Research Methods in Nursing and Social Work

Research methods in Nursing and Social Work: Critical appraisal paper. The aim of this assignment is to look at two written research papers and carry out a critical assessment on them. I will present the assignment in two parts, Appendix 1 which is the first research paper called, “What professionals think about offenders with learning […]

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Social Work: Components of Working in the Substance Abuse Field

1) The critical components of professional practice while working in the substance abuse field: I. Engagement: – This process continues throughout all of the stages, or components. Engagement involves building rapport with the client but because people with substance abuse problems are often scared, emotional, defensive and unable to trust this can be difficult. Preparing […]

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The Relationship of a Foster Child and the Social Worker

The relationship between a social worker and the children they represent in the foster care system evolves many different emotional connections. Social workers provide counseling and direction to people in crisis. Their clients may vary from the young and older unemployed to young children who are in need of foster homes right on down to […]

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Field of Social Work in Child Practice

The Encyclopedia Britannica defines child welfare as services and institutions concerned with the physical, social and psychological well-being of children, particularly children suffering from the effects of poverty or lacking normal parental care and supervision (Child Welfare, 2010). Working with children and families is the second largest area of practice for social workers, and it is most popular with those who have a Bachelor of Social Work (BSW) Degree (Berg-Weger, 2010).

National Organizations Addressing Child Welfare Practice A brief description of The Child Welfare System helps to better understand the role of social workers in this field. Under the Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act (CAPTA), The Child Welfare system emerged. Primarily state and local regulated, this system encompasses the primary responsibility of implementing, overseeing and enforcing laws and policies aligned to protect the welfare of children.

Services provided under the child welfare system include the following:

  • Support or coordinate service to prevent child abuse and neglect
  • Provide services to families that need help protecting and caring for their children
  • Oversee the investigation of reports of possible child abuse and neglect
  • Oversee temporary and foster care of children when safety cannot be assured at home
  • Support the well-being of children living with relatives or foster families, including ensuring their educational needs are addressed

Oversee family reunification, adoption or other permanent family connections for children and youth leaving foster care Although each state has a public child welfare agency, the child welfare system is not a single entity. Public child welfare agencies often collaborate with private child welfare agencies, community-based organizations and other public agencies to ensure that abused or neglected children receive the services they need. The Children’s Bureau (CB), another national organization, is the first federal agency within the United States (U. S. ) government to focus exclusively on the improving the lives of children and families. The National Association of Social Workers (NASW) is a professional organization created specifically for the social work profession and serves to provide information and education to the profession and advocate on behalf of social work professionals (Berg-Weger, 2010). The Social Work Policy Institution (SWPI) is a unit within the NASW whose primary responsibility is to examine issues that relate to social workers and perform research to gather empirical data and statistics that directly and indirectly impact how public agencies and other structures deliver health and human services.

The mission of SWPI is to strengthen the voice of social workers in public policy deliberations, inform policymakers through collection and dissemination of information on social work effectiveness, and to create a forum to examine current and future issues in health care and social service delivery (Social Work Policy Institute,2012 ). The Role of Child Welfare Social Workers The role of the social worker in the field of child welfare involves a wide variety of settings within the child welfare system which includes direct involvement with an array of external professions and agencies (e. g. courts, law enforcement, psychiatrists, psychologists and other health care delivery team professionals). This collaboration is necessary to better ensure a holistic and efficient resolution approach for clients such that the safety and best interest of the child is always first and foremost; while working toward the goal of family reunification when feasible.

The role of the child welfare social worker entails:

  • On-going follow-ups and investigation of reports of possible child abuse and/or neglect
  • Meticulous assessments / detailed reports, and recommendations to courts and other services within the child welfare system
  • Coordination of supportive child care, parenting classes, and in-home family preservation services
  • On-going follow-ups, monitoring child and family progress and evaluations of planned outcomes
  • When applicable, coordination and follow-up of mental health services, counseling and substance abuse treatment

A liaison between client(s)and other multi-collaborative team members In addition, one of the most significant roles of the child welfare social worker is the mandated reporting of child abuse. Social workers have a legal responsibility to report suspicion of any form of child abuse and/or exploitation regardless to whether the information is based on direct or indirect knowledge of incidents.

The social worker works closely with local law enforcement agencies and family court systems that rely heavily on the high quality assessments as well as other recommendations from the social worker in order to implement immediate safeguards and/or take immediate action when necessary to remove a child from a harmful or potentially harmful environment. Family preservation and implementing measures that safeguard the child, and acting in the best interest of the child is always the overall goal collectively within the child welfare system and individually for the social worker when making decisions, recommendations and referrals on behalf of a child. Social Problems in the Field Although the field of child welfare encompasses a variety of issues within the practice settings of family services, adoption programs and elementary and secondary school settings, child abuse is one of the most serious issues facing social workers in this field (Berg-Weger, 2010).

This issue alone, reported by the SWPI, has created an emotional toll on social workers in the field of child welfare along with a steady increase in caseloads ranging from ten to one hundred and ten cases per social worker (The Social Work Career Center, 2012). This makes recruitment and retention in this field an on-going challenge. As front-line workers in the protection of children, social workers in this field are at high risk of becoming victims of violence as they are not usually accompanied by law enforcement during the initial follow-up on reports of abuse. Another area within the child welfare system that creates a social dilemma is the costs associated with child abuse and neglect mainly including hospital care and foster care.

The social and economic consequences and costs of child abuse and neglect impact our society both directly and indirectly. The greatest cost being the displacement and offense against children. Professions that Compete with the Field of Child Welfare Political conservations and government cut backs on social reform, media and societal oppositions continue to be a constant challenge to the field of social work in general. Particularly in the field of child welfare, and despite the fortitude of those who remain committed to the client goal of finding families more quickly through safe reunification, adoption, and legal guardianship, the difficult and challenging daily tasks of child welfare social workers are seldom publicly acknowledged unless under scrutiny.

Moreover, due to the complexities of the child welfare system, one hundred percent safety for all children is a goal to be achieved, but is rarely attained. Child welfare is a field of practice that is identified by the public as being primarily a social work domain. However, less than thirty percent of child welfare workers have a professional social work degree (BSW or Master of Social Work (MSW)). In some states the number of professional social workers in public child welfare is as low as three percent, with fewer than fifteen percent of states requiring a BSW or MSW degree for any child welfare position (Social Work Policy Institute,2012).

In addition, there is a high turnover with the highest turnover rates from those who are hired with the least educational background and training (Social Work Policy Institute,2012). This dilemma creates a higher caseload and workload on those who hold the longest record of remaining in the field. That is, the degreed professionals (Social Work Policy Institute,2012). Job Opportunities According to the U. S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), the number of children under the age of 18 in the U. S. has grown from forty-seven million since 1950 to seventy-three point five million. By the year 2030, this number is expected to grow to eighty-five point seven million.

The BLS also estimates the need for 595,000 social workers, with an expected growth of twenty percent employment of child welfare social workers. The average growth rate for all occupations is fourteen percent. The demand for child and family social workers should continue to grow because they will be needed to investigate child abuse cases and to place children in foster care and with adoptive families. However, growth in this occupation is subject to limited budget constraints at all levels of government which will have impact on closing the gap on the shortage of social workers in this field and overall job opportunities. Salaries vary depending on location, experience and benefits offered.

However, the median annual wage as reported by BLS is $40,210 annually (Bureau of Labor and Statistics, 2012). Important Trends The CB reported that in any given year an estimation of one million children come to the attention of the child welfare system. In 2010 an estimated 701,158 children were determined to be victims of abuse and neglect and an estimated 1,537 children died related to child abuse or neglect. As the NASW Center for Workforce Studies states, child abuse and neglect occur in all segments of society, within families from all walks of life, at all income levels, all religious denominations and all racial and cultural backgrounds.

These facts indicate that child welfare requires knowledge and skills in assessment, active engagement, intervention, the use of authority, and an expert ability to negotiate and manage appropriate community resources for an immeasurable client base. This further indicates a need for more comprehensive strategies that target both the recruitment and education of the next generation of professional social workers, and the training of current practitioners. The NASW reports that currently, hiring requirements for social workers in child welfare vary. Targets for action as reported by the SWPI include influencing social work education as a requirement to practice in the field, expanding use of data and research, influencing service delivery, and strengthening policy and practice linkages.

The NASW continues to advocate for measures to decrease the shortage of social workers in the field of child welfare social work and to ensure consumers have access to qualified professionals. One such measure to recruit more degreed child welfare social workers is promoting for social work college graduates. For example, while The Higher Education Act has been authorized by Congress to offer loan forgiveness, they have yet to allocate the funds toward this program to pay-off student loans (The Social Work Career Center, 2012). However, the NASW remains vocal on behalf of social workers to get funds appropriated for this program. These are just a few examples of the on-going work to improve working conditions, salaries and other benefits for members of the profession.

Other sources include the College Cost Reduction Act of 2007 that also offers a loan forgiveness program that will discharge any remaining educational debt after ten years of full-time employment in public service. These shifts mark significant trends toward improved support of social workers particularly in the field of child welfare, and even more promising employment opportunities for social work graduates who are interested in child welfare. Summary A unique aspect in the area of child welfare is working closely and diligently to combat one of the most sensitive issues of our society, that is, the abuse and/or neglect of children. This aspect alone makes the decision to pursue a career in child welfare a most rewarding one but challenging at the same time.

The field of child welfare is professionally, emotionally, and personally taxing, and often misunderstood and under-supported. With the reported rates of child population growth and the alarming rates of reported child abuse, the need for well trained and educated social workers is critical to this field of social work in particular. In order to provide adequate and improved support for social workers and the children and families who encompass this field, supportive efforts on the part of state and federal levels, and other organizations like NASW and SWPI helps to offer a more promising outlook and outcomes for all who remain committed to achieve a most difficult task of one hundred percent safety of all children.

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Autobiographical Book “a Child Called It”

Table of contents

Dave was viciously trampled and famished by his biological mother who is psychologically unsound and always intoxicated (Pelzer, 1995, pp. 1 – 169).

He is treated by his mother as a slave, instead of a young boy or instead of a son (Pelzer, 1995, pp. 1 – 169).

Referred to by his mother as an “it”, he is made to sleep in the basement where it is extremely cold (Pelzer, 1995, pp. 1 – 169).

In addition to that, the clothes he wears were torn and dirty (Pelzer, 1995, pp. 1 – 169).

He was also usually not given permission to eat; in case his mother feels like feeding him, he will be provided with “scraps which came from the dog’s bowl” (Pelzer, 1995, pp. 1 – 169).

His condition was noticed by some of the school authorities and later police came over to help end his dilemma (Pelzer, 1995, pp. 1 – 169).

Social Work Theme

“A Child Called It’s” social work theme is centered generally on “problems on living” specifically “child abuse” (Pelzer, 1995, pp. 1 – 169).

He usually goes hungry when he goes to school; he isn’t provided with breakfast and the same thing happens at home (Pelzer, 1995, pp. 1 – 169).

Dave is allowed to eat so seldom that he usually feels weak working or going to school with an empty stomach (Pelzer, 1995, pp. 1 – 169).

The main character is smacked in the face whenever he forgets what his mother asks him to find (Pelzer, 1995, pp. 31 – 32).

He usually is not provided with food; it is fortunate if there would be “leftovers from one of his brothers’ cereal bowls” and if he has behaved enough for such a reward since usually those would be given to the dog (Pelzer, 1995, pp. 4).

When he is caught stealing from the garbage can, he will be slapped; any form of punishment is given to him as long as it is exceedingly agonizing (Pelzer, 1995, pp. 4).

He is made to accomplish multiple chores at home as well instead of allowing him to play outside with his brother who enjoys the sun so much (Pelzer, 1995, pp. 1 – 169).

His mother was so mad at Dave that she always threatens to kill him (Pelzer, 1995, pp. 83 – 84).

There was a time when Dave was stabbed on the chest by his mother (Pelzer, 1995, pp. 83 – 84).

However, his mother did not acknowledge that just like what she did when she broke his shoulders (Pelzer, 1995, pp. 83 – 84).

Principles in Human Service

With “Dave Pelzer’s” case, I believe that the principle applicable in human service delivery would be “case management” (Pelzer, 1995, pp. 1 – 169).

This is because in a “case management”, it is possible to carry out a “face-to-face comprehensive assessment” (Pelzer, 1995, pp. 1 – 169).

A “face-to-face comprehensive assessment” is appropriate for “Dave Pelzer” since he is not really willing to tell the whole story especially if his mother will eventually be held accountable and sent to jail (Pelzer, 1995, pp. 1 – 169).

Through a one-on-one with the social worker, his strengths and weaknesses will be analyzed by the social worker which will help the latter come up with an “individualized service plan” in consideration of what the client acknowledges as “main concerns, desired result, as well as, interventions to be utilized (Pelzer, 1995, pp. 1 – 169).

References

  1. Pelzer, Dave (1995). A Child Called It: One Child’s Courage to Survive
Writing Quality

Grammar mistakes

F (43%)

Synonyms

B (85%)

Redundant words

D (64%)

Originality

100%

Readability

D (63%)

Total mark

C

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Bachelor of Social Work Application

Social work is a vital part of every community. Social work aims at better understanding the issues concerning the people with respect to their environment and works on improving the living standards and the general human conditions. It is the science of exploring the dilemmas present in societies and community and make positive changes to social justice and economic status. This paper would address to questions social work related issues and problems. It would elaborate on the ethical concerns of social work. Moreover, it would discuss the role of self awareness with respect to social work.

Discussion Social work related issue: Working as a social correspondent is not an easy task. Social work involves the responsibilities of insuring the rehabilitation of the society and its counterparts in a way that a better quality of life is granted to the people through solving the domestic issues and problems. One of the pressing issues in today’s communities and homes is the abundant use of drugs. over the passage of time, one of the major relief giver that people find from the tension and stress of the fast paced lifestyles is the use of drugs to relax the mind.

Drug abuse is often an addiction and it has a vital affect on an individuals environments. Youngsters are more prone to this issue and need protection in situations where there family members are drug abusers. It is the responsibility of social workers to make sure that there are no youngsters that are at risk at home or elsewhere due to drug abusing and if cases are found, youngsters need to be taken into care. Social workers often find it difficult to assess the number of children that are living in high risk situations where they are not available with adequate safety, protection and support from drug abusing parents.

In societies where there are no legal regulations and inadequate authorities, people are prone to drug abuse and this is when the social work is needed in order to maintain the safety and protection for the residents. Professional ethics in social work practice: Being aware of the ethical codes is a fundamental part of being a professional social worker. The ethical responsibilities that rest with social workers include the factor of loyalty that they have towards their work. Social workers work in the best interest of people and this often conflicts with the factors of efficiency and utility.

Furthermore, it is a fact that the resources are often limited when it comes to working within societies. One of the major foils of the professional ethical code of conduct of social workers is the factor of mutual respect and dignity of everyone. Social work is the profession that encourages social change and it builds the relationship among people in order to enhance their well-being. For social work to be effective and efficient, social workers need to defend each person’s emotional, physical and psychological well being and integrity in the best manner possible.

Social workers are also responsible for maintaining social justice. For this to be effective, they need to respect diversity and abstain from discrimination on the bases of age, sex, culture, socio-economics background and various other aspects. Social work inherits the ethical responsibility of challenging any unjust policies or practices that are carried out and ensure that all the resources are distributed fairly according to the needs. (Levy, 1993) There are some other ethical codes of conduct that need to be followed by social workers in order to remain professional and qualifies in their field.

It is unlawful to use the social work in negative schemes such as torturing or black mailing people into getting them to act in certain ways. Social workers are expected to retain empathy and compassion while dealing with people. Confidentiality of the people of use social services and accountability of actions are also important characteristics of the ethical responsibilities of social workers. (Levy, 1993) Self-awareness: Self awareness in social work is as important as the ethical implications.

It is important to keep a respectful and non-judgmental attitude when working with people. Self awareness is basically the recognition of the element of one’s personality. It includes the strengths, weaknesses, likes and dislikes. It is very important for social workers to develop self awareness as it helps them in recognizing when and how they get under pressure and stressed. Self awareness is vital for a more open and thorough communication because interpersonal relations is the core of social work.

Self awareness is correlated with ethics and it helps ensure that the workers are empathetic towards the people and they develop and consciousness of how they view the world and the values that they hold. Developing an understanding on one’s own values, cultures and beliefs helps in respecting a multicultural and diversified view of the society. Once the thoughts, beliefs, personality traits, values and biases that lie within a person are recognized, it is easy for the workers to acknowledge the different identifies and personalities that exist in societies and it is easier to overcome biases and maintain a more empathetic overview.

Self awareness is therefore a skill that is critical for social workers to inculcate in order for them to acquire professional growth and become competent in their field. Conclusion In the end it is important to understand that social work involves dealing with all kinds of people and rehabilitating them and the society as a whole in order to facilitate justice and enable a better quality and standard of living for the society. Hence, it is important to maintain ethical responsibilities and carry out the work without any implicit bias. References Levy, C. S (1993). Social work ethics on the line. Haworth press.

Writing Quality

Grammar mistakes

F (43%)

Synonyms

B (85%)

Redundant words

F (59%)

Originality

82%

Readability

F (39%)

Total mark

D

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Social Work Gender Class

Table of contents

In what ways are social class, ‘race’/ethnicity, and gender problematic identity constructionsAnd how can they affect achievement in education?

Abstract

An examination of the problematic identity constructions associated with social class, race / ethnicity and gender. Theories of essentialism and social constructism are used to understand these notions, and to assess the extent to which they can affect achievement in education.

1. Introduction

The following will take a theoretical approach using contrasting ideas about the nature of social reality to look at problems of race / ethnicity, social class and gender / sexual identity, and the impact each has on equality in education.

Social constructivism is the idea that there is no one objective reality shared by everyone. The meaning of physical reality is created by individuals and groups through beliefs based on their past experience and predispositions (Walsh 2010). Social constructivism has been widely influential in the social sciences and humanities, and was shaped by a number of theorists including Vygotsky (1925) whose studies of how children learn emphasizes the role of a social framework for education, and also by Berger and Luckmann (1966), who popularized the notion in English speaking countries (Van Dusek 2006). Social constructivist approaches to race, class and gender suggest that the way we perceive each is a function of history and culture, rather than a given objective fact.Our views of women and men, and the roles appropriate to each, for example, is rooted in the political climate, and relates to social power structures (Hirschmann 2003)

By contrast, essentialism is the view that the characteristics ascribed to members of different races or sexual identities are fixed and objective. It suggests that the way things are perceived reflects the essential nature of that thing. The essence is a causal mechanism for the properties things display (Mahalingam 2003). When applied to sexuality, for example, an essentialist view suggests that orientation is based upon an inner state which causes a person’s sexual feelings and actions. The view also holds that the essence is either biologically caused or acquired in the first few years of development (Clarke et al 2010).

While race, gender and class can be viewed alone, more recently an ‘intersectional’ approach has emerged, pointing out that these three constructs overlap, and can create layer upon layer of disadvantage and multiple oppression. Suggested by Crenshaw (1991), intersectionality shows that social identity is created in a more complex way than we might have thought (Berger 2006).

1.1 Race / Ethnicity

It is certainly the case that different races and ethnicities are characterised by differing physical appearances, including colour of skin and facial features. However, an essentialist view of race and ethnicity would suggest that each race also has a number of behavioural, mental and intellectual characteristics which distinguish them from other races. For example, there is an assumption that native Hawaiians are lazy, of low intelligence, promiscuous, hospitable and easy-going (Ponterollo et al 2009). Essentialism may also suggest that the characteristic traits are genetic, and that some races / ethnicities are superior to others.

Essentialism in approaches to race and ethnicity seem to be rooted in a late 19th century scientific viewpoint which assumed biological explanations for a range of human characteristics (Rubin 2005), and which naturalised traits such as racial difference. It has been suggested that essentialism still exists in educational, with the belief that each race had a distinct and fixed character, and that different racial groups should be taught with this in mind (Giroux and Shannon 1997).

There are a number of clear problems with essentialist theories of race and ethnicity. For example, attempts to put humans into racial groups seem to use arbitrary selection of traits with no clear explanation of why these traits are important. In addition, essentialist views, fail to account for the richness of human life, culture and experience. Finally, essentialist theories seem to lack significance. What use can they be put to(Corlett, 2003). Further, it has been pointed out that the genetic basis for ethnic essentialism is flawed, as races exhibit greater genetic differences within themselves than between one race and another (Hill and Cole 2001).

Essentialism is often associated with racism: the idea that “people are seen as causing negative consequences for other groups, or as possessing certain negatively evaluated characteristics because of their biology” (Hill and Cole 2001, p. 162). In education, it might lead, for example, to an assumption that children of a certain race are less intellectually able than others, and hence to a reduced attempt to engage with them; or to the assumption that black people excel at sports (Hill and Cole 2001).

In contrast, a social constructivist approach to race and ethnicity seems a more useful one for equality in education. This position allows for greater flexibility as race and ethnicity are seen as dynamic forces, subject to change and shaped by power relationships and cultural forms that dominate the institutions in which they are found (Giroux and Shannon 1997). The social constructivist sees race as a construct “a concept that signifies and symbolises socio-political conflicts and interests in reference to different types of human body” (Winant 2001, p. 317; cited Dillon 2009). Race is not a biologically determined set of fixed characteristics, but rather a complex mix of projections regarding inequality, hierarchical relationships and conflict which have been used to differentiate, regulate and shape reactions between people. The set of presuppositions about racial characteristics become objectified into social institutions and cultures. They are a consequence of social attitudes and decisions made about other people by individuals and groups (Dillon 2009).

Because racial differences are encapsulated in social institutions, and as education is an institutionally based phenomenon, racial prejudice and distinctions made between ethnicities need to be accounted for in education, and it seems important to reject an essentialist view in favour of a constructivist one, with the insight that perceived differences in learning ability, for example, are a consequence of historical political and social vested interests, and do not reflect an underlying reality.Within the UK, there has been a move towards eradicating racism within education. An unthinking mono-cultural approach which promoted British colonial history has given way to a multi-cultural one. Nowadays, an awareness of legislation and regulations regarding race are built into teacher training, for example it is stated that student teachers need to be familiar with the 1976 Race Relations Act, which outlawed discrimination between racial groups. A number of other laws and regulations since have framed education, including codes of practice issued by the Commission for Racial Equality, and more recent directives introduced by the European Court of Human Rights (Hill and Cole 2001).

Despite the existence of such legislation, there is still a question regarding whether racism is still part of the education system. If we accept the social constructivist view, while racist attitudes are open to change, they are deeply embedded in the culture. Schools and other educational bodies may be subject to ‘institutional racism’, “the collective failure of an organisation to provide an appropriate and professional service to people because of their colour, culture or ethnic origin” (MacPherson et al 1999). Institutional racism is enshrined in the culture of an organisation, and individuals who make up the organisation may not even be aware of it. If an institution is predominantly white, it is likely that it has practices which exclude non-white people. The Stephen Lawrence enquiry in the UK in 1999 brought the issue to public attention, and a number of changes to the national curriculum, reporting procedures and monitioring levels were made.

1.2 Social Class

The UK is still heavily stratified in terms of class, with resulting inequalities, poverty and social exclusion. The division between rich and poor has increased over the last 20 years, with the rich becoming even better off, and the less well off even poorer.There are various views of what the class system means. Class can be characterised on the basis of occupation and education, with manual (skilled, unskilled or semi skilled) trades equated with the working class, white collar workers with the middle classes, and professionals with the upper classes (Hill and Cole 1999). Marxism has offered a long-lasting analysis of class, suggesting that it is a vehicle whereby the interests of a few are allowed to override the interests of the many.Marx saw society as a history of class struggle, and class as closely tied up with the interests of capitalism, under which the means of economic production are placed in the hands of a small number, with most people having to sell their labour to survive. Marxists also suggest that the education system was class-ridden, existing primarily to tend to the interests of the elite by a process of ‘economic reproduction’, training people to take up a place in the work force, and by ‘cultural reproduction’’, by which children are educated to believe that the upper classes tastes are the norm, and working class ones should be rejected (Hill and Cole 1999).

It has been claimed that Marxism challenges essentialism, for example by opposing the notion that the division between the working and upper classes is ‘natural’ and ‘fair’. However, many suggest that Marxism is in fact inherently essentialist rather than allowing fluidity in the class structure. For example, Marx believed in the fixed nature of the key concepts he used, ‘the individual’, ‘class’ and ‘the state’. He further assumes that people are members of a particular class for life, rather than able to move from one class to another. He also suggests that there is a unity to the concept of the ‘working class’, for example, over and above the shared conceptions of all the people who make up the class (Wolfreys 2006). Littlejohn (1978) suggests that for Marx, social class expresses an ‘essence’, with political movement reduced to expressions of interests determined elsewhere. In addition, Littlejohn suggests, Marx saw society as having a fixed, stratified structure in which economics underpinned political, legislative and cultural layers (Littlejohn 1978).

Post-modernism has suggested that the Marxist notion of class is no longer relevant, and argues that we are now in a post-capitalist era, in which the old social distinctions play no part (Hill and Cole 1999). Post-modernism is consistent with social constructivism, as it suggests that there is no reason to believe in an objective, fixed society, and that we rather need to study discourses and texts to understand what social constructs mean for the people who interpret them. For the post-modernist, personal identity has become fragmented and decentralised, and the notion of class has lost power as it has become subsumed by other measures of identity including gender and race. As identity is fragmented, so individuals can define themselves as classless, or move from class to class (Lareau and Conely 2008). In short, “social class has… ceased to be of central empirical significance to our culture” (Milner, 1999). However, this view is widely disputed, for example by Hill, who suggests that post-modernists are simply unable – or unwilling – to recognize the divisive power of class in today’s society (Hill, 2002).

The growth in the gap between rich and poor does suggest that class issues are still relevant. In terms of education and equality, it seems that class does play a role. Bordieu, for example, carried out empirical studies in French educational establishments, and showed that family background, social class and school are linked, with schools still representing the social and economic inequalities found in wider society. His suggestions have been confirmed by work in the US, suggesting that social differences are reinforced by the education system there, for example the policy of elite colleges such as Harvard to favour children of ex-students. Dillon also points out that access to education is not enough to increase social mobility, as working class students are likely to lack the abilities to make the most of their education that their middle class peers take for granted, for example skills in networking (Dillon 2009). It is also possible that more recent changes to education frameworks in the UK including raised fees for higher education and more freedom for schools to select pupils will create a climate which introduces further divisions between classes in an ‘increasingly segregated system’ (Taylor 2006).

1.3. Gender / Sexual Identity

Similarly, gender and sexual identity are notions with inherent problems. If we adhere to an essentialist view, it would be assumed that certain characteristics are attached to people of each gender, for example men are more intelligent, better with machinery, and better at sports, with women more suited to home making and issues to do with emotions. Similarly, an essentialist perspective might suggest that gay men are uniformly ‘camp’, dress flamboyantly and have a high-pitched voice, with lesbians likely to look like men and have a rough manner.

By assuming that men and women have certain characteristics which define them, stereotyping is more likely to arise. Stereotypes can be acquired through family and wider society, and often develop at a young age, although are complex in nature and the precise nature of the stereotyped characteristics can vary considerably. Stereotypes are not innate: children first learn to differentiate between men and women before later ascribing sets of characteristics to them (Schneider 2004). Stereotypes both influence, and are influenced by, the role men and women play in society. They are problematic in that they not only describe differences between men and women, but also dictate what roles they should play. This can lead to oppression and the suppression of an individual’s freedom. Stereotypes cover a wide range of areas including cognitive abilities, physical appearance, behaviour and emotion. While stereotypes about both gender and sexual orientation are less oppressive now than they have been in the past, prejudice based on such labelling is still in existence, perhaps in a more subtle way (Worrell 2001), for example concerning whether women are expected to do as well in education as men.

Stereotyping on the basis of gender or orientation can lead to oppression and inequality as it reinforces prejudices about difference, and can help maintain inequality and perpetuate injustices. Stereotypical views about men and women may be used to justify unfair treatment, for example paying women less on the assumption that work is less important to them (Andersen and Taylor, 2007). Awareness of the ways in which women are oppressed by men has increased since the advent of feminism, which uncovered the ways in which there is an unfair balance of social and economic power between men and women, and the extent to which men have a vested interest in controlling women to maintain this balance in their favour. Oppression of women, it has been argued, is carried out not just by individuals but is built into social and institutional structure so pervasively that it is not always obvious (Choudhuri 2008). Similarly, oppression and inequality can damage those of non-mainstream sexual orientations, particularly gay men and lesbians. While awareness, understanding and tolerance of gay, lesbian, bisexual and trans-gender people (GLBT) has increased over the last hundred years, negative treatment has not been removed. “Prejudice, discrimination and oppression on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity permeate our sociocultural context, affecting everyone in deleterious ways” (Messinger 2006, p. 44).Oppression on the basis of sexual orientation can take various forms including exploitation (not offering gay workers the same rights for spouses as given to different sex couples), powerlessness (disrespectful treatment, discrimination in the work place), systematic violence (verbal or physical abuse directed at an individual solely because he or she is gay) and cultural imperialism (the assumption that the worldview of the prevailing, ‘straight’ culture is the correct one) (Messinger 2006).

Within education, therefore, there is a clear need to work against discrimination on the basis of gender and sexual orientation, although such discrimination may well be institutionalised and hence less visible. Equality can be worked towards through a variety of methods including understanding the complexity of sexuality and gender, being aware of an challenging heterosexual assumptions and practices, understanding the role education can play in overturning prejudice, challenging homophobia, understanding how gender and orientation issues can intersect with race and class, and learning about LGBT histories (Banks and Banks 2009). Even in these seemingly more enlightened times, research evidence from the USA suggests that LGBT pupils are at higher risk of harassment within their educational instutites: many reported feeling unsafe while in school (64% compared with 10% of pupils who felt unsafe because of their gender), while many lesbian pupils reported physical and verbal harassment and victimisation (Klein 2007). Within the UK, legislation does exist to ensure equality for LGBT teachers, and a national initiative to reduce homophobic bullying was launched with incidents logged and a teaching programme suggested (Sears 2005).

2. Conclusion

If a teacher subscribed to an essentialist view of gender, race and class, he or she might believe that one or other gender, race or social group is inherently better than others at academic subjects. This might lead to situations where the academic performance of the pupil was affected negatively or positively. For example, a belief that boys are better capable of mathematics or science might lead to the teacher spending more time with the boys, praising their good work more enthusiastically or not helping girls. A belief that Afro-Carribean boys are noisy and don’t care about their education might lead to the teacher being more harsh with boys of this race, assuming that they are more likely to be disruptive in class. A similar belief might cause the teacher to assume they are unlikely to be interested in certain subjects.Similarly, the teacher might assume that working class pupils were inherently less intelligent, and might as a result spend less time with them, and not work to encourage any goals of further education. On the other hand, by taking a constructivist view, there is more scope for children to be seen as individuals, and not typecast by their class, sex and ethnic background. A constructivist might also be aware of the extent to which an educational institution is sexist, racist or classist as part of its very structure, and take more steps to counteract this.

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