyze the collected data. This was achieved through the use of a caliper, stopwatch, and a digital multi-meter for measurement purposes.

Using these tools, the group is able to measure length, flow rate, and resistance. The statistical concepts used in this lab were sample mean, standard deviation, true mean, and the range and level of confidence. The results of the linear dimension module prove that there is always going to be a small amount of human error when using devices such as a manual caliper. That error is relatively larger when trying to sum two measurements as compared to measuring a total length . The measurement of the bolt as a whole has a narrower CIA and true mean range of [2. 265, 2. 267].

The 7 standard deviation for total length (A) [0. 0033 in. ] supports the theory that measuring the entire length at once is more accurate than summing the cap thickness (B) and bolt length (C) together, which is evident by analyzing the standard deviation of (B+C) [0. 0268 in. ]. The results of the flow rate module show that there is significantly far more human error when trying to measure the time it takes for water o fill a beaker. This can be attributed to response time of starting/stopping the stopwatch. The standard deviation [138. 835 /min] seems high, but calculations show that the sample mean [5300. 5 /min] falls within the true mean range for CLC [5247. 27, 5354. 63 /metro] and also for 95% CLC [5235. 97, 5365. 93 /min]. The results of the resistance module indicated a difference between the sample mean [400. 033 sq] of the batch measurements and the supposed value of the resistors [470 sq] according to the color coded bands. This was the most precise module with a standard deviation of [1. 588 sq] and all the pooled means fall within he 95% CLC with a true mean range of [399. 29, 400. 78 sq], and the 99% CLC with a range of [399. 02, 401. 05 sq].

This laboratory experiment allowed the group to differentiate between repeatability measurements and batch measurements and apply the statistical theories learned in lecture to analyze the collected data. To minimize error percentage, calibrating the caliper before each measurement might be advantageous. Another advantage might be making markings on the bolt where each member of the group takes measurements instead of at random/different spots each time.

Read more

What Similarities and Differences Are There Between Historical and Scientific Explanations?

It is in our human nature to explain everything. Naturally, there are many ways of knowing. Application of these, often defined by certain methodology, are frequently classified into areas of knowledge. Therefore it is natural for one to see similarities and differences within the process of attaining knowledge in different areas of knowledge. When the method forming scientific and historical models for human understanding of the world are examined, many similarities can be seen. These differences and similarities can also be seen when products of explanations are assessed.

When scientific and historical explanations are compared one can see many similarities. Empirical evidence are used in both scientific and historical explanations. For example, scientists have found a viable model of Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) replication through empirical evidence. In 1958, Matthew Meselsohn and Franklin Stahl devised and executed an experiment to study DNA replication1. They attached two isotopes of nitrogen to each strand of DNA to determine what proportions of the isotope were present in DNA strands after multiple replication process.

They observed that after one replication of DNA, each new molecule of DNA possessed one strand with the heavy isotopes of nitrogen. This evidence showed that the replication of DNA is semiconservative – the idea of copying via template2. The use of empirical evidence helped to explain the DNA replication process, even though one could not see the actual strands of DNA replicating. Looking at historical explanations one can see similar applications of empirical evidence. For example, historians such as John Lewis Gaddis came up with theories about the cold war.

From observing policies of the United States and the Soviet Union, Gaddis have formulated theories about spheres of influences, and how these spheres of influences led to rising tension between the two super powers and eventually to the cold war. One may conclude that this explanation was formed by analyzing historical evidence such as foreign policies at the time, internal documents, and general events. The process of “analyzing” these sources produce empirical evidence. The use of empirical evidence is used to explain a point in time that one cannot experience the second time.

Similarities also exist in the limitation of scientific and historical explanations. If one were to use invalid empirical data then the final conclusion would be false. For example, it is known that all matter is equally effected by gravity. Yet if one were to observe objects falling in a normal environment it would be hard pressed to come to the conclusion that all objects fall at the same rate. It is difficult for 1 Damon, Alan, Randy McGonegal, Patricia Tosto, and William Ward. Higher Level Biology. Harlow: Heinemann International, 2007. Print. 2 ibid one to conceive that a lead ball and a feather would fall at the same rate.

Naturally one would reach the conclusion that a lead ball falls faster than a feather – which is essentially false unless observed in a vacuum. Also if one were to apply laws of Newton, that are constructed by empirical data, to subatomic particles that are moving near speed of light one would reach false conclusions. This is because concepts such as gravity appear to be negligible when particles are moving at near speed of light. In history one must often rely on the use of evidence such as artifacts, eyewitness accounts, and formal documentation to gain knowledge.

For example, empirical evidence such as the carved face of the Great Sphinx of Giza can provide how the creator of the statue looked like. If the creator decided to enhance the facial features of the sphinx a historian would lead to the false conclusion about the appearance of the creator. Some key differences can be seen in historical and scientific explanations. Historical explanations are generally open for interpretation. Historical evidence may be chosen and aggregated in certain ways to support one’s argument. As a student of history I constantly shape facts in accordance to my thesis. The thesis comes from my own beliefs.

For example, such thesis is claiming that differing ideologies played a major role in the development of the Cold War. Most scholars like J. L. Gaddis and Sewell agree that ideology played only a minor role in the development of the Cold War in the late 1940s. However, I can claim that ideology played a very important role in the development of the Cold War and present my evidence to support the argument. Unlike most science my explanation of ideologies in the Cold War does no need to be accepted by the community. In history two or more different explanations may exist and both would be valid.

In science, most explanations are not regarded as valid unless the majority of the scientific community accept the explanation. One salient example of this is the discovery and explanation of cold fusion. In March of 1989 Martin Fleischmann, one of the world’s leading electro-chemists, and Stanley Pons announced cold fusion3. Nuclear energy, like that which power the sun produced at room temperature, giving off more energy than what was originally put in. This promised to produce energy that is clean and efficient; ending energy problems such as global warming4.

Immediately after the announcement prestigious labs such as Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and California Institute of Technology (CALTECH) rushed to reproduce the experiments of Fleischmann and Pons. 5 However, MIT and CALTECH did not produced the same results and could not come to accept explanation. In science, generally, if one cannot reproduce the same result from experiments the explanation is regarded as invalid. Therefor in science only one 3 Cetta, Denise S. “Cold Fusion Is Hot Again – 60 Minutes – CBS News. ” Breaking News Headlines: Business, Entertainment & World News – CBS News. 9 Apr. 2009. Web. 27 Jan. 2010. 4 ibid 5 ibid explanation can exist. However, one can claim that similarities exist in scientific and historical explanations because some scientific explanations are rejected by the community even though they are true. In this case there would be two scientific explanations but one would be invalid. In the case of Cold Fusion it was later discovered that even though nuclear fusion was taking place, results were always varied. The scientific community originally rejected the explanation and discovery because they were unable to reproduce the results of Fleischmann and Pons.

Both scientific and historical explanations are generally supplied by empirical evidence. In science one draws explanations from empirical evidence according to predefined rules. For example, a negative charge is repelled from the center of what is named an “atom”, therefore something must exist in the center of the “atom” and it must have a positive charge. This explanation is drawn from the rule “positive and negative deflect”. In history, however, there are no such apparent rules. A key difference that is evident in scientific and historical explanations are the extent to which one can draw empirical evidence.

In science one must follow precise rules weather to accept or reject empirical evidence to support explanations. In history, however, there are no such rules one must follow – other than considering the validity of evidence. Some people, such as Henry Gee, an editor of the prestigious science journal Nature, claim that historical explanations do not have similarities with scientific explanations. “they [historical explanations] can never be tested by experiments, and so they are unscientific. . . . No science can ever be historical”6. This suggests that unless the explanation is adequately “tested” it is not science.

One can see that this is true to a certain extent. As said before, science follow certain rules in which the extent to which one can extrapolate evidence is limited. This generally leads to explanations that are much more integrated and logical. However when considering scientific explanations that cannot be “tested” in a laboratory that are generally regarded as valid in the scientific community, one can see that they bare similarities to historical explanations. An example of this is the asteroid-impact hypothesis, which explain the fossil records of the dinosaurs in terms of an impact of large asteroid.

This cannot obviously be tested in a laboratory, but provide a viable explanation. It is evident that historical and scientific explanations have many similarities and differences. Use of empirical evidence is present in both historical and scientific explanations. They both have the same limitations when using empirical evidence. Similarities and differences are also present in the community aspect. By seeing what similarities and differences exist in science and history it is evident how limitations and advantages of ways of knowing play a role in their respected explanations. Cleland, Carol E. “Methodological and Epistemic Differences between Historical Science and Experimental Science. ” Print. Works Cited Cetta, Denise S. “Cold Fusion Is Hot Again – 60 Minutes – CBS News. ” Breaking News Headlines: Business, Entertainment & World News – CBS News. 19 Apr. 2009. Web. 27 Jan. 2010. . Cleland, Carol E. “Methodological and Epistemic Differences between Historical Science and Experimental Science. ” Print. Damon, Alan, Randy McGonegal, Patricia Tosto, and William Ward. Higher Level Biology. Harlow: Heinemann International, 2007. Print.

Read more

Corvettes Regression

Ten Corvettes between 1 and 6 years old were randomly selected from last year’s sales records in Virginia Beach, Virginia. The following data were obtained, where x denotes age, in years, and y denotes sales price, in hundreds of dollars. Graph the data in a scatterplot to determine if there is a possible linear relationship. Compute and interpret the linear correlation coefficient. Determine the regression equation for the data.

Graph the regression equation and the data points. Identify outliers and potential influential observations. Compute and interpret the coefficient of determination. Obtain the residuals and create a residual plot.

Decide whether it is reasonable to consider that the assumptions for regression analysis are met by the variables in questions. At the 5% significance level, do the data provide sufficient evidence to conclude that the slope of the population regression line is not 0 and, hence, that age is useful as a predictor of sales price for Corvettes?

Obtain and interpret a 95% confidence interval for the slope, of the population regression line that relates age to sales price for Corvettes. Obtain a point estimate for the mean sales price of all 4-year-old Corvettes. Determine a 95% confidence interval for the mean sales price of all 4-year-old Corvettes. Find the predicted sales price of Jack Smith’s 4-year-old Corvette. Determine a 95% prediction interval for the sales price of Jack Smith’s 4-year-old Corvette. Note that the following steps are not required for all analyses…only perform the necessary steps to complete your problem. Use the above steps as a guide to the correct SPSS steps.

  1.  Enter the age values into one variable and the corresponding sales price values into another variable (see figure, below).

  2. Select Graphs

    Legacy Dialogs Scatter/Dot… (select Simple then click the Define button) with the Y Axis variable (Price) and the X Axis variable (Age) entered (see figures, below). Click “Titles…” to enter a descriptive title for your graph, and click “Continue”. Click “OK”. Your output should look similar to the figure below. a. Graph the data in a scatterplot to determine if there is a possible linear relationship. The points seem to follow a somewhat linear pattern with a negative slope.

  3. Select Analyze Correlate Bivariate… (see figure, below). 

  4. Select “Age” and “Price” as the variables, select “Pearson” as the correlation coefficient, and click “ “OK” (see the left figure, below). Compute and interpret the linear correlation coefficient. The correlation coefficient is –0. 9679 (see the right figure, above). This value of r suggests a strong negative linear correlation since the value is negative and close to –1. Since the above value of r suggests a strong negative linear correlation, the data points should be clustered closely about a negatively sloping regression line.

    This is consistent with the graph obtained above. Therefore, since we see a strong negative linear relationship between Age and Price, linear regression analysis can continue.

  5. Since we eventually want to predict the price of 4-year-old Corvettes (parts j–m), enter the number “4” in the “Age” variable column of the data window after the last row. Enter a “. ” for the corresponding “Price” variable value (this lets SPSS know that we want a prediction for this value and not to include the value in any other computations) (see left figure, below).
  6. Select Analyze Regression Linear… (see right figure, above).
  7. Select “Price” as the dependent variable and “Age” as the independent variable (see upperleft figure, below). Click “Statistics”, select “Estimates” and “Confidence Intervals” for the regression coefficients, select “Model fit” to obtain r2, and click “Continue” (see upper-right figure, below). Click “Plots…”, select “Normal Probability Plot” of the residuals, and click “Continue” (see lower-left figure, below). Click “Save…”, select “Unstandardized” predicted values, select “Unstandardized” and “Studentized” residuals, select “Mean” (to obtain a confidence interval…output in the Data Window) and “Individual” (to obtain a prediction interval…output in the Data Window) at the 95% level (or whatever level the problem requires), and click “Continue” (see lower-right figure, below). Click “OK”. The output from this procedure is extensive and will be shown in parts in the following answers. c. Determine the regression equation for the data. From above, the regression equation is: Price = 29160. 1942 – (2790. 2913)(Age).
  8.  From within the output window, double-click on the scatterplot to enter Chart Editor mode. From the “Elements” menu, select “Fit Line at Total”. Click the close box. Now your scatterplot displays the linear regression line computed above. Graph the regression equation and the data points. d. e. Identify outliers and potential influential observations. There do not appear to be any points that lie far from the cluster of data points or far from the regression line; thus there are no possible outliers or influential observations.  Compute and interpret the coefficient of determination. The coefficient of determination is 0. 368; therefore, about 93. 68% of the variation in the price data is explained by age. The regression equation appears to be very useful for making predictions since the value of r 2 is close to 1.
  9. The residuals and standardized values (as well as the predicted values, the confidence interval endpoints, and the prediction interval endpoints) can be found in the data window.
  10. To create a residual plot, select Graphs Legacy Dialogs Scatter/Dot… (Simple) with the residuals (RES_1) as the Y Axis variable and Age as the X Axis variable. Click “Titles…” to enter “Residual Plot” as the title for your graph, and click “Continue”. Click “OK”. Double-click the resulting graph in the output window, select “Options” ? “Y Axis Reference Line”, select the “Reference Line” tab in the properties window, add position of line “0”, and click “Apply”. Click the close box to exit the chart editor (see left plot, below).
  11. To create a studentized residual plot (what the textbook calls a standardized residual plot), select Graphs ? Legacy Dialogs ? Scatter/Dot… (Simple) with the studentized residuals (SRES_1) as the Y Axis variable and Age as the X Axis variable. Click “Titles…” to enter “Studentized Residual Plot” as the title for your graph, and click “Continue”. Click “OK”. Double-click the resulting graph in the output window, select “Options” ? “Y Axis Reference Line”, select the “Reference Line” tab in the properties window, add position of line “0”, and click “Apply”. If 2 and/or -2 are in the range covered by the y-axis, repeat the last steps to add a reference line at “2” and “-2” (see right plot, above); any points that are not between these lines are considered potential outliers. If 3 and/or -3 are in the range covered by the y-axis, repeat the last steps to add a reference line at “3” and “-3”; any points that are beyond these lines are considered outliers.
  12. To assess the normality of the residuals, consult the P-P Plot from the regression output. g. Obtain the residuals and create a residual plot. Decide whether it is reasonable to consider that the assumptions for regression analysis are met by the variables in questions. The residual plot shows a random scatter of the points (independence) with a constant spread (constant variance). The studentized residual plot shows a random scatter of the points (independence) with a constant spread (constant variance) with no values beyond the ±2 standard deviation reference lines (no outliers).

The normal probability plot of the residuals shows the points close to a diagonal line; therefore, the residuals appear to be approximately normally distributed. Thus, the assumptions for regression analysis appear to be met. h. At the 10% significance level, do the data provide sufficient evidence to conclude that the slope of the population regression line is not 0 and, hence, that age is useful as a predictor of sales price for Corvettes

Hypotheses H 0 : ! = 0 (Age is not a useful predictor of price. ) H a : ! ” 0 (Age is a useful predictor of price. )

Significance Level ! 0. 05 Critical Value(s) and Rejection Region(s) Reject the null hypothesis if p-value ? 0. 05. Test Statistic (choose either the T-test method or the F-test method…not both) T = –10. 8873, and p-value = 0. 00000448 Step 5: Step 6: F = 118. 5330, and p-value = 0. 00000448

Conclusion

Since p-value = 0. 00000448 ? 0. 05, we shall reject the null hypothesis. State conclusion in words At the ! = 0. 05 level of significance, there exists enough evidence to conclude that the slope of the population regression line is not zero and, hence, that age is useful as a predictor of price for Corvettes.

Obtain and interpret a 95% confidence interval for the slope, of the population regression line that relates age to sales price for Corvettes. We are 95% confident that the slope of the true regression line is somewhere between –3381. 2946 and –2199. 2880. In other words, we are 95% confident that for every year older Corvettes get, their average price decreases somewhere between $3,381. 2946 and $2,199. 2880. Obtain a point estimate for the mean sales price of all 4-year-old Corvettes. The point estimate (PRE_1) is 17999. 0291 dollars ($17,999. 0291).

Determine a 95% confidence interval for the mean sales price of all 4-year-old Corvettes. We are 95% confident that the mean sales price of all four-year-old Corvettes is somewhere between $16,958. 4604 (LMCI_1) and $19,039. 5978 (UMCI_1). l. Find the predicted sales price of Jack Smith’s selected 4-year-old Corvette. The predicted sales price is 17999. 0291 dollars ($17,999. 0291). Determine a 95% prediction interval for the sales price of Jack Smith’s 4-year-old Corvette. We are 95% certain that the individual sales price of Jack Smith? s Corvette will be somewhere between $14,552. 9173 (LICI_1) and $21,445. 1410 (UICI_1).

Read more

Focus Group

INTRODUCTION Focus group is a qualitative technique used mostly in marketing research and also other areas of research. This technique is used to collect primary data. This document consists of information about focus group. The main objective of this assignment was to investigate how focus groups techniques are used to collect primary data about the phenomenon at hand in the real world. The research method used was Google scholar for academic journals.

The campus library database was also used for more academic journals and textbooks from the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University (NMMU) different libraries. The main problem experienced in the completion of this document was that most textbooks about this studied topic were outdated in the author’s campus. Hence, different campuses of NMMU were visited and the right textbooks were found. This document presents a review of the literature on focus groups. It continues with an empirical study on organisational corruption in secondary schools.

Also included, is the reference list of all cited sources as well as an annexure. 2 FOCUS GROUPS In the collection of primary data there are two research methods that can be of use, quantitative and qualitative methods, which can both be subdivided into idiosyncratic primary data collection methods. Because the main focus of this document is on focus groups, therefore only qualitative techniques will be mentioned which are in-depth interviews, projective techniques and focus groups. Seymour (2004:04) defines focus groups (F.

G) as “group of interacting individuals having some common interest or characteristics, brought together by a moderator, who uses the group and its interactions as a way to gain information about a specific or focused issue”. This technique has been utilised in many fields to collect primary data as mentioned above and its characteristics are discussed in the following section. 2. 1 CHARACTERISTICS OF FOCUS GROUPS When F. G are considered to be used in a certain research study then there are characteristics which have to be taken into account, which are: group size, group composition, physical setting, moderator, recording tools and length f group discussion. Below it is a detailed review on each of the above mentioned characteristics of F. G. 2. 1. 1 Group size When determining to embark on F. G one has to think about the size (number) of that certain F. G. Despite the confusion that can be created by different sources stating a different number of possible group sizes. The research of F. G can be undertaken with a group of 4- 12 people (Tong, Sainsbury & Craig 2007:351). Large F. G group size can jeopardise the discussion as it may be difficult to handle the discussion, even so the group size depends on the complexity of the research study. . 1. 2 Group composition After the group size had been decided then the group composition must be considered as well. All participants taking part in a F. G must be homogeneous in the interest of the studied phenomenon (Malhotra & Birks 2006:160). Participants with similar characteristics, which the study is about, make the discussion easier and nicely flowing. 2. 1. 3 Physical setting When choosing the venue to carry out a F. G it is imperative that the chosen venue must also meet the aspects of the phenomenon at hand and of the participants.

Daymon and Holloway (2002:194) state that “choosing the right environment for traditional focus groups plays a vital role as it can attract freely expressed opinions from the participants”. 2. 1. 4 Moderator In the success of F. G moderators play a vital role. It is of crucial role that moderators in F. G keep the environment safe so participants can freely express their opinions and most importantly must use probe questions; such requires a great experience from the moderator (Hague, P. , Hague, N. & Morgan 2004:53).

Therefore, the moderator ought to possess skills such as creating chemistry with the participants, keep the flow of the discussion and analysing the data collected. 2. 1. 5 Recording tools No person can be able to cram exactly a discussion of over 20 minutes by his head; some points will certainly be missed. Wiid & Diggines (2009:90) express that “sessions should preferably be recorded (both visual and audio) so that the researcher can review the sessions later in order to gain further insights”.

These tools therefore, assist to keep the already realised needed data and the data that the moderator was unaware of during the discussion. 2. 1. 6 Length of group discussion When planning F. G it is essential to plan the duration precisely as it may play an impact on the data collected. However, just like group sizes, length of F. G depends on the complexity of the issue at hand. The more complex of the issue is the more the duration of the discussion is required, but if so then breaks must be taken in between to let the participants to enliven and produce successful F. G (Malhotra & Birks 2006:161).

While on the hand, Seymour (2004:05) being unambiguous reveals that “most focus groups encompass 90 minutes to three hours of discussion”. With the above discussed characteristics of F. G considered, then one has to scrutinise the advantages and disadvantages of F. G. The following section discusses the advantages and disadvantages of F. G. 2. 2 ADVANTAGES F. G has its own advantages which can attract this technique to be used. These advantages are discussed individually beneath. Cost- because discussions are done simultaneously then it reduces the cost (Wiid & Diggines 2009:91).

Speed- because a number of individuals are being interviewed at the same time, data collection and analysis proceeds speedily (Gerber-Nel, Nel & Kotze 2003:104). Synergy- a discussion with a number of participants can also be of help by generating more information than one-on-one interviews (University of Toronto [UT] 2002:02). Snowball- Malhotra & Birks (2006:162) state that “a bandwagon effect often operates in a group discussion in that one person’s comment triggers a chain reaction from the other respondents”.

In elaboration, a comment from one of the participants may reveal an idea to some other participant(s). Scientific scrutiny- because the moderator is also in the venue of discussion with participants, it also gives the moderator the opportunity to also observe (Malhotra & Birks 2006:162). However, disadvantages investigated by the author are more than the mentioned above but the above mentioned are those anticipated as most important. 2. 3 DISADVANTAGES Focus groups have advantages which can jeopardise the collected data or the data collection process itself.

These advantages are explained below. Misjudgement- Gerber-Nel et al (2003:104) utter that “results are misinterpreted due to bias”. Non representative sample- because of the small number of participants in total as compared to quantitative, therefore participants in F. G cannot represent any population (Wiid & Diggines 2009:91). Inconclusive results- the results of F. G only retort to ‘what’ but not ‘why’ which can sometimes make the narrow and create a need for a quantitative research study (Gerber-Nel et al 2003:104).

Difficulty in analysing- this method mostly consists of words which make it more difficult to analyse (Grudens-Schuck, Allen & Larson 2004:¶9). 2. 4 WHEN TO USE FOCUS GROUPS With the above discussed sections it is also vital for one to know when to utilise F. G. Focus groups are mostly used to discover behaviour, perceptions, attitudes and processes (Hague et al 2004:50). These traits that F. G are used to discover which responds to the question of ‘when to use focus groups? ’, which in respond will be, F.

G can be used in; stand alone method, supplementary to a survey and as a part of multi method design (Daymon & Hollower 2002:188). The following section will discuss the use of F. G in the study of organisational corruption in secondary schools in Turkey and the information provided is based on annexure A. 3 FOCUS GROUP STUDY ON ORGANISATIONAL CORRUPTION IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN ANKARA In Turkey after it was seen that the level of corruption in secondary schools is high, it was then seen important that a study on this problem should be undertaken.

The moderator and his assistant decided to use F. G study to identify the perceptions of teachers in Ankara (a city in Turkey). The group sizes of the study were eight and nine respectively, which in total consisted of 17 participants (12 males and 5 females). These participants were chosen due to homogeneous attributes meeting the studied problem, because this study is about secondary schools therefore the participants were critically recruited due to their profession of teaching. Thereafter, the moderator and his assistant held the F. G in a cosmopolitan city of Turkey known by the name Ankara.

Apaydin & Balci (2011:821) state that in the study “audio and video recordings were taken informed consent”. Which helped to later on even realise information shared which the researchers were not aware of. The duration of each focus group was 90 minutes, which the researchers felt the time it was the right time, for each group discussion. The fact that F. G were held made it less costly for this study than any other possible study because a large number of people participated in this study at a time which also made it quite quicker.

Some points in this study were raised up by addition or revealing of another idea by some other participant’s comment. On the other hand, the researchers also saw that because at first the participants were suppose to represent secondary schools of Turkey as a nation then later converted to the cosmopolitan city Ankara but still the researchers saw that the number of total participants is quite diminutive to represent such large population. On the findings of this study it was seen of importance that further study should be carried out on different groups so the findings can be generalised. CONCLUSION This study has been a great study which can be improvised in a way. Such way is that the researchers must carry on with the focus groups and compare findings, if even after several discussions same findings are gathered then it would be a point where the findings can be generalised for the secondary schools in Ankara. REFERENCE LIST Apaydin, C. & Balci, A. 2011. Education. Organizational Corruption in Secondary Schools: A Focus Group Study, 131(4):818-829. Daymon, C. & Holloway, I. 2002.

Qualitative research methods in public relations andmarketing communications. London: Routledge. Gerber-Nel, C. , Nel, D. & Kotze, T. 2003. Marketing research. Claremont: New African Books. Grudens-Schuck, N. , Allen, B. L. & Larson, K. 2004. Focus group fundamentals. Methodology Brief: 9. Hague, P. , Hague, N. & Morgan, C. 2004. Marketing research in practice: A guide to the basics. London: Kogan Page. Malhotra, N. K. & Birks, D. F. 2006. Marketing research: An applied approach. 2nd rev ed. Harlow: Prentice Hall.

Seymour, A. 2004. Focus groups. An Important Tool for Strategic Planning:1-32. Tong, A. , Sainsbury, P. & Craig, J. 2007. International journal for quality in health care. Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research (COREQ): a 32-item Checklist for Interviews and Focus Groups, 19(6):349-357. University of Toronto. 2002. The health communication unit. Using Focus Groups, 02:1-59. Wiid, J. & Diggines, C. 2009. Marketing research. Cape Town: Juta. ANNEXURE A: ORGANIZATIONAL CORRUPTION IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS: A FOCUS GROUP STUDY

Read more

Repeat purchasers

The legal environment of foreign marketing takes an added dimension of importance since there is no single uniform commercial law which governs foreign business transactions. ” – Comment. International marketers must be aware of the legal environments that they operate in. As there is no uniform international law regarding business transactions, companies can find themselves wasting money or in legal issues if they do not operate according to the laws in the specific countries they are in.

The customs, politics, and geography vary greatly from country to country and are affected by the gal environment. It is extremely important that international markers are aware of this added dimension and are prepared. No single, uniform international commercial law governs foreign business transactions. The foundation of a legal system Profoundly affects how the law is written, interpreted, and adjudicated Laws governing business activities within and between countries An integral part of the legal environment of international business .

Four heritages form the basis for the majority of the legal systems of the world Common law, Civil or code law, Islamic law, and Marxist-socialist tenets Common law Derived from English law. England, U. S. , Canada and countries who were once under the English influence. Seeks interpretation through the past decisions of higher courts which interpret the same statues. Applies established and customary law principles to a similar set of facts Civil or Code law derived from Roman law.

Germany, Japan, France and non-lilacs and non-Marxist countries. All-inclusive system of written rules (codes) of law: Legal system is generally divided into three separate codes 1 . ) Commercial 2. ) Civil 3. ) Criminal Ownership is determined by registration. Considered complete as a result of catchall revisions found in most code-law systems Islamic law Places emphasis on the ethical, moral, social, and religious dimensions to enhance equality and fairness for the good of society. The basis is the interpretation of the Koran.

Islamic law defines a complete system that prescribes specific patterns of social and economic behavior for all individuals: 1 . ) Property rights 2. ) Economic decision making 3. ) Types of economic freedom Islamic law This system prohibits investment in a business dealing with Alcohol, gambling and casinos In order to comply with Islamic Law following are terms that are frequently use: Trade with markup or cost-plus sale and leasing. These practices enable borrowers and lenders to share in the rewards as well as the losses in an equitable fashion.

The international marketer must know the religion’s system of belief and understand how the law is interpreted in each region Marxist-socialist Tenets of Russia and the Republics of the former Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, and China. Legal system centered on the economic, political and social policies of the state. Now more directly involved in trade with non-Marxist countries Differences among the 4 law systems Due process may vary. Individual interpretation may vary Fundamentalist interpretation of Islamic law. Combination of several legal systems. U. S. Sees both common and code law Marxist-socialist tenets strictly subordinate to prevailing economics conditions. Private ownership, contracts, due process and other legal mechanisms need to be developed. Russia and China differ because Each has taken a different direction in its political economic growth. Russia is moving toward a Democratic System. China is trying to activate a private sector within a mixed economy in a socialist legal framework Jurisdiction in International Legal Disputes No Judicial body exists to deal with legal commercial problems arising between citizens of different countries.

Legal disputes can arise in three situations: 1 . ) Between governments 2. ) Between a company and a government 3. ) Between two companies Jurisdiction is generally determined on the basis of: Jurisdictional clauses included in contracts, Where a contract was entered into, Where the provisions of the contract were performed Jurisdictional Clause “That the parties hereby agree that the agreement is made in Oregon, USA, and that any question regarding this agreement shall be governed by the law of the state of Oregon, USA” Types of International Disputes Buyer refuses to pay.

Product is inferior quality. Shipment arrives late Steps when a dispute arises… Resolve the issue informally, Conciliation aka Mediation, Arbitration, Conciliation a nonbinding agreement between parties to resolve disputes by asking a third party to mediate differences. Sessions are private and all conferences between parties and the mediator are confidential. In all conciliation agreements An arbitration clause should be included The popularity of arbitration has led to a proliferation of orbital centers. Established by countries, organizations, and institutions.

Inter-American Commercial Arbitration Commission. Canadian-American Commercial Arbitration Commission (for disputes between Canadian and U. S. Businesses). London Court of Arbitration (decisions are enforceable under English law and English courts). American Arbitration Association. International Chamber of Commerce (select Arbitration) Arbitration clauses require agreement on two counts 1 . To arbitrate in the case of a dispute according to the rules and procedures of some arbitration tribunal. 2. To abide by the awards resulting from the arbitration

Contracts and other legal documents should include clauses specifying the use of arbitration to settle disputes Problems with Arbitration Companies may refuse to: 1 Name arbitrators 2. ) Arbitrate 3. ) After arbitration awards are made companies may refuse to honor the award 4. ) In most countries, arbitration clauses are recognized by the courts and are enforceable by law within those countries Deterrents to litigation Fear of creating a poor image and damaging public relations. Fear of unfair treatment in a foreign court.

Difficulty in collecting a Judgment that may otherwise eave been collected in a mutually agreed settlement through arbitration. The relatively high cost and time required when bringing legal action. Loss of confidentiality 4 recommended steps for settling disputes Try to placate the injured party. Conciliate. Arbitrate. Litigate Companies spend millions of dollars establishing brand names or trademarks To symbolize quality and design. To entice customers Millions are spent on research To develop products, processes, designs, and formulas Lost sales from the unauthorized use of U. S. Tents, trademarks, and copyrights Amount to more than $100 billion annually Counterfeits anger from copies that have the same efficacy as the original to those with few or no active ingredients, to those made of harmful substances Inadequate Protection Failing to adequately protect intellectual property rights can lead to the legal loss of rights in potentially profitable markets A company that believes it can always establish ownership in another country by proving it used the trademark or brand name first is wrong and risks the loss of these assets It is best to protect intellectual property rights through registration In the U.

S. , a Common-law country, ownership of intellectual property rights is established by prior use versus registration International Conventions Three major aspects: Paris Convention for the Protection of Industrial Property, Inter- American Convention, Madrid Arrangement All countries have laws regulating marketing activities Promotion, Product development, Labeling, Pricing, Channels of distribution Discrepancies across markets cause problems for trade negotiators – particularly for managers and their firms U. S. Does not allow the buying or selling of human organs. Some countries only have a few marketing laws with lax enforcement.

Others have detailed, complicated rules that are stringently enforced 0 Advertising comparisons in advertisements are always subject to the competitor’s right to go to the courts and ask for proof of any implied or stated superiority Green marketing laws Focus on environmentally friendly products and Focus on product packaging and its effect on solid waste management Antitrust a lot of the 20th century it was Nonexistent and Not enforced in most of the world’s countries (U. S. Was exception) U. S. Laws Apply in Host Countries Foreign Corrupt Practices Act, National security laws, Antibiotics law, Extraterritoriality of U.

S. Laws and Antitrust laws 0 00 Foreign Corrupt Practices Act Makes it illegal for companies to pay bribes to foreign officials, candidates, or political parties 0 00 National security laws Prohibit a U. S. Company, its subsidiaries, Joint ventures, or licensees to sell controlled products without special permission from the U. S. Antibiotics law U. S. Companies are forbidden to participate in any unauthorized foreign boycott. Required to report any request to cooperate with a boycott Extraterritoriality of U. S. Laws Especially important to U. S. Multinational firms.

Foreign governments fear the influence of American government policy on their economies through U. S. Multinationals What is illegal for an American business at home can also be illegal by U. S. Law in foreign Jurisdictions for the firm, subsidiaries and licensees of U. S. Technology Cybercafé – Unresolved Issues Supersaturates (CSS), Taxes, and Jurisdiction of disputes and validity of contracts Taxes In the past, a company was deemed to have a taxable presence in a country if it had a permanent establishment there The E Commission Proposes value-added tax (VAT) Jurisdiction of disputes and validity of contracts

The EX. Commission has adopted an e-commerce directive that will permit online retailers to trade by the rules of their home country unless the seller had enticed or approached the consumer by way of advertising Supersaturates buy and register descriptive nouns, geographic names, and names of ethnic groups and pharmaceutical substances, and other similar descriptors and hold them until they can be sold at an inflated price Businesses face a multitude of problems in their efforts to develop successful marketing programs Varying legal systems of the world and their effect on business orientations Legal questions must also be considered Jurisdictional and legal recourse in disputes. Protection of intellectual property rights. Extended U. S. Law enforcement Enforcement of antitrust legislation by U. S. And foreign governments Q . International marketing research and market research are Synonymous, since the research process is basically the same whether applied in USA. , U. K. , Japan or India? ” Critically examine this statement. Marketing research process Stage 1: Formulating the Marketing Research Problem Formulating a problem is the first step in the research process. In many ways, research starts with a problem that management is facing. This problem needs to be understood, the cause diagnosed, and solutions developed. However, most management problems are not always easy to research. A management problem must first be translated into a research problem. Once you approach the problem from a research angle, you can find a solution. For example, “sales are not growing” is a management problem.

Translated into a research problem, we may examine the expectations and experiences of several groups: potential customers, first-time buyers, and repeat purchasers. We will determine if the lack of sales is due to: ; Poor expectations that lead too general lack of desire to buy, or ; Poor performance experience and a lack of desire to repurchase. What then is the difference between a management problem and a research problem? Management problems focus on an action. Do we advertise more? Do we change our advertising message? Do we change an under-performing product configuration? If so, how? Research problems, on the other hand, focus on providing the information you need in order to solve the management problem. Stage 2: Method of Inquiry

The scientific method is the standard pattern for investigation. It provides an opportunity for you to use existing knowledge as a starting point and proceed impartially. The scientific method includes the following steps: 1. Formulate a problem 2. Develop a hypothesis 3. Make predictions based on the hypothesis 4. Devise a test of the hypothesis 5. Conduct the test 6. Analyze the results The terminology is similar to the stages in the research process. However, there are subtle differences in the way the steps are performed. For example, the scientific method is objective while the research process can be subjective. Objective-based research (quantitative research) relies on impartial analysis.

The facts are the priority in objective research. On the other hand, subjective-based research (qualitative research) emphasizes personal Judgment as you collect and analyze data. Stage 3: Research Method In addition to selecting a method of inquiry (objective or subjective), you must select a research method. There are two primary methodologies that can be used to answer any research question: experimental research and non-experimental research. Experimental research gives you the advantage of controlling extraneous variables ND manipulating one or more variables that influences the process being implemented. Non-experimental research allows observation but not intervention.

You simply observe and report on your findings. Stage 4: Research Design The research design is a plan or framework for conducting the study and collecting data. It is defined as the specific methods and procedures you use to acquire the information you need. Stage 5: Data Collection Techniques Your research design will develop as you select techniques to use. There are many ways to collect data. Two important methods to consider are interviews and observation. Interviews require you to ask questions and receive responses. Common modes of research communication include interviews conducted face-to- face, by mail, by telephone, by email, or over the Internet.

This broad category of research techniques is known as survey research. These techniques are used in both non-experimental research and experimental research. Another way to collect data is by observation. Observing a person’s or company’s past or present behavior can predict future purchasing decisions. Data collection techniques for past behavior can include analyzing company records and reviewing studies published by external resources. In order to analyze information from interview or observation techniques, you must record your results. Because the recorded results are vital, measurement and development are closely linked to which data collection techniques you decide on.

The way you record the data changes depends on which method you use. Stage 6: Sample Design Your marketing research project will rarely examine an entire population. It’s more practical to use a sample-?a smaller but accurate representation of the greater population. In order to design your sample, you must find answers to these questions: 1. From which base population is the sample to be selected? 2. What is the method (process) for sample selection? 3. What is the size of the sample? Once you’ve established who the relevant population is (completed in the problem formulation stage), you have a base for your sample. This will allow you to make inferences about a larger population.

There are two methods of selecting a sample from a population: probability or non-probability sampling. The probability method relies on a random sampling of everyone within the larger population. Non- probability is based in part on the Judgment of the investigator, and often employs nonviolence samples, or by other sampling methods that do not rely on probability. The final stage of the sample design involves determining the appropriate sample size. This important step involves cost and accuracy decisions. Larger samples generally reduce sampling error and increase accuracy, but also increase costs. Stage 7: Data Collection Once you’ve established the first six stages, you can move on to data collection.

Depending on the mode of data collection, this part of the process can require large amounts of personnel and a significant portion of your budget. Personal (face-to-face) and telephone interviews may require you to use a data collection agency (field service). Internet surveys require fewer personnel, are lower cost, and can be completed in days rather than weeks or months. Regardless of the mode of data collection, the data collection process introduces another essential element to your research project: the importance of clear and constant communication. Stage 8: Analysis and Interpretation In order for data to be useful, you must analyze it.

Analysis techniques vary and their effectiveness depends on the types of information oh are collecting, and the type of measurements you are using. Because they are dependent on the data collection, analysis techniques should be decided before this step. Stage 9: The Marketing Research Report The marketing research process culminates with the research report. This report will include all of your information, including an accurate description of your research process, the results, conclusions, and recommended courses of action. The report should provide all the information the decision maker needs to understand the project. It should also be written in language that is easy to understand. It’s important to find a balance between completeness and conciseness.

You don’t want to leave any information out; however, you can’t let the information get so technical that it overwhelms the reading audience. One approach to resolving this conflict is to prepare two reports: the technical report and the summary report. The technical report discusses the methods and the underlying assumptions. In this document, you discuss the detailed findings of the research project. The summary report, as its name implies, summarizes the research process and presents the findings and conclusions as simply as possible. Another way to keep your findings clear is to prepare several different representations of your findings. Powering presentations, graphs, and face-to-face reports are all common methods for presenting your information.

Read more
OUR GIFT TO YOU
15% OFF your first order
Use a coupon FIRST15 and enjoy expert help with any task at the most affordable price.
Claim my 15% OFF Order in Chat
Close

Sometimes it is hard to do all the work on your own

Let us help you get a good grade on your paper. Get professional help and free up your time for more important courses. Let us handle your;

  • Dissertations and Thesis
  • Essays
  • All Assignments

  • Research papers
  • Terms Papers
  • Online Classes
Live ChatWhatsApp