Sex

Would you trade, share or swap your intimate partner with another? This is a very difficult but intriguing proposition that actually exists amidst controversies and criticisms. In today’s modern, liberal and flexible world, one lifestyle has earned much popularity and, surprisingly, the preference of a lot of adults.

The sensitive lifestyle of swinging has triggered arguments among moralists and has even challenged the accepted norms of the society. Although swinging is an enjoyable and satisfying activity for consenting and open-minded adults, it inevitably generates intrigues and oppositions.

This is because of its very delicate and extraordinary nature. However, what the swinging lifestyle needs is an in-depth and well-thought presentation of its traits and the apparent benefits that its proponents supposedly get. In doing so, a two-sided feature of swinging lifestyle can be shown to elicit options for the concerned individual: whether to refuse or engage in such kind of experience.

What is swinging?

Bergstrand and Williams (2000) defined swinging as a “non-monogamous sexual activity, treated much like any other social activity, that can be experienced as a couple.” Swinging lifestyle and practice was portrayed as a sexual modification and awakening of willing people.

Engaging in such delicate yet rewarding sexual activity has started after the rush in sexual arousal resulting from the existence of a number of safe sex activities for the past decades. Swinging was simply referred to as wife swapping in previous years but was changed to its present term because of unfavorable reactions. This is because wife swapping wrongly and limitedly pictures or presents the whole scope of sexual activities that people (swingers) engage in such lifestyle may possibly do (Bergstrand & Williams, 2000, p.1).

Online sources characterized swinging primarily as a sexual act. According to swingerfac.com, swinging is a kind of social diversion and intimate physical intercourse between two or more willing grown-ups or mature people. It is an activity where one or more couples concur to get along and socialize with an aim to expressively take part in a cozy or sexual relationship or activity with not only their own mate (Swinger FAQ).

Swinging is an experience that manifests enjoyment and satisfaction. This is because swinger(s) aims to be acquainted and eventually physically involved with a number of adults who are all set to perform a lot of sexual activities with each other. This existing practice has made swinging not just sex-related, but it has become a way of life as far as its supporters are concerned (About Swinging).

The same article by Bergstrand and Williams (2000) also stated that the following activities are can be viewed as swinging: Exhibition which refers to having a sexual intercourse with one’s own partner in full view of other people (audience); Voyeurism which means viewing other couple engage in actual sexual intercourse; Soft Swinging which simply means “kissing, stroking, or having oral sex” with another individual other than one’s own partner; Soft Swap which constitutes threesome, sexual acts within a group and literal trading or exchanging of partners;

Full Swap which represents penetrative sexual intercourse not with one’s actual partner but with another person (usually understood meaning but not necessarily the most ordinary kind); and Group Sex which means an all-comprehensive meaning for sexual practices including a number of people (multiple partners) within similar locality or neighborhood. Swinging normally happens when a married or two attached individuals take part in sexual intercourse with one or more pairs and even with an unmarried or uncommitted person. The sexual acts can be done in one or separate rooms where the swingers usually perform sex swinging not just to satisfy their physical needs but also to enjoy the act as a play (Bergstrand & Williams, 2000).

In the book “The Lifestyle: A Look at the Erotic Rites of Swingers” by Terry Gould (2000), the roots of swinging activities were traced to have started as early as the times of World War II and done by the United States Air Force pilots and their respective wives. According to Gould (2000), the close bond or brotherhood among pilots, which showed that the husbands would defend and give attention for all the wives other than their own, has resulted in even sexually satisfied left-behind wives in the event their husbands were called for duty or eventually died.

Swinger’s Lifestyle

The online source Actual Swingers said that a swinger’s lifestyle does not entertain and is not occupied with a feeling and condition of disappointment and doomed loves. Actual Swingers added that in reality, the swinger’s lifestyle simply renders and takes sexual delight and satisfaction.

However, there are some significant reminders if one decides to engage in swinging and have its lifestyle as a way of life. One should remember not to swing unless he or she genuinely desires. Another is nobody should never engage or take part in a swinging lifestyle if he or she is not sure of his or her personal sexual desires or of the intensity and limit of his or her affection with his or her own partner.

It is also important to note that swinger’s lifestyle is founded upon more essential and vital component such as communication rather than the physical or biological need of an individual. People or couples who engage in swinger’s lifestyle must posses the quality of discussing or expressing liberally and without restriction things concerning their emotions with their partners. Learning and eventually understanding this ability should come before anyone talks about it and exercise such lifestyle (Actual Swingers).

The Actual Swingers site also stated that the three usual kinds of swinger’s lifestyles are soft swinging, closed swinging and open swinging. Soft swinging is characterized by no actual sexual intercourse between non-couple. In this way, one is having sex with his or her own partner inside the same room in simultaneous with another couple also enjoying the same act.

There is no actual exchange or swapping of partners and vaginal penetration by non-partners is also not happening. Closed swinging refers to swapping of partners but the sexual act is done in separate rooms thereby allowing more freedom and intimacy among changing couples. Another type of swapping of partners is the open swinging but this time it is done in the same room or even bed. Examples of this are orgies, exhibition and voyeurism. This allows total release of sexual wishes and illusions and manifests no jealousy (Actual Swingers).

A worldwide success of swinging activities like selective swinging has emerged into what is called “The Lifestyle” as a means to cover all swinging practices. This is because the younger people who are into swinging are slightly indisposed being called swingers due to conventional meanings. The selective swinging activities are mostly done by young people in their late 20s. These same people are not yet married and still without a child. Conventional swinging activities, on the other hand, are done by people who are in their 40s. Selective swingers are usually called as the “exclusive” or “elitist” (Carey, 2006, p. 13).

Kaye Bellemeade (2003), in her book “Swinging for Beginners: An Introduction to the Lifestyle,” honestly expressed a swinging statement: “the couple who plays together, stays together.”

According to Bellemeade, there should be an understanding of information in all aspects of the swinger’s lifestyle that include: dating; appropriate outfit or what to exactly wear during swinging which would serve as a come-on for other swingers; effective and right conduct or approaches by the swingers while at clubs and parties; swinging by single men and women; jealousy; having threesomes; and how to be acquainted with other swingers as well as the manner to deal with all of the components of swinging (Bellemeade, 2003).

The book stressed the importance of knowing and successfully practicing a good and safe swinging lifestyle in order to gain one’s and other’s sexual fulfillment. The author manifested that one’s curiosity can led him or her in taking part into swinging activities and eventually enjoying the new-found lifestyle especially if it satisfy and address his or her sexual desires. Bellemeade’s book exposed the secluded and secret world of the swinging lifestyle by responding to one’s intimate curiosity (Bellemeade, 2003).

Broadcast journalist John Stossel’s investigative report about the issue disclosed that more than four million people are engaged into such lifestyle. Stossel cited the figure done by the Kinsel Institute and the study made by Terry Gould. The Gould’s study unwrapped that couples engage into swinging not aiming to cheat but rather be honest with their partners. Part of the lifestyle research by Stossel involved interview with real swinging couples where one male interviewee revealed that the reason why swingers do the acts is not to search another or fresh partner.

A female subject also told Stossel that being in control during swinging boosts her self-assurance. Stossel also learned that experts such as marriage counselors do not discourage people from having a swinger’s lifestyle. They, however, warned that sexual excitement outside of marriage can jeopardize the relationship between the couple. Stossel also determined from his subjects that swinging eventually strengthen a marriage because a couple actually does not have extra-marital affair and one tends to be honest with his or her own partner (Stossel, 2006).

Arguments on swinger’s lifestyles

The sensitive nature of swinger’s lifestyles has noticeably promoted at least two main objections. These include the practical or health objections and moral or philosophical objections. Despite the emergence of the practice of safe sex, swinger’s lifestyle has resulted in health arguments. This is because swinging involves physical contact among two or more people which poses health risks, particularly the risk of having a sexually transmitted disease such as AIDS.

The proponents of swinging responded to the health objection by explaining that swingers know that the lifestyle is literally about sexual intercourse or physical contact. Thus, they are regarded as mature and conscious enough to practice precautions or know how to protect themselves from sexual diseases and even unwanted pregnancies for female swingers (Fab Swingers, 2006).

Those who morally or philosophically object the swinging lifestyle argue or invoke that sexual acts within the boundaries of swinging cheapen sexual relations to its lowest level of pleasure. Degrading sexual connection among partners especially married couples violates the sacred nature of intimacy because swinging is a manifestation of lust satisfaction. Moralists object swinging by stating that there should always be a clear difference between having sex and making love. They added that this distinction should always and never cease to exist (Ehrenreich, Hess & Jacobs, 1986).

Conclusion

A fragile and controversial way of life such as swinging exists, whether we openly admit it or not. The lifestyle can be treated in a lot of manners but in the end, it would still be one’s choice or preference that would surpass all its arguments and criticisms. Nobody can address one’s biological needs and options but himself or herself only. In doing so, complying with his or her sexual inclinations according to own standards just upholds one’s privilege.

This is because he or she would be able to comply with his or her sexual inclinations according to what his or her body wishes. In view of this, swingers should not be subjected to moral or ethical objections. In the same way, their explicit and vulgar sexual activities should not be promoted as justified actions that can essentially fill human’s biological needs.  What is good about swinging is that it is one concrete proof that freedom and creativity really exist.

References

Actual Swingers. (2005). Swingers’ Lifestyle. Retrieved March 6, 2008, from             http://www.actualswingers.com/swingers_lifestyles.html

Bellemeade, K. (2003). Swinging for Beginners: An Introduction to the Lifestyle.Toronto:            New Tradition Books.

Bergstrand, C.  & Williams, J. B. (2000). Today’s Alternative Marriage Styles: The Case of         Swingers. Electronic Journal of Human Sexuality, Vol.3, 1.

Carey, M. (2006, October 4). Her club runs on tough love. The Metro, 9,13.

Ehrenreich, B., Hess, E. & Jacobs, G. (1986). Re-Making Love: The Feminization of Sex. New   York: Doubleday.

Fab Swingers. (2006). Facts and Figures. Retrieved March 8, 2008, from Fab Swingers database.

Gould, T. (2000). The Lifestyle: A Look at the Erotic Rites of Swingers. Ontario: Firefly   Books.

Stossel, J. (2006). The “Lifestyle” — Real Life Wife Swaps. Retrieved March 6, 2008, from        ABC News database.

Swingerfac.com. (2006). Active Swinger FAQ. Retrieved March 6, 2008, from     http://www.swingerfaq.com/

Swinger Personals. About Swinging – A Guide for swingers. Retrieved March 6, 2008, from       http://www.about-swinging.co.uk/

The reproduction in human beings differs from other living things because we are complex organisms. Unlike bacteria, the simplest living things, our reproduction involves a male and female to mate. For bacteria, normally it is asexual, meaning there is no need for a male and female partner to mate. A single bacterium, which is single one celled organism, can divide into two new one celled organism. This process of cell division is called mitosis for most one celled organism or binary fission for prokaryotic cells.

As female and male human being mate, the egg of a female becomes fertilized by the sperm of the male. Although arthropods like grasshoppers also mate, the egg of a grasshopper contains a little yolk to support the egg cell when it develops after fertilization. Since the yolk is small, several germ cells contained in a single egg support the primary germ cell providing nourishment after fertilization. Human eggs do not have yolk, after fertilization the developing baby is nourish by the mother through the umbilical cord.

Another group of animals living in the water also differ from human egg. Unlike land dwelling animals, aquatic animals like fish have their eggs in water were the exchange of nutrients and waste is easy to achieve. Therefore some fish eggs do not have much yolk to support the embryo during development. Although unlike human egg, they normally have gelatinous materials that cover the egg and provide additional nourishment. To humans this is the reason why we have amniotic fluids to allow nutrients to enter our body and waste to come out.

Even our closest relatives, the bear which is a mammal, still differ from our reproduction. In female human beings, normally only one egg can be fertilized at one time. This is because only one egg is released by the ovary during the ovulation period. For bear one or more eggs can be fertilized at a time producing typically 4 to 5 cubs. When the human egg is fertilized it forms a zygote that undergoes a 9 month gestation period before coming out as a young baby. References Materials provided by student.

To subjugate a nation or a country destroy its literature, its history and above all its culture. This is what the English men do to tighten the bonds of slavery on India. And we Indians are making merry over the ruins of our ancient culture and civilization.

Our Rishis who were scholars, thinkers, preachers, philosophers and warriors as well had divided human life into four periods. According to them average expectance of life in India was 100 years. First twenty five years period was meant for physical, literary and spiritual education, second thirty five years i.e. up to the age of sixty years were meant for family life then Vanprasth and finally sanyas. For the first twenty five years one and the foremost and compulsory principle was “Brhamcharya” meaning self restraint over sexual feelings.

A Brahmchari who was primarily a student, a vidyarthi and a pupil of the Guru would never think in terms of sex. He was taught not to distinguish between male and female. To him all females were either mothers or sisters. He was forced to believe that breasts of a lady are but a loath of flesh and fat, a sort of deformity not a center for attraction. And with this type of education we have the proud privilege of having great personalities like Swami Ram Kishna Paramhans, Swami Vivekanda, Swami Ram Terth, Subhash Chand Bose, Swami Dayanand, Jagat guru Shankracharya not in distant past while great men like Bhishma Pitamah of prehistoric days.

Even today we have a number of leaders both male and female who have followed the sacred path of Brahamcharya and are outstanding personalities in every field of life. The names of our president A. P. T. Abdul Kalam and Atal Behari Vajpayee ex. Prime minister may be cited as examples. Now under the influence of western civilization there is a talk of imparting sex education at school level. A simple question to the advocates of sex education?

Sex in not a characteristic of human beings only. It is found practically in all living animals, birds, insects and even in plant kingdom. Who teaches sex to cow or a buffalo or a donkey or a bird or an insect. Sex is a natural instinct and needs no lesion, no teaching and no demonstration. Sex in animal and plant kingdom is not rampant. It is controlled by nature. But sex in human has to be controlled by self restrain, by teachings and creating an atmosphere adverse to the feelings of sex i.e. following the path of Brahmcharya.

Premarital sex is a crime. Bigamy is prohibited by law as well as by society and also by religion. After all what is the purpose of sex education? Under guise of AIDS the advocates of sex education plead for its necessity. But when sex is prohibited no doubt but if you at all indulge then there are safety measures therefore. It is just like telling a thief that committing theft is illegal but in case you do it, adopt safe ways. One thing more. There is growing trend of co-education at school level. Just imagine a female unmarried teacher teaching lesion on sex to a class consisting of boys and girls or a male teacher doing the same job in his class. How would the advocates of sex education face such a situation? Is it at all advisable or practicable? Hence we should stick to our cultural traditions and should provide such education as would arouse in them a feeling of an urge for moral traditions of India culture.

Lessons highlighting the importance of morality should be including in text books of English and Hindi literature as also in curriculum of subjects like History and Civics. An independent discipline of moral ethics may be given to the students in the prayer meetings and the students must be given & chances express their feelings and expose their learning. Physical training must also be introduced as compulsory subject and fruitful training of YOGA may be imparted to the students. YOGA may also be made compulsory for scouts and N.CC. Cadets. It is a time that we arise to the occasion and save our children from the malicious feelings of sex and infuse in them the sprit of self restraint so that the idea of sex may not enter into their mind’s horizon. Therein lies the salvation of our society and the country at large.

Marriage is a socially or ritually recognized union or legal contract between spouses that establishes rights and obligations between them, between them and their children, and between them and their in-laws. It is also considered a sacred ceremony between a man and woman. Catholic Church says that it should be just for man and woman. It is the proof of their long lasting relationship that couldn’t separate by anyone else. Nowadays, same sex marriage is implemented in other country.

Same sex marriage is known as a marriage between two persons of the same biological sex or gender. It is one of the most controversial yet sensitive topics that have been discuss around the world. Politicians are having debates on this subject trying to decide whether it should be legal for same sexes to be married. Same sex marriage is often viewed as being wrong by religious people because marriage is portrayed as a woman and man uniting not woman to woman or man to man.

Here in the Philippines, Political parties such as the Gabriela Women’s Partylist are actively lobbying and advocating for lesbian and gay rights and to insist that society not discriminate on the basis of sexual preference. Unlike in the Philippines there are few countries who are now supporting and allowing same sex marriage including Argentina, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, Iceland, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Spain, South Africa, Sweden. For me, same sex marriage should implement here in our country because of many reasons. First, is to exercise the freedom of choice.

Every people have a right to choose what religion they will be, what school they will study and other rights since we were born. So as a person, they also have the right to choose who they want to marry with even he/her is a bisexual. Second is to control population. We cannot deny the fact that we are over populated. Unlike the other countries, we do not have any rule to control population. Even pills, condom and etc are allowed to use, we can’t still assure that everyone will use it. Third, is to adopt children from orphanage.

Since they cannot have their biological son/daughter, they need to adopt. Those children who do not have their own family will can get the opportunity to be loved and feel the loved what a complete family have. Lastly, is to practice human rights. You’re a person no matter what. To get married is your right as a person. Bisexual or not, you have the right to make a decision for yourself. There are many more positive reasons why same sex marriage should be considered as legal. As Eper Herher said, “Bisexual or not, we are all human. And we are born to be true and not to perfect. ”

What is female foeticide?

The act of aborting or terminating a foetus while it’s still in the womb, because it is female, is known as female foeticide. This can be done after determining the sex of the child before it’s born, through ultrasound scans. Although, sex determination in India is illegal, the practice is rampant and has become a multi-million dollar industry. Coupled with prospective parents desperate for a boy child, and physicians who are carrying out these abortions, female foeticide has become a shameful and shocking reality of our nation. What is the main cause of female foeticide?

For centuries, families across many parts of India have regarded a male child as the preferred of the two sexes. There have been many social, financial, emotional and religious reasons for this preference and while times have changed, many of these reasons and beliefs continue to remain. Today, some of the key reasons that exist for the preference of a male child are as follows: The tradition of paying dowry at the time of a daughter’s marriage is alive and kicking. This amount can be so huge that many parents will go to extreme lengths to avoid having a daughter in the first place. A son is seen as someone who can earn and care for his parents in their later years, while a daughter will get married and go away.

A son can carry on the family name, while a daughter becomes part of her husband’s family. Girls are seen as consumers, whereas boys are seen as producers. Many families consider it a status symbol to have a son, and a point of shame to have a daughter. Often, the pressure to bear a male child on the woman is so great that she herself might choose to get sex determination done and abort the baby if it’s a girl. Illiteracy, poverty and the tag of ‘burden’ that is assigned to a girl child, makes the desire for a male child even stronger.

Modern technology has made it very easy to determine the sex of the child while it’s still in the womb, giving parents-to-be the option of aborting the foetus and continuing to try to conceive till they get a male child. While sex determination has been banned by the Indian government, it does not stop families from going to great lengths to find out anyway. Not only are there plenty of scanning centres that reveal this information, many of the wealthier families fly the pregnant mother to neighbouring countries where sex determination is legal, to find out the gender of the baby. Once the gender of the baby is known, families that are keen to have a baby boy choose to abort the female foetus. The law on aborting is also strict, and the Indian government allows it only under certain circumstances.

Therefore, by determining the sex of the baby and aborting it because it’s a girl, the parents as well as the participating physicians are breaking two major laws.

What impact does female foeticide have on the sex ratio?

Sex ratio refers to ratio of females to males in a given region. Practices like female foeticide and female infanticide (killing a baby girl after she is born) have had an adverse effect on the sex ratio of a nation and gives rise to further social evils. As per the Indian Census 2011 report, the sex ratio of India (females per 1000 males) is as follows: Average India sex ratio – 933

Rural sex ratio – 946
Urban sex ratio – 900
State with highest female sex ratio – Kerala – 1058
State with lowest female sex ratio – Haryana – 861
What are the long-term impacts of female foeticide?

The most important impact of female foeticide is the skewed ratio it gives rise to. The dearth of females leads to other complications like female trafficking, kidnappings and in increase in assault and rape against women. Female foeticide is a horrific and illegal practice that has got to be stopped. The way to do this is by implementation of stronger laws and bringing about a change in the mind-set of our countrymen – uphill tasks, but absolutely crucial nevertheless.

The organs of the male reproductive system are specialized for the following functions:

• To produce, maintain and transport sperm (the male reproductive cells) and protective fluid (semen)
• To discharge sperm within the female reproductive tract
• To produce and secrete male sex hormones

The male reproductive anatomy includes internal and external structures. What are the external reproductive structures? Most of the male reproductive system is located outside of the man’s body. The external structures of the male reproductive system are the penis, the scrotum and the testicles.

Penis

The penis is the male organ for sexual intercourse. It has three parts: the root, which attaches to the wall of the abdomen; the body, or shaft; and the glans, which is the cone-shaped end of the penis. The glans, which also is called the head of the penis, is covered with a loose layer of skin called foreskin.

(This skin is sometimes removed in a procedure called circumcision. ) The opening of the urethra, the tube that transports semen and urine, is at the tip of the glans penis. The penis also contains a number of sensitive nerve endings. The body of the penis is cylindrical in shape and consists of three internal chambers. These chambers are made up of special, sponge-like erectile tissue. This tissue contains thousands of large spaces that fill with blood when the man is sexually aroused. As the penis fills with blood, it becomes rigid and erect, which allows for penetration during sexual intercourse.

The skin of the penis is loose and elastic to accommodate changes in penis size during an erection. Semen, which contains sperm, is expelled (ejaculated) through the end of the penis when the man reaches sexual climax (orgasm). When the penis is erect, the flow of urine is blocked from the urethra, allowing only semen to be jaculated at orgasm.

Scrotum

The scrotum is the loose pouch-like sac of skin that hangs behind the penis. It contains the testicles (also called testes), as well as many nerves and blood vessels. The scrotum has a protective function and acts as a climate control system for the testes. For normal sperm development, the testes must be at a temperature slightly cooler than the body temperature.

Special muscles in the wall of the scrotum allow it to contract and relax, moving the testicles closer to the body for warmth and protection or farther away from the body to cool the temperature.

Testicles (Testes)

The testes are oval organs about the size of large olives that lie in the scrotum, secured at either end by a structure called the spermatic cord. Most men have two testes. The testes are responsible for making testosterone, the primary male sex hormone, and for generating sperm. Within the testes are coiled masses of tubes called seminiferous tubules. These tubules are responsible for producing the sperm cells through a process called spermatogenesis

Epididymis

The epididymis is a long, coiled tube that rests on the backside of each testicle.

It functions in the transport and storage of the sperm cells that are produced in the testes.It also is the job of the epididymis to bring the sperm to maturity, since the sperm that emerge from the testes are immature and incapable of fertilization. During sexual arousal, contractions force the sperm into the vas deferens. What are the internal reproductive organs? The internal organs of the male reproductive system, also called accessory organs, include the following:

• Vas deferens — The vas deferens is a long, muscular tube that travels from the epididymis into the pelvic cavity, to just behind the bladder. The vas deferens transports mature sperm to the urethra in preparation for ejaculation.
• Ejaculatory ducts — These are formed by the fusion of the vas deferens and the seminal vesicles. The ejaculatory ducts empty into the urethra.
• Urethra — The urethra is the tube that carries urine from the bladder to outside of the body. In males, it has the additional function of expelling (ejaculating) semen when the man reaches orgasm. When the penis is erect during sex, the flow of urine is blocked from the urethra, allowing only semen to be ejaculated at orgasm.
• Seminal vesicles — The seminal vesicles are sac-like pouches that attach to the vas deferens near the base of the bladder. The seminal vesicles produce a sugar-rich fluid (fructose) that provides sperm with a source of energy and helps with the sperms’ motility (ability to move). The fluid of the seminal vesicles makes up most of the volume of a man’s ejaculatory fluid, or ejaculate.
• Prostate gland — The prostate gland is a walnut-sized structure that is located below the urinary bladder in front of the rectum. The prostate gland contributes additional fluid to the ejaculate. Prostate fluids also help to nourish the sperm. The urethra, which carries the ejaculate to be expelled during orgasm, runs through the center of the prostate gland.
• Bulbourethral glands — The bulbourethral glands, or Cowper’s glands, are pea-sized structures located on the sides of the urethra just below the prostate gland. These glands produce a clear, slippery fluid that empties directly into the urethra. This fluid serves to lubricate the urethra and neutralize any acidity that may be present due to residual drops of urine in the urethra. How does the male reproductive system function? The entire male reproductive system is dependent on hormones, which are chemicals that stimulate or regulate the activity of cells or organs.

The primary hormones involved in the functioning of the male reproductive system are follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH) and testosterone. FSH and LH are produced by the pituitary gland located at the base of the brain. FSH is necessary for sperm production (spermatogenesis), and LH stimulates the production of testosterone, which is necessary to continue the process of spermatogenesis. Testosterone also is important in the development of male characteristics, including muscle mass and strength, fat distribution, bone mass and sex drive. Does a man go through menopause? Menopause is a term used to describe the end of a woman’s normal menstrual function. Female menopause is characterized by changes in hormone production. The testes, unlike the ovaries, do not lose the ability to make hormones.

If a man is healthy, he may be able to make sperm well into his 80s or longer. On the other hand, subtle changes in the function of the testes may occur as early as 45 to 50 years of age, and more dramatically after the age of 70. For many men, hormone production may remain normal into old age, while others may have declining hormone production earlier on, sometimes as a result of an illness, such as diabetes. Whether waning testicular function contributes to such symptoms as fatigue, weakness, depression or impotence often remains uncertain. Can “male menopause” be treated? If testosterone levels are low, hormone replacement therapy may help relieve symptoms, such as the loss of interest in sex, depression and fatigue. However, replacing male hormones can worsen prostate cancer and, perhaps, atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries). A man should receive a complete physical examination and laboratory tests should be performed starting hormone replacement therapy.

How many middle-aged men will benefit from such therapy remains an open question.

Abstract

Previous literature has reported sex differences in collision avoidance behaviour by pedestrians. The current study sough to establish whether these sex differences are still valid now by observing an opportunity sample of male and female pedestrians in a busy location. A chi-square test found a significant (p < 0.01) relationship between sex and collision avoidance behaviour. In particular, women were significantly more likely to engage in closed passes and men were significantly more likely to engage in open passes. This finding is in keeping with the pattern previously reported by Collett and Marsh (1981). Future research is needed to understand why these sex differences may exist.

Introduction

Despite often busy and overcrowded public areas, pedestrians can be observed navigating and avoiding collisions with remarkable ease. Previous literature appears to be relatively unanimous in its observations and conclusions about how pedestrians are able to avoid collisions. In an early study, Goffman (1972) made a number of observations including that people tend to form two lanes whilst walking upon the pavement, with one group walking on the inside, away from the road and the other group walking on the outside and close to the road. Many years later, Collett and Marsh (1981) observed the same phenomenon and coined the term ‘pedestrian streaming.’ It was also discovered that individuals will use others’ movements and monitor their intentions, known as “externalisation,” to ensure a smoother passage. These movements may be unconscious or conscious and may as be discrete as a slight turn of the shoulders. Again, this phenomenon was also observed by Wolff (1973), who named it “behaviour monitoring.”

Wolff (1973) observed that many pedestrians engage in what he coined the ‘step-and-slide’ pass, which involved a slight angling of the shoulders alongside a discrete side step. After videotaping the passing behaviour of individuals using a pedestrian crossing, Collett and Marsh (1981) noted significant sex differences in the strategies used whilst engaging in this type of pass. Males were far more likely to use an open pass strategy by orienting toward the person they were trying to avoid whereas females were more likely to use a closed pass strategy by orienting themselves away from the person they were attempting to avoid. Interestingly, the types of pass used could not adequately be explained by the natural position of the leg during passing and even when it was more difficult, women were still more likely to use a closed pass. The researchers concluded that the use of a closed pass strategy by women was an example of self-protective behaviour. In particular, the authors concluded that women were attempting to protect their breasts after observing that they often drew their arms across their bodies during the pass.

The result of Collett and Marsh’s (1981) study may now be outdated. Therefore, the current study aimed to investigate whether sex differences in collision avoidance behaviour still exist today and whether the pattern still reflects that seen by Collett and Marsh (1981). Based on previous literature it is hypothesised that females will make more closed passes than males and that males will use more open passes than females.

Method

Participants

2,910 participants (1,376 females, 1,534 males) were observed using an opportunity sample. As this was a observation study it was not feasible to collect demographic data such as age.

Materials

Observations were recorded on a data collection grid. The data collection grid was used to record the sex of the pedestrian and whether a open pass, closed pass or neutral pass was observed.

Design

This was a between-subjects design with male participants being compared with female participants. The predictor variable was the sex of the pedestrian and the criterion variable was the type of passing behaviour exhibited.

Procedure

Before collecting data for the study a pilot study was carried out to ensure that the observers could correctly identify whether a pedestrian was exhibiting an open pass, closed pass or neutral behaviour. Data was collected on an opportunity sample of ten pedestrians for the pilot study.

For the main study, data was collected by observing pedestrians at various train stations during peak times. Two researchers collected the data with one acting as observer and the other acting as recorder. Observations were based on an opportunity sample and a mix of male-male, female-female and female-male interactions were recorded.

Results

A total of 1,376 females and 1,534 males were observed. Of the 1,376 females, 561 engaged in an open pass, whereas 815 engaged in a closed pass. Of the 1,534 males observed, 1,070 engaged in an open pass, whereas 464 engaged in a closed pass. A chi-square test was performed and a significant relationship was found between sex and type of collision avoidance behaviour X2 (1, N = 2910) = 247.32, p < 0.01.

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Discussion

The aim of the current study was to investigate whether current sex differences in pedestrian collision avoidance behaviour support previous literature that has found females are more likely to use closed passes, whereas males are more likely to use open passes when avoiding each other in busy pedestrian areas. It was found that more women engaged in closed passes than men and that more men engaged in open passes than women. Statistical analysis revealed that there was a significant relationship between sex and type of collision avoidance behaviour. This means that women are significantly more likely to engage in closed passes, whereas men are significantly more likely to engage in open passes. This finding is in support of previous literature (Collett and Marsh, 1981) and the data supports the researchers’ hypothesis.

Collett and Marsh (1981) argued that females engage in closed passes in an attempt to protect their breasts because they observed that women often drew their arms across their chests during the pass. However, more recent research has demonstrated that even in non-confrontational, everyday situations, females tend to sit in closed positions whilst keeping their arms close to their bodies (Cashdan, 1998; Vrugt and Luyerink, 2000). This suggests that Collett and Marsh’s (1981) initial interpretation may be flawed. Women may naturally adopt closed body language, which they are also likely to use during pedestrian collision avoidance scenarios. The finding that men are more likely to use open passes is in keeping with previous literature on male body language and non-verbal communication. For example, Mehrabian (1968) found that men tend to show more alertness than women by directing their shoulder orientation toward the other person. This could explain why men adopt an open position and direct their shoulders toward the other individual whilst passing them. Luxen (2005) found that men tend to exhibit behavioural dominance in situations involving women. Turning their body toward a woman, whilst she turns away, may reflect this dominance. Therefore, the current findings can be interpreted in the context of sex differences in both body language and non-verbal communication.

It is difficult to draw any strong conclusions from an observational study and only inferences can be made. However, based on the results and what is known about body language, it appears as though the sex differences in the way that individuals avoid pedestrian collisions still exist today as they did in the 1980s. The results also seem to support Collett and Marsh’s (1981) conclusion that women are more likely to adopt a protective stance when making passes in a collision avoidance situation.

The current study had a notable number of strengths. Primarily, this study utilised a large sample, which is highly likely to be representative of the population as a whole. Generalisability was also strengthened by using different train station locations for observations. Furthermore, having taken place in a natural environment rather than a lab setting, the results have good ecological validity. However, the observation method has a number of limitations, which should be noted. Firstly, although a pilot study was carried out in order to familiarise the observer with different types of passes, the data would have been more reliable if two observers had been used at any one time. An alternative method of improving the study would have to been to video record the observation area so that a second observer could interpret an identical scenario of pedestrian collision avoidance. This would have provided a measure of inter-observer reliability, which would have strengthened the results of the study. It is also possible that the observer was biased because they were aware of the study hypothesis. In other words, the observer may have interpreted females to have carried out more closed passes because this is what was expected based on the previous literature. In future studies, keeping the observer blind to the hypothesis of the study will reduce this risk. There are also some ethical concerns with large scale observation studies such as this. For example, some individuals may object to being watched and to their behaviour being recorded. However, with such a large scale study, it would have been impossible to have sought the informed consent of each participant. Data was also completely anonymised, which keeps the study within ethical boundaries.
Although the study has good generalisability, this is somewhat weakened by collecting results from only the UK. Future research may wish to focus on whether the same patterns are found internationally. Based on the findings of the current study, future studies may also wish to focus on exploring in more detail why these sex differences exist. For example, a sample of individuals exhibiting these behaviours could be administered a questionnaire to explore whether the behaviour is unconscious or conscious and if it is conscious, why they engage in either open or closed passes.

References

Cashdan, E. (1998). Smiles, speech, and body posture: How women and men display sociometric status and power. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 22(4), 209-228.

Collett, P.R. & Marsh, P.E. (1981). Patterns of public behaviour: Collision avoidance on a pedestri an crossing. In A. Kendon (Ed.), Nonverbal communication, interaction and gesture (pp. 199-217). The Hague: Mouton Press.

Goffman, E. (1972). Relations in public. Harmondsworth: Pelican.

Luxen, M. (2005). Gender differences in dominance and affiliation during a demanding interaction. Journal of Psychology: Interdisciplinary and Applied, 139(4), 331- 347.

Mehrabian, A. (1968). Relationship of attitude to seated posture, orientation, and distance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 10(1), 26-30.

Vrugt, A., & Luyerink, M. (2000). The contribution of bodily posture to gender stereotypical im pressions. Social Behavior & Personality: An International Journal, 28(1), 91.

Wolff, M. (1973) Notes on the behaviour of pedestrians. In A. Birenbaum and E. Sagar (Eds.), Peo ple in places: The sociology of the familiar (pp. 35-48). New York: Praeger.